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Sommelier Certificate Wine Course

www.ussommelier.com

Table of Contents

Introduction History

Tasting Techniques

Viticulture

Vinification

The Influence of Oak

White Varietals

Red Varietals

Correct Wine Service

Wines of France

Champagne

America

The Wines of Italy

Spain

Germany

Fortified Wines

Appendix – Glossary

Section1

A Short History of Wine and Overview

To make wine, grapes, which belong to the genus Vitis are used. One of the species, V. vinifera (often erroneously called the European grape), is predominantly used. Beverages produced from V. labrusca , the native American grape, and from other grape species are also considered wines. When other fruits are fermented to produce a kind of wine, the name of the fruit is included, as in the terms peach wine and blackberry wine. History and spread of viticulture

Vitis vinifera was being cultivated in the Middle East by 4000 BC, and probably earlier. Egyptian records dating from 2500 BC refer to the use of grapes for wine making, and numerous Old Testament references to wine indicate the early origin and significance of the industry in the Middle East. The Greeks carried out an active wine trade and planted grapes in their colonies from the Black Sea to Spain. The Romans carried the practice of grape growing into the valleys of the Rhine and Mosel (which became the great regions of Germany and Alsace), the Danube (in modern-day Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Austria), and the Rhône, Saône, Garonne, Loire, and Marne (which define the great French regions of Rhône, Burgundy, Bordeaux, Loire, and Champagne, respectively). The role of wine in the Christian mass helped maintain the industry after the fall of the Roman Empire, and monastic orders preserved and developed many of the highly regarded wine-producing areas in Europe.

(Source) Following the voyages of Columbus, grape culture and wine making were transported from the Old World to the New. Spanish missionaries took viticulture to Chile and Argentina in the mid-16th century and to lower California in the 18th century. With the flood of European immigration in the 19th and early 20th centuries, modern industries, based on imported V. vinifera grapes, were developed. The prime wine-growing regions of South America were established in the foothills of the Andes Mountains. In California, the center of viticulture shifted from the southern missions to the Central Valley and the northern counties of Sonoma, Napa, and Mendocino. British settlers planted European vines in Australia and New Zealand in the early 19th century, and Dutch settlers took grapes from the Rhine region to South Africa as early as 1654. (Source)

The introduction of the eastern American root louse, phylloxera, seriously threatened wine industries around the world between 1870 and 1900, destroying vineyards almost everywhere that V. vinifera was planted, especially in Europe and parts of Australia and California. To combat this parasite, V. vinifera scions (detached shoots including buds) were grafted to species native to the eastern United States, which proved almost completely resistant to phylloxera. After the vineyards recovered, European governments protected the reputations of the great regions by enacting laws that allotted regional names and quality rankings only to those wines produced in specific regions under strictly regulated procedures. In recent times, present-day wine-producing countries have passed similar regulations.

(Source)

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE MAJOR WINE PRODUCING COUNTRIES

Map of the ancient Near East and Egypt, showing the distribution of the modern wild grapevine in purple shading. Grape remains (primarily pips) recovered from Neolithic and Late Uruk sites are indicated by the grape cluster symbol. The occurrence of wine jars, which have been chemically identified as such, are indicated by the jar symbol.

The grape vine grows best where the climate is temperate. Two broad belts, one north and one south of the equator, have such a climate. The belt located north of the equator extends from 50 degrees N. to 30 degrees N. The one located south of the equator is narrower, extending from 30 degrees S. to 40 degrees S.

The best-known wine countries located above (or north) of the equator are France, Germany, Italy, the U.S., and Algeria. The lesser-known but also good producers are Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece as well as Russia, Czechoslovakia, China and Japan. Below the equator are the southern wine making areas that include Africa (Algeria, Morocco, South Africa); Australia, Chile, Argentina and Brazil.

More than three fourths of the world’s wine is made in Europe.

Before we go into our Viticulture and Vinification modules we would like to provide you with a short overview on the major wine growing regions of the world. This brief introduction to these countries will assist you in understanding the evolving styles of growing grapes that are both of European origin and also of local indigenous cultivation.

Whether old or new world, all grape growing countries fall between 30-50 degrees longitude or latitude. That is the climate that supports the cultivation and production of the best wines.

Major New World Wine Growing Countries

Northern Hemisphere Europe

France

To say that France is the standard which all other wine measures countries would not be an overstatement. France is a leader because of ideal geography and climate for growing good grapes, rich enological history dating back to Roman times, passion for food and sheer diversity of wine-producing regions and wine styles.

The major regions of France:

Champagne was a region long before it was a sparkling wine. The region lies at a crossroads of northern Europe – the river valleys leading south to the Mediterranean and north to Paris, the English Channel and Western Germany – and thus has been the setting of many dramatic events in the history of the French nation. As a convenient access point, it has been for hundreds of years, the chosen path of many invaders including Attila the Hun. The Hundred Years' War and the Thirty Years' War brought repeated destruction to the region as armies

marched back and forth across its landscape. By the 17th century, the city of Reims has seen destruction seven times and Epernay no less than twenty-five times. Before the mid-1600's there was no Champagne as we think of it. For centuries the wines were still wines and were held in high regard by the nobility of Europe. But the cool climate of the region and its effect on the wine making process was to play an important part in changing all of that. We owe a lot to Dom Pérignon as any inventor owes those who have come before him. He is not however the inventor of champagne as is often thought. Pierre Pérignon was a Benedictine monk who, in 1688, was appointed treasurer at the Abby of Hautvillers. The Abby is located near Epernay. Included in Dom Pérignon's duties was the management of the cellars and wine making. The bubbles in the wine are a natural process arising from Champagne's cold climate and short growing season. Of necessity, the grapes are picked late in the year. This doesn't leave enough time for the yeasts present on the grape skins to convert the sugar in the pressed grape juice into alcohol before the cold winter temperatures put a temporary stop to the fermentation process. With the coming of Spring's warmer temperatures, the fermentation is again underway, but this time in the bottle. The refermentation creates carbon dioxide, which now becomes trapped in the bottle, thereby creating the sparkle. For Dom Pérignon and his contemporaries, sparkling wine was not the desired end product. It was a sign of poor wine making. He spent a great deal of time trying to prevent the bubbles, the unstableness of this "mad wine," and the creation of a decidedly white wine the court would prefer to red burgundy. He was not able to prevent the bubbles, but he did develop the art of blending. He not only blended different grapes (Pinot Noir, Pinot Meunier, Chardonnay), but the juice from the same grape grown in different vineyards. Not only did he develop a method to press the black grapes to yield a white juice, he improved clarification techniques to produce a brighter wine than any that had been produced before. To help prevent the exploding bottle problem, he began to use the stronger bottles developed by the English and closing them with Spanish cork instead of the wood and oil-soaked hemp stoppers then in use. Dom Pérignon died in 1715, but in his 47 years as the cellar master at the Abby of Hautvillers, he laid down the basic principles still used in making Champagne today. Alsace is located in the northeastern part of France, just across the Rhine River from Germany. The region is about 110 kilometers long, one to five kilometers wide. Alsace lies on the western flank of the Vosges Mountains, the climate is dry and temperate with long days; soils are varied, including chalk/marl, granite and limestone. There are two Alsace appellations, Alsace AC and Alsace Grand Cru AC.

