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Science displaced religion by late 19th century as the universally accepted authority (David Knight, The Age of Science) T. H. Huxley, late 19th century: preached Lay Sermons for the Church Scientific Scientists are to worldly matters as monks are to spiritual matters: selfless People take up science to learn how things work, not to become wealthy or famous
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Why Ethics Matters in Science First International Workshop on Ethics in Science,
Swiss Society for Optics and Microscopy,Montreux (Switzerland), 28-29 August 2010
Henry H. BauerDean Emeritus of Arts & Sciences
Professor Emeritus of Chemistry & Science StudiesVirginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
Up to about 1980no one talked about ethics in science
It seemed irrelevant:Experiments, observations, discoveries = FACTS
“Ethics” came up only with deliberate dishonesty,which was very rare
Science displaced religion by late 19th century as the universally accepted authority
(David Knight, The Age of Science)T. H. Huxley, late 19th century:
preached Lay Sermons for the Church Scientific
Scientists are to worldly mattersas monks are to spiritual matters: selfless
People take up science to learn how things work,not to become wealthy or famous
1982:Betrayers of the Truth:Fraud and Deceit in the Halls of Science (science journalists William Broad, Nicholas Wade)
50 cases from 2000 years = dishonesty is normal!NO: most cases in biomedicine, and rare
From chemistry to Science Studies
Science Studies (Science & Technology Studies, STS):history of science, philosophy of science, sociology of science; engineers, social scientists, etc. --- every aspect of science and its interactions with other institutions
FACTS ARE THEORY-LADENThe meaning of a fact
the significance of a factis a matter of interpretation
FACT = black lines on white background
MEANING =Duck facing left?
Rabbit facing right?
RASHOMON
The Enigma of Loch Ness: Making Sense of a Mystery: Chapters 1 and 2: opposite conclusions from exactly the same evidence
of folklore, eyewitness accounts, photographs, deliberate hoaxes
“THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD”
Set up an hypothesis;devise a test;carry out the test;the results prove or disprove the hypothesis.
1. Almost no science is done that way2. “PROVE OR DISPROVE” = INTERPRETATION
Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method Chargaff: FACT--- A G; T C Watson & Crick: MEANING--- A = G, T = C
John Ziman: Real Science: What It Is and What It Means
Filtering takes timeScientific theories -- interpretations! -- are never known to be finalScientists should never claim absolute knowledge (global warming?)
Filtering works only if people behave ethically“peer review” by colleagues or competitorsbiased reviews of manuscripts and grant proposalseditors’ choices of reviewers
ETHICAL, IN SCIENCE = DISINTERESTED
NO CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST are COMMON
Advisers to FDA consult for drug companiesOfficials at NIH consult for drug companiesManuscript and grant reviewers are competitorsUniversities compete in rankings for research
Andrew Stark, Conflict of Interest in American Public Life:1. There are (at least ) two interests2. State of mind because of those interests3. Actions taken
CONFLICTS OF INTERESThave a STATISTICAL effect
Some people’s actions are influenced, but not others’and there is no way to prove one way or the other
It is NOT a question of deliberately being dishonest, selfish, greedy
“Apparent” conflicts of interest “Negligible” conflicts of interest
The only way to avoid the undesirable effectsof conflicts of interest
is not to have any conflicts of interest
ETHICAL BEHAVIORIS MORE LIKELY
WHEN ALL DISCUSSIONS ARE OPEN
Reviewing of manuscripts and grant proposals should NOT be anonymous!
Peer review is inevitably biased toward status quothis conflicts with innovation and progress
NEED PUBLICATION OF MINORITY VIEWS