Loire Valley has a variety of soils and climate, from continental in the east to maritime in the west, and can produce any number of wines. The region is roughly divided into four areas: Pays Nantais, at the mouth of the river and home of Muscadet, Anjou, Touraine and the Central Vineyards. No special classification exists, even the smallest areas with a distinctive style have their own appellations. Bordeaux is one of France's largest and most diverse wine regions. A great variety of wines are made here: red, dry white and sweet white. The red wines of Bordeaux, all made of a blend from three and sometimes five permitted red grape varieties, are arguably the world's most famous reds. Sauternes, the archetypal sweet white wine is made from a blend of Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc and Muscadelle, as are other dry white wines. Burgundy has five distinct regions: from north to south they are: Chablis, Côte d'Or (divided into the Côte de Nuits in the south and Côtes de Beaune in the north), Côte Chalonaise, Maconnais and Beaujolais. The Côte d'Or has 28 different wine-producing villages or communes, surrounded by a total of 20,000 acres of vineyards. Burgundy is known for many expressions of two great varietals: Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. In addition, there is fruity, lively Gamay from Beaujolais and lemony-tart Aligoté, planted in lesser vineyard sites. The term Domaine is commonly used in Burgundy to refer to a vine-growing and winemaking estate.

Rhône Valley wines have been made in the Rhône Valley since the time of the Romans, who left behind the ruins of aqueducts and amphitheaters. The Rhône Valley stretches for 140 miles from Lyon to Avignon and is divided into two regions: north and south. Southern France encompasses an enormous region, from the Atlantic coast along the Mediterranean to the borders of Italy and Switzerland. Grape vines first arrived in France at the Greek city, Massalia (later Marseilles) in 600 BC. From there, viticulture spread north into the Rhône Valley and east until it reached Bordeaux in the 3rd century BC. Vineyard sites run the gamut, from high in the Pyrénées Orientales and hard against the Spanish border, to the hot, dry plains of Languedoc-Roussillon, to the fields of Provence, to the Alps of the Savoie.

Germany

Germany has 13 separate wine growing regions, each of which produces its own style of wine, often from the same varietals. Generally, the lightest and most elegant German wines are produced in the Mosel-Saar-Ruwer and Ahr regions. Slightly fuller wines are made in the Mittelrhein, Nahe, Rheingau, Rheinhessen, Saale-Unstrut, while the fullest German wines tend to come from the regions of Pfalz, Hessische Bergstrasse, Sachsen, Wurttemberg and Baden.

Wine production is thought to have begun with the ancient Romans who conquered tregion about 100 B.C. and started cultivgrapes soon thereafter. In the Middle Agethe monastic orders established mGermany's finest vineyards and, with thmeticulous care of the vines and wines, set the standard for the high quality of German viticulture. Germany produces the loveliest, lightest, most delicate white wines in tworld. Low in alcohol and exquisitely balanced, they are wines of charm and subtle nuances.

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Germany has nearly 100,000 hectares (240,000 acres) of vineyards. About 87 % of this area is planted in white grape varieties; only 13 % in red grape varieties. By

contrast, the worldwide ratio of white to red wine cultivation is almost exactly the opposite. If at least 85 % of a wine is made from one kind of grape, the name of the variety may be indicated on the label. This tells you what to expect with regard to the color, taste, aroma and acidity of the wine.

Because Germany has such a cool climate, grape ripeness at harvest is a crucial quality factor. (Less ripe grapes yield lighter wines of modest character; fully ripe or overripe grapes produce fuller, more finely flavored wines.) As a result, the German government has established separate categories for German wines according to grape ripeness. These same categories are identified on the label, providing a useful indication of wine style in purchasing German wines and pairing them with food.

• Qualitatswein bestimmter Anbaugebeite (Q.b.A.) - Literally, quality wines from specific regions. The largest category of German wines. Because these are chaptalized (legally regulated amounts of sugar are added to the grape must to add body), Q.b.A.s are often fuller than Kabinett wines from the same vineyards.

• Qualitatswein mit Pradikat (Q.m.P.) - Quality wines with special attributes. These are among Germany's greatest wines, listed here in ascending order of ripeness. Kabinet and Spatlese are the most commonly produced.

o Kabinett - Light, elegant wines made from fully ripened grapes. o Spatlese - Wines made from grapes picked at least one week after normal ripeness.

These are fuller, more flavorful wines. o Auslese - Auslese means "selected picking;" these are wines made from selected ripe

and overripe grape clusters. The wines are full and ripe to the taste, and often have residual sweetness.

o Beerenauslese (BA) - Wines produced from selectively harvested, overripe grapes. The consequent wines are concentrated in character and flavor; sweet but well balanced.

o Eiswein - Wine produced from naturally frozen grapes. The grapes are harvested and pressed while frozen, resulting in extremely fresh, crisp, yet richly flavored sweet wines with remarkable briskness and racy acidity.

o Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA) - Wines produced from hand-selected, dried, over ripened grapes, which look virtually like raisins. TBAs are extremely rich and intense in flavor, sweet and honey-like to the taste.

Italy

Italy is a world wine leader, producing and consuming more wine than any other country in the world. There are 1.2 million Italian growers, and per capita consumption is 26 gallons per person. The scope of Italian wines is staggering, both from the sheer quantity of grape types and different styles of wines. Interest in the world of Italian wines is growing, and although it can tend to be confusing, the rewards are there for those who persevere! Consumers looking for new wine adventures and for wines that pair well with food are turning to traditional Italian varieties such as Sangiovese, Barbera and Pinot Grigio. Like the French, the Italians have a system of wine laws to regulate the industry. These modern wine laws were established in 1963 to give structure to an unregulated wine industry. The system does have some quirks, but can be a useful point of reference for those attempting to understand the immense Italian wine industry. Looking at Italian wine on a region-by-region basis gives you an idea of why so much effort has been put into devising some system of organization and classification. It's a huge and complex picture, to say the least. Italy produces wine in every part of the country from north near the borders of France, Austria and Slovenia to the tip of

the boot and Sicily. Much of the best wines come from the northern regions: Piedmont (northwest), Tuscany (North-Central) and three regions (Tre Venezie) in the northeast. Basic laws regulate yields, grapes used for specific wines, area restrictions for growing, and maximum and minimum alcohol strengths these categories are.

• Vino da Tavola, or table wine, typically, but with some exceptions, everyday wines-simple and inexpensive.

• DOC wines (initials stand for Denominazione di Origine Controllata ), a translation of the French Appellation d'Origine Côntrolée. There are currently 309 appellations with DOC recognition zones, and approximately 2000 Italian wines bearing this classification (source Italian Trade Commission). However, only a small percentage of these have any commercial viability. Twenty DOCs account for close to 45% of the country's total DOC production.

• DOCG (Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita) wines, first classified in 1980 with the intention of adding a quality classification to the top of the wine pyramid. The 24 DOCG wines indicate the highest quality (wines not only "controlled" but "guaranteed"). DOCG wines include such famous names as Barola, Barbaresco, Chianti, Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano. Additional wines are petitioning for DOCG classification, so the existing group of 24 will continue to grow. In 1992, among many changes made, the Goria laws were passed to bring greater flexibility to production, and add a broad new category.

• IGT (Indicazione Geografica Tipica), became a new classification under law, replacing vini tipici as the base of the quality pyramid.

Portugal

Despite its small area, Portugal rates sixth in the world as a wine-producing country, wine production has been encouraged since the early kings, and records show exports dating back to 1367. Today, this industry employs 25% of the working agricultural population. While the country is famous for its namesake, Oporto and Maderia, the fresh, light white wines and full-bodied reds should not be overlooked, especially good for serving with oily food. The best known regions are Dão - making big full bodied red wines; Bairrada - tannin highly acidic red wine; Madeira - see below; Port and Douro - ports;Setubal - sweet, fortified wine production and Vinho Verde - in the northwestern part of the country, Vinho Verde refers to the youth of the wine, not the color it can be red or white.

After the adhesion of Portugal to the EU, the following designations were applied to wine in order to control the "Appellation". EU - Regulations

CVR - Regional Wines – Wines that are not DOC or IPR and are produced in a specific region from at least 85% of locally grown grapes

DOC - Controlled Appellation Wines produced in a Geographical Limited Region

IPR - Regulated Origin of Wines with specific characteristics during a minimum of five years

VEQPRD - Sparkling Wine produced in a Denominated Region VQPRD - Liquor Wine produced in a Denominated Region Table Wines - All wines that do not qualify under the above classifications

Spain Wine has been made in Spain for centuries and the size of the Spanish wine acreage is huge. There are a number of regions including, the Navarra - north of Rioja, where Garnacha Tinta (Grenache), Cabernet and Merlot are the red grapes grown; Rioja - the home of soft, blended red wine aged in American oak and young fresh white wines; Jerez - sherries; Penedès - the leading wine region in Catalonia. Spanish sparkling wines when made in the champagne method are called Cava, approximately 95% of them come from around Barcelona with Frexinet and Cordoníu being the largest. The world's most widely planted white grape, Airén, is grown in Spain. The wide diversity of soils and climates in Spain has long produced an extensive range of wines, each showing pronounced characteristics. The careful cultivation of vineyards, united with the painstaking and increasingly sophisticated techniques used by Spanish vintners in making their wines, has won international recognition. Since Spain joined the European Union, Spanish wines have been adapted to European standards. This means that they have been classified into two major groups: Quality Wines Produced in Specified Regions (QWPSR) and Table Wine (TW). More recently, Spain passed law 24/2003 of July 10—the Vineyard and Wine Act. This legislation, together with the subsequent regulations governing Wines of the Country completed in September of the same year, describes the different classes of wines according to the degree of monitoring and exigency applied to the production process. These documents, in turn, have allowed clearer definition of origin and

quality protection system to be defined.

The Vineyard and Wine Act also establishes minimum standards for crianza—the process of aging wine in wood and in the bottle—which unify the requirements to be met according to the indications relative to aging categories. Classification of wines by ageing characteristics Country Wines and QWPSR can use the following common indications regarding ageing categories: Vino noble (quality wine)This expression can be used to describe wines subjected to a minimum ageing period totaling 18 months, either in oak containers having a maximum capacity of 600 liters, or in the bottle. Vino añejo (aged wine)Aged wines are those subjected to a minimum ageing period totaling 24 months in oak containers with minimum capacity of 600 liters, or in the bottle. Vino viejo (old wine)Old wines are those that are subjected to a minimum ageing period of 36 months when the ageing process is of a strong oxidative nature due to the action of light, oxygen, hot or a conjunction of all. In addition to the indications detailed above, still QWPSR may use the following: Vino de crianza (crianza wine)This indication applies to red wines aged for a minimum of 24 months, of which 6 months are spent in oak containers with a capacity of 330 liters maximum; and to white and rosé wines aged for at least 18 months. Reserva Reserva is applied to red wines that are aged for a minimum of 36 months, to include at least 12 months in oak and the rest in the bottle; and to white and rosé wines aged for 18 months, to include 6 months on wood. Gran reserva This distinction is given to red wines aged for a minimum of 60 months, to include at least 18 months in oak, and to white and rosé wines aged for 48 months, to include 6 months on wood. Quality sparkling wines may use the “Premium” and “Reserva” indications; the “Gran Reserva” indication may be used by those sparkling wines that have been given the Cava designation and which have undergone ageing for at least 30 months from tirage to disgorging.

New World - Northern Hemisphere North America

United States of America The United States now has wineries in 50 of the 50 states in the union. The major regions within the USA are the Pacific Northwest, California and New York State. American Viticultural Areas When a US winery wants to tell you the geographic pedigree of its wine, it uses a tag on its label called an Appellation of Origin. This tag must meet federal and state legal requirements. A lot of people believe that the term appellation of origin is synonymous with viticultural area, but that's not the case. Viticultural areas are to appellations like grapes are to fruit. Viticultural areas are one kind of appellation. Not all appellations are viticultural areas. An appellation of origin can be the name of a country, the name of a state or states, the name of a county or counties within a state. Viticultural areas are a hybrid a

In size, they range from extremely small to extremely large (larger than a few states). In terms of plantings, a viticultural area may be filled with vineyards or could be almost sparse. In terms of quality, there is no guarantee that a wine labeled with a viticultural area is any better or worse than wines that don't bear such informatWine produc

ppellation.

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ited States, continues to produce wines across the .

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. o n the Mayacamas Mountains to the

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o to the north of Napa Valley and east of

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o e most northerly wine-producing region in California.

o n Valley is known for good sparkling wines and cool climate

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California in the Unboard from good basic quality bulk wine to very exclusive varietiesHere are the major regions in California.

o Napa Valley is perhaps the best-known winwhole of America. The valley itself runs from the city of Napnorthwest to Calistoga. Sonoma County is a vernorth of San Francisco, with many different climates, this able to successfully produce a wide array of wines. While many varieties of grape are successful here, Chardonnay,

Gewurztraminer, Zinfandel and Cabernet are perhaps the bestSonoma Valley, situated betweeeast and the Sonoma Mountains to the west, is home to some of the best-known wineries in California. Alexander Valley is situated along northeastern Sonoma County, California, approximately 8(130km) north of San Francisco. Twenty miles in length, AlexanderValley varies in width from 2 - 7 miles and produces some excellent wines of high quality. Lake County, situatedMendocino, this region dates back to the late 1880s. SauvignonBlanc and Cabernet Sauvignon are widely planted throughout theregion. The Guenoc Valley is part of Lake County, as are Clear Lakand Benmore.. Mendocino is thA number of premium varietal wines are grown including Chardonnay and Cabernet. Fetzer winery has spearheaded organic farming in this region, and McDowell the production of Rhone style wines. Andersovarieties such as Pinot Noir and Chardonnay.

ral Coast area includes the Santa Cruz Mountains, San BSanta Clara Valley to the north, Carmel, Monterey and Paso Robles in themiddle and San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara - Santa Maria and Santa Ynez-f the ocean is significant, producing fogs and cooling winds which

encourages quality wines to be produced from Chardonnay, Cabernet and Pinot Noir.

to the south. The influence

Southern Hemisphere

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Wine making in Chile dates back to the settlement of the Spanish.

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hile has a perfect climate for wine making but for years it hasn't had it

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o buying their wines which are generally less expensive than there American and European counterparts.

South America

Argentina

Argentina is the world's fifth lamost of it consumed within the country. The majority of the vineyards are situated in the foothills of the Andes mountainwhere they have access to water for irrigation from the meltingsnow.

While wto the 16th century, the wines have not yet achieved the high quality of Chile's, although great improvements are made on aannual basis and now some producers are definitely getting thereArgentina has for years concentrated on quantity rather than quality wines, but in the beginning of the 1990's the Argentines have sought to make higher quality wines such as Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon to meet the growing world wide demanfor quality wines.

Now, Argentineanmodernization of their winemaking infrastructure as the countcontinues to look more and more to the export market. The counwhich was called the "sleeping giant" of the global wine industry Wine Spectator magazine (Sept. 1996) is now poised to have its excellent wines available on an international scale. Don't be in the amount of excellent quality Argentine wines available in th

near future.

Although many vitis vinifera g

surprised to see a significant increase

variety that has drawn much international attention for its distinctive taste and high quality produced in mostly the MENDOZA region.

Chile

Recent developments in vineyard management and wine making have produced excellent results in this country. The Cabernet Sauvignons and Merlots that are produced are excellent quality considering their inexpensive price, and some of the estate winescan compete on a worldwide basis. With full upfront fruit the style owines produced here are exactly what we are looking for from 'New' world producers and as the country continues to invest in its wines they can only improve. Cthe political climate to match. In has increased its exports to manycountries around the world. Notably is the United Kingdom whereis the fastest growing section of the wine market. In America its popularity has soared because of rising prices to domestic andEuropean wines. Consumers can easily identify with Chilean wlabels, which designate the grape varietal, rather that the geographiorigin of the wines. Since this is how American wineries and other new world countries market their wines, consumers can easily identify the style of wine and match it to their own tastes.

oking for value in their wines Chile has gained many new consumers

As more and more consumers are l

Uruguay The first grape vines arrived in Uruguay from Spain in the middle of the 17th century. Documentary evidence of their existence in

Uruguay exists from 1776. The existence of a commercial wine industry dates back to 1870, by which time the Tannat was already established as the country’s most important grape. After Surinam, Uruguay is the second smallest country in South America. The country lies between the 30th and the 35th southern Parallel. Uruguay’s land area is a little smaller thanUnited Kingdom, and is half the size of Germany.

Uruguay’s vineyards amount to around 10.000ha. They are cultivated by ca. 270 wine producers. The majority

the

of the wine

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asignificant wine producing region is to th

n relatively small vineyards. This strategy has served the industry very duction

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s a real positive factor for consumers. The controlling bodies are the Instituto Nacional de

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producing Bodegas are owned and managed as family businesses and have been for several generations, since the original immigrants from Spain and Italy established themin Uruguay. Uruguay’s vineyards amount to about a fifth of the area of Austria’s or the same as Germany’s Baden-Wuertenberg region. The production volumes compare similarly. The total wine production amounts to approx. 90.000 to 100.000 hL. Of . Of vineyard; only 0.3% have in excess of 50ha.The most e north of Montevideo in the Department of Canelones. 60% of

the production is concentrated.

The deliberate and consistent strategy of the Uruguayan wine producers is to concentrate on the production of high quality wines i

the wine producers, 86% have up to 5h

well in recent years, and has resulted in increasing recognition internationally. The excesses in provolume and resulting „wine lakes“ common in Argentina and Chile have not been seen in Uruguay.

The climate in Uruguay is sub-tropical. The moderation of the climate that results from the sea breezes ensures that despite the moist climate, the vines remain well ventilated. The average temperature inwine producing regions is ca. 18 degrees centigrade. The sun shines on more than 220 days of the year.The climate in Uruguay‘s key wine producing regions is often compared with that of Bordeaux (France), with a minor detail being that the Rio de la Plata replaces the Gironde!

The soil conditions of the wine producing areas is ideal, with a predominance of well-drained sandy clasoil.

The quality controls in place in Uruguay are probably the most stringent in the whole of South America. This iVitivinicultura (INAVI), the official privately operated body of the wine industry in Uruguay, set up in 1987 and financed by the country’s viticulturalists – bodegueros. The 9 member supervisory body of INmade up of 6 representatives of the wine industry and 3 representatives of state bodies. The main responsibilities of INAVI are to establish guidelines, undertake quality control, the provision of technical support and the organizational development of the industry. Exports do not leave the country withouhaving been tested by the Laboratorio Tecnológico del Uruguay (LATU), where chemical and sensory tests are applied to the wines. The industry in Uruguay also differentiates between ‚Table wines‘, vinomesa, and quality wines, or vinos finos. The latter are identified by their „VCP“ certification (vinos de calidad preferente). Quality wines must have a minimum alcohol content of 10.5%, maximum acidity level of 0.80g/L and a maximum of 200 mg/L of sodium. Quality wines may only be sold in bottles, which min turn be 0.75L or less in terms of size. The seal must include a bottle number, issued by the controlling organization, INAVI.

Labeling requirements are clearly defined. There are objective and facultative regulations, with the latter being consistent with

s de

ust

international practice. Mandatory information includes information of the type of

e

48, the first la

wine (red, white, etc.), the alcohol content, the quality category, the volume and the origin of the wine. The name of the producer and the INAVI registration number must also be identified. From a facultativperspective, information relating to the year of production and the grape variety must be provided. Withrespect to the grape variety, the identified grape(s) must make up at least 85% of the total.

The equipment employed by the larger exporting Bodegas is comparable with modern international standards. The technologies employed are comparable with those common in Europe. In 19Uruguayan institute of higher education dedicated to viticulture was founded in Montevideo, the Escuede Vitivincultura.

O

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ine Law History ian Wine Law

n States

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Wine Agreement with European Union signed. M

protection of geographical

the

Food Standards apply to both ia

tralia.

New Zealand has ten main wine growing regions, each displaying a great diversity in climate and terrain. Differences in climate may be

he harvesting date of Chardonnay. In

k to w

the of

Australia Australian WBrief Outline of History of Austral

1901 At Federation, Australiaretain responsibility for Food legislation. 1929 Federal Government creates Australian Wine Board, with responsibility to control and promote the export of wine and grape products. 1980 AWB becomes the AustralianWine and Brandy Corporation, createdunder the present AWBC Act 1980. 1989 Wine industry requests the Government to legislate the Label Integrity Program under the AWBC A1991 States agree to uniform FooStandards, but States/Territories stiadminister legislation under their own Food Acts. Standards include manufacturing and food labeling provisions for wine.

utual acceptance of winemaking practices and mutual

1993

indications. AWBC Act amended to reflect our obligations. Blending regulations now underAWBC Act. 2000 Food standards revised, but two-year transition period of old and new. 2002 NewAustral and New Zealand, but ‘old’ standardsretained for wine produced in Aus

WINERY NAME

Wine Style Name—i.e. Dry Red/White – (a Name is Mandatory, but VARIETY is optional*) Shiraz

GEOGRAPHICAL INDI-CATION—(Optional*) – (i.e. Region of Grape Origin) Barossa Valley

VINTAGE—(Optional*) (i.e. Year Grapes Harvested) 1999

VOLUME—(Mandatory on Front label) - (Min. 3.3mm high) 750ML

ALCOHOL CONTENT(Mandatory) (wording is not prescribed) - 14% ALC/VOL

NAME, ADDRESS (Mandatory) (name and street address of responsible entity – must be postal address only

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN (Mandatory) Produce of Australia or Australian Wine

Single vineyard or Estate Grown designation

Typical Australian Wine Label

New Zealand

Waikato and Bay of Plenty

illustrated by the variation in tthe warmer and more humid northern regions of Northland, Aucklandand Gisborne, Chardonnay might begin to be harvested in late February or early March while in Central Otago, the world's most southerly Chardonnay grapes may first be picked in mid to late April - a difference of 6-7 weeks. New Zealand wine industry dates bac1819 but has evolved dramatically during the past fifteen years. Noconsidered by many to be one of the world's finest producer of Sauvignon Blanc, it also produces world class Chardonnays and is achieving success with Pinot Noir. The main wine producing regionsare Hawke's Bay, Gisborne, Auckland and Waikato on the North Island and Marlborough, Nelson and Canterbury on the South Island. It is a country of contrasts with dense, native forest, snow-capped mountains and spectacular coastline. With wine growing regions spanning the latitudes of 36 to 45 degrees and coveringlength of 1000 miles (1,600km), grapes are grown in a vast range climates and soil types, producing a diverse array of styles. The northern hemisphere equivalent would run from Bordeaux (between the latitudes of 44 and 46 degrees) down to southern Spain.

Africa

South Africa

South Africa is the world' s eighth

8

of Europe but mainly from France. The first vineyar

of y s

There has

specific

th the

nd Sauvignon Blanc production increasing

rity. The wine region is around Cape Town. With the improved

largest producerof wines and theindustry here ismore than three hundred years old. Almost all South Africa's wines are produced in the Western Cape region where there are approximately 7estates, 70 cooperatives and 97 independent wine producers. Since the end of apartheid the entire industry

Vine cuttings were taken from parts d planting for

has undergone a rapid revolution. It was as early as 1652 when South Africa was deemed a suitable place to grow grapes for wine making.

South African Wines was in 1655. The South African Wine industry in the 1800’s began to really improve. Due to the Napoleonic wars the French wine trade ceased and wine lovers looked to the Cape for a variety of South African Wines. In the early 1900’s the South African Wine industry had considerable over-production due to wars and the general hardship of the economy. Accordingly a co-operative was formed to stop farmers competing amongst themselves. This coordinated activity allowed the sharing machinery and technical knowledge. While this system had many advantages it did not deal satisfactorilwith the problem of over production. In an attempt to counter this problem the Ko-operatieve WijnbouwerVereniging van Zuid Afrika Beperkt (KWV) was formed in 1918 to oversee the wine industry.

In 1956 a quota system was introduced which effectively limited the number of vines a farmer could grow. The result was that the KWV could control the size of the crop and the location of the grapes. been a steady increasing investment into the South African wine market that has enabled the betterment of wine growing and production. South African Wines are now widely exported throughout the world. It is claimed that variety, taste and overall quality of South African Wines makes them very unique.

An official Wine of Origin scheme was only established in 1972, when legislation in this regard was formulated. This new scheme would not only protect wines of origin but also wines made from acultivars or vintage. Certain basic principles were taken into consideration when the system was formulated. It was, for example, necessary to comply with EU regulations because a great deal of South African wine was exported to Europe. Principles such as honesty in business, factual terms, titles, adaptability, local marketing truths and free participation were addressed.

South Africa's Wine of Origin certification scheme was officially instituted in 1973, in accordance wiWine, Other Fermented Beverages and Spirits Act of 1957

White wines are grown in much greater number than reds, mostly by Chenin Blanc , which accounts for about 30% of the white wine production, with Chardonnay aannually. Riesling is also grown in small quantities.

Historically Cinsault and Pinotage have been the most popular red grapes, however, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir and Merlot are gaining populaopening of trade between the rest of the world and South Africa, expect to see more wines and quality and wine making.

Section 2: From Vine to Wine

What is viticulture?

efined in Webster’s dictionary as “noun, (vit’· kul’ · cher) cultivation of

Of a d have been made in vineyard. Viticulture p Biodynamic farming techniques eschewed by

in

g other needed experimental practices that come from years of experience

The

st important factor.

sher more unpredictable climates and coastal Mediterranean are milder and more predictable

3.

D. Mic imateroclimate has a microclimate microclimate

Ex. – Napa Valle1.

Rainfall increases from south to north 20” – 35” average st – ocean influence

ecially at bud break

roblems d fruit

osition “Listen to the land” after grapes are being harvested

The ou datio Roo

ines spacing, production per plant decreases

type of grape growing on a vine

ck

Viticulture

Viticulture also referred to as viniculture. Bothof making wine.” It is d

are defined as “the growing of grapes for the purpose

grapevines.” The word is derived from the Latin word vitis, which means vine. Important notes:

winegrowing o Grape growing + winemaking = The grapo e = most important part of equation/art of wine

Other factors – winemaker skill, luck

ll a vances in wine industry since prohibition, most advancesractices can range from the practice of

Rudolf Steiner to Organic Farming or variations of this such as the commonly referred to practice California of Sustained Farming. Chemicals are still widely used where necessary to reduce moldand retarding disease. The practices wine makers and viticulturists employ range from night picking to leaf pulling to cuttinback buds at flowering toand with dealing with the elements of that seasons climate during the growing season. In many instances local wine growing laws dictate to the wine makers whether they can irrigate their crops oruse any additives. Laws can tell you where you can plant a varietal, when, how much per hectare and other determining factors. home – Where the vines are planted A. Vineyard site is the moB. Broad specific areas:

1. France and Germany have har2. California

C. Clim ate1. Can vary widely in even a small area

. – California has a general climate 2. EXEX. - Northern has a Macroclimate rocl 1. Ex. – Napa Valley has a mic

inery Lake Vineyard 2. Ex. – Wy

Temperature increases from south to north – 10º – 20º 2. 3. Temperature increases from west to ea

E. Wrong weather at the wrong time can bring dramatic results 1. Drought

2. Rain, especially during set and harvest 3. Frost, esp

4. Cool weather at flowering – pollination p 5. Too little sun – underdevelope 6. Too much sun – cooked fruit F. Soil

r comp1. Test the soil before planting fo 2. 3. Soil can vary greatly within a single vineyard F n n – tstock A. Rootstock B. Propagating new v

selection

C. Spacing – with closerD. Grafting – changing the

1. The new type is grafted onto the established rootsto2. Takes 2-4 years of vineyard to produce again

A. Canopy management to BALANCE fruit to leaf growth re held up/arranged

ows

. Pruning – r ce q

1. Cutting back canes in winter (when sap is least vulnerable to loss) to keep

Trellising SystemThere are two basic systems o A basic way to identify the differences is:

in or smooth, you will know that it has been cane trained,

e of the strongest canes kept for next season’s main branch. is pruned back each year to provide a vine consisting of almost

o Apaonly

• Spur tr

ich basic training system has been applied to a vine simply by looking at

B

The Umbrella – Vines, canes and leaves

B. Trellising – The way the canes/leaves a

1. Determines shade and light to vine ratio 2. EX. - Techniques to enhance sun exposure

a) Divide the canopy into separate r b) More vertical aspect to trellis C edu uantity of growth to increase quality

growth manageable

2. Fruit and or leaf pruning during development to control quality by limiting the quantity, effects of frosts.

s f vine training Cane and Spur.

1. main branch is th2. thick, dark and gnarled it has been spur trained.

• Cane trained systems o No permanent branch

all but on Strongest cane

entirely new growth. rt from the trunk, the oldest wood on a cane-trained vine is the main branch and this one year old.

o The system gives good spread of fruit over a large area and allows easier regulation of annual production.

o The number of fruiting buds can be increased or decreased.

ained systems o No annual replacement allowing for a solid framework. o Easy to know wh

the main branch.

ASIC TRELLISING SYSTEMS EMPLOYED AROUND THE WORLD

Guyot Trellising - Cane-trained trellising shown from beginning to height of growth to post harvest. X marks the spare cane that will be tied vertically in the winter and become next years main producing shoot, while another shoot closer to the truck will be allowed to grow and be the new seasons spare shoot where producing canes will grow from.

Gobelet Trellising – Spur-trained trellising from beginning to height of growth to post harvest. Main canes on a spur-trained vine are all permanent. They will only be replaced if they are damaged. The only shoots that are pruned are the year-old ones.

Bush Vine – Spur-training: This is an unsupported version of the Gobelet System. The term “bush vine” originated in Australia, where a few old vineyards usually planted with Grenache, is still used. Bush vines are traditional in Beaujolais, France. Also common throughout the dry areas of the Mediterranean. Only suitable for low vigor vines as the weight of the leaves and fruit is unsupported. Cru Classé Beaujolais only has 3-5 shoots where lower quality grapes may have up to 10 shoots.

Guyot – Cane Training System: Developed by Jules Guyot in 1860. Double and Simple forms represent the most conservative style of can training. Least

cand theEasiest means of restraining yields. Used in Bordeaux where AOC rules restrict canes and buds you can grow. Also widand Old

Chablis – Spur-Traini of France. Now they use agne is the most important wi

n there uses this system. This results in tree- minimum age for AOC Champagne) having three

-old vine having four branches, and so forth. The vine in the same row determines the eventual life of

the oldest branch because, when it encroaches upon the next vine, it is trunk. Basically the Chablis spur-training system is

ne unsupported by a central post.

Cordon de Royat – Spur-training system: Used in Champagne for pur-trained version of Guyot Simple system.

d

known as the “U” system. The canopy is divided allowing a better penetration of lighting which improves

disorders or disorders borne in the vine such as in algae, fungi, mosses, or molds. Althousystem is more common in New World where vine vigor is a problem although not a muse whatsoeversuccessfully adaAmerican countries such as Uruguay.

ated to learn and the number of fruiting canes number of buds on them are unrestricted.

ely used for quality wines throughout the New World. ng System: Originally developed in Chablis region Guyot Double. Champ

compli

nemaking region to use the Chablis system where about ninety percent (90%) of all Chardonnay growyear-old vine (thebranches, a four-yeardistance between each

X

GUYOT DOUBLE

GUYOT SIMPLE

removed and a new one cultivated from a bud on the main little more than a slanting bush vi

production of Pinot Noir. SThere is a double variant, although rarely cultivated strictly for its own ends, its primary reason for existence being to replace a missing vine on its blinside. In the winter, CDR vines are all face forward, bent almost double.

Lyre – Spur-training system: Also

and air which reduces the incidence of cryptogamic

gh this system was developed in Bordeaux, the Lyre

ajor one. As with all split-canopy systems Lyre is of no for low vigor vineyards. Some growers have pted Lyre to cane training. It is used widely in South

ripeness levels

Soil Types importance for different varietals Examples of soil types would be: Clay vs. sandy loam, vs. Calcareous, vs. Alluvial, vs. limestone, vs. Volcanic.

Soil characteristics are a critical factor in determininpotential success of a vineyard. Although grapevinescan be grown in a wide variety of soil types, the most important characteristics are good internal drainage and adequate depth. Soil depth for vineyards is commonly recommended to be a minimum of 30 to 40 inches

g the

before reaching an impermeable layer. Shallow soils ller

nt ly

nears 8.0, the mineral nutrients iron and zinc become less available.

M edium limit development of the root system, resulting in smavines and greater sensitivity to changes in soil moisture levels. Irrigation must be managed with extreme care on shallow soils. Deeper soils are much more preferable; grape roots will penetrate very deeply if the soil is permeable. A larger root system can support a bigger vine and is less sensitive to short-term changes in soil moisture. One aspect of soil fertility that is important is soil pH - an indicator of the soil's relative acidity. Nutrieavailability to roots is influenced by soil pH and in highalkaline soils as soil pH

Shallow

Deep (M edium Texture)

Deep

Vineyard Design 1 Meter planting = standard before – higher quality 2 / 3 Meter planting = now used = increased quality The most frequently asked question is "What is the cost to develop a vineyard?" The answer is, "That depends on what kind of soil you have, which varietyyou'll be planting and what style of wine you want to make.

Vineyard Density The number of vines per acre is the single most important factor that dictates the cost and yields per acre. Traditional vineyards in Napa Valley (before 1985) were spaced 11 feet between rows and seven feet between the vines (7'x11'). That's a population of 566 vines per acre. In the late 1980s a revolution occurred and USA vineyards began to look French. The spacing of vineyards became closer. Typically 8 feet, 6 feet or as close as 3 feet between the rows. 1987 and '88 were short crop years followed by a period of increased consumption. In addition, phylloxera began to decimate Napa vineyards planted on AXR rootstock. It became apparent that higher yields were demanded from our limited acreage. So as to not sacrifice quality, the number of vines per acre

as increased. Growers began to think of bottles per vine instead of tons per acre. The outcome was that e closer spaced vineyards could and did increase yields per acre. The amount of increase varied

normously by vineyard and variety. Nonetheless, now in the late 1990s, common spacing formulas populate as many as 1000 to 1800 vines per acre depending on the variety and the site.

(Course Texture)

Standard

Close

Close

Standard

SPACING

wthe

Factors associated with Vigor One of the keys to controlling the quality of the berries is to carefully balance the vigor of the vine with the number of g speak for the health of a plant and is the result of the type and depth of soil a plant is in, the water it receives, and the sungravigorous grapevines, which especially dense folia gy to grow fruit. If a relatively small crop is grown on a leafy vine, then the grastressed vine with less foliage does not have the energy to p f sucwh e-proopp

Vineyard managers

rapes the vine produces. "Vigor" is agricultural

light it gets. Unlike most staple crops, vigor in pevines is not necessarily a good thing. Highly

are characterized by ge, have more ener

pes will be big and watery. On the other hand, a

roduce a big crop. If too many grapes are grown off oh a vine, the grapes will not ripen at all. "In instance ere a vine is vigorous, you want to grow more grapducing shoots to expend the vine’s energy. The osite holds true for vines that are stressed.

cqualities in the grapes

efactors, especially climate and soil.

1. Chardonnay: Thrives always proves to be la

2. Sauvignon Blanc: Docooler, the varietal pro armer climate areas where thcomplex melon, citrus

3. Pinot Noir: Another cperfect conditions: too

4. Merlot: A mid-season Most important with meset).

5. Cabernet Sauvignon:conditions but suffers t better in a cooler district.

The Fine-Tuning – Helping Mother Nature

A. Irrigation Moisture level in soil, therefore that available to plant is important

b) le aging potential.

2. Right amount of water TO ADD varies with soil conditions a) Texture of soil (fine, coarse, varied)

b) Composition of soil (clay, sand, loam, rocks)

arefully control the growth of vines to bring out the that they want to emphasize in their wine. Grapes from

vines that are too vigorous tend to be dominated by “fruitiness,” and they lose the complex flavors imparted by the soil.

LOW VIGOR MEDIUM VIGOR

HIGH VIGOR

VIGOR

The Fruit A. Varietal type selection – winemak rs need to choose the right grape for all of the above

in cooler climates; warm climate chardonnay almost cking in the delicate flavors defining its varietal character.es well in a myriad of temperatures, however as it gets ves to taste vegetal and grassy. It proves better in we warmth can “burn off” the green flavors in lieu of fruit and floral types. ool climate grape; the most fickle to grow, it requires the cool and it’s stemmy; too warm and it’s pruny. ripening grape that does well in a diversity of climates. rlot is the “right weather” at the “right time” (i.e. bloom and

Prefers warmer conditions to excel. It can grow cooler he same stemmy qualities of pinot noir. A dry soil is

1. a) Too LITTLE = sunburn dehydration, poor color, bitterness, raisin

qualities, overripe flavors, poor balance. Too MUCH = diluted flavors, late and uneven ripening, poor color, thintannin and overall structure, low acid, questionab

c) Location (valley floor, hillsides, mountaintop, etc.)

d) Natural rainfall, including drought problems

3. Types of irrigation a) Drip

4.

5. r in

B. Fer tion

C. Pest control

Mold Control: A. Pierces sease B. Odium C. EveD. Phy

D GROWTH YEAR CYCLE OF YEAR

Foliage

FlowerinAverage

November to December uary

b) Overhead Illegal to irrigate in France Research – Measuring water, which comes from plant, as opposed to watethe soil.

tiliza lime usage? Other fertilizers? organic farming, biodynamic farming

dimolds

ry Rot lloxera

HARVEST AN

TIME ACTION Weeding February

Bud-break March to April and shoots April to May

_____________________________________ g May to June

Fruit set June to July 100 Grape ripening August days Harvest August to October _______________________________________

November to December Botrytis harvest Eiswein

Jan

Red and White Wine Vinification

Vinification Basics of Vinification: White Wine

Introduction

A. Final product only as good as beginning ingredients (GRAPES)

B. Wine: The resultant product of naturally fermented juice of grapes or other fruits.

Types of Wines

A. Table wine – 14% alcohol and less (1.5% leeway)

B. Sparkling wine – 14% alcohol and less (average 12.5%)

C. Fortified wine – over 14% but less than 24% alcohol

D. Aromatized wine – 15.5 to 20% alcohol (vermouth)

Factors contributing to quality of wines

A. The grapes 1. The soil and location of the vineyard

2. Climatic conditions

Viticulture practices can range from the practice of Biodynamic farming techniques eschewed by Rudolf Steiner to Organic Farming or variations of this such as the commonly referred to practice in California of Sustained Farming. Chemicals are still widely used where necessary to reduce mold and retarding disease.

B. Vinification (science of making wine from that fruit)

1. Standards of the winery 2. Skill of the winemaker

C. Intangibles - luck

D. The concept of “Wine Growing”

Process of making white wine

(This also applies to the base wine, or “cuvee” for sparkling wine)

A. PICKING – Decision to Harvest • Made by vineyard manager & winemaker together • Whites best picked at 20 to 23 degrees Brix, pH = 3.4; acidity @ 0.8 to 1 % and

varietal aroma of concern

1. Mechanical harvesting – machine harvesting • Used on large vineyards • A force is applied to one or more parts of the vine in order to remove the

fruit from the clusters. o Lateral Strike Harvesters that shake the vine canopy so that the

berries will fall off. • Advantages

o Harvesters can operate 24 hours a day but usually work at night and / or early morning.

o Not many people needed, 1 machine can do the work of 20 to 30 pickers.

o Maximizes breaking of the berries so better for reds because skin contact is desirable.

• Disadvantages are (focus on whites): o Might limit vineyard design reference, pruning methods o and canopy types. o Enzymatic oxidation of flavors & colors o Berry Breakage o Increase fungal growth o Premature fermentation by wild yeast

Manual Harvesting - Hand picking • Used in smaller vineyards and for more thin-skinned cultivars.

treatment of the grapes – NO breakage • Permits rejection of poorer clusters • Can select for level of maturity

2.

• Best

• Very labor intensive and expensive • Not done 24 hours per day

B. TRANSPORT TO WINERY

1. Done as quickly as possible so as to minimize the time at elevated temperatures. 2. Sometimes dry ice added to reduce presence of oxygen 3. Moving will cause a loss of water, which results in evaporative cooling. 4. Should be covered.

C. CRUSHING

d breaks the berries.

old fashioned

arts of the world and smaller

2. Don econtact

D. SETTLING

1. Unf e kins, seeds, pulp, juice, etc) is put in large temperature controllecalled unimatic.

2. Takes place aprocess lasts generally from 2-24 hours) Fermentation temperature range = (32 – 78)

3. The juice is now separated from its solids and is somewhat clarified.

Stemmer-crusher (usually) – separates the stems an1. Bladder press (most often used) – airbag.

a) Screw press –b) Basket press – Champagne various p

wineries e g ntly and quickly, to limit oxygen contact, and usually to minimize skin

erm nted must (sd tanks to allow the juice to settle and the solids separate out. Tanks are

at low temperature to prevent fermentation from starting (settling

E. FERMENTATION

1. Sugar + yeast = CO2 + ethyl alcohol (+ heat)

3. Must is put into a fermentation vessel

a) 1) Either a wood barrel (large or small), or 2) jacketed stainless steel tank (with temperature control) or in older style methods 3) epoxy lined cement tanks

b) Often, the wine will be fermented in a tank and then subsequently be transferred into barrels.

controlled

) Fermentation will occur as the must is kept at a temperature essential for the enzymes reactions needed to cause fermentation.

Range: 1 = cooler effects vs. 2 = warmer effects

c) Yeast needs specific conditions for wine production (1) Proper temperature (2) Sugar to “burn” (3) Sufficient oxygen

d) Unfermented must contains approximately 24% natural grape sugar, together with various acids, cream of tartar, protein, tannin (varying in degree with varietal and amount of skin contact initially).

om a few

s) are generally favored by

6. Alcohol present in the new wine at the end of the fermentation is approximately

F. RACKING

3. INOCULATION

a) Wild yeast is usually killed in the initial phases, so a strain oft is now added to the unfermented must. live yeas

b

4. This process which is regulated by the winemaker can take anywhere fr days to a few weeks.

rature5. Longer fermentations (at lower tempewinemakers as more flavors are extracted and fruit flavors retained.

50% of the natural sugar. 24 brix = 12% alcohol

1. After fermentations’ completion, the new wine is transferred from one container to another, leaving the solids behind

2. If the fermentation occurs in the barrel as a vessel, sometimes the wine is left to

rest on the resultant dead yeast cells (lees) to pick up flavor and complexity. Different winemaker styles include stirring the wine on for years, for complexity – battonage

G. AGEING

1. The new wine needs to develop and mature before it is “finished” and

subsequently bottled. The amount of time and in what type of a container will va roma) S

continue to develop in an ageing container for from three to

1.

tion of wines during which the harder rper

acids (t

2. In white whether or

h a rich mouth-filling texture and buttery flavor compounds. J. BLENDING

ry f varietal and by style. mall or large wood barrels

b) Neutral stainless steel tanks. 2. The wine will now

eighteen months (or longer for red wine).

H. TOPPING OFF Barrels often lose wine due to evaporation, and need to be filled with the same

hich is in the barrels. wine, w

2. This is often done twice a w k for the first two months and then every other week for a few more months.

ee

I. MALOLACTIC FERMENTATION (ML)

1. This is a secondary, non-alcoholic fermentasha malic acids (think of green apples) are transformed into softer lactic

he acid in dairy products). wines, the winemaker usually makes a conscious decision

not to induce ML, although it will occasionally occur spontaneously. ML softens the wine and adds bot

After the ageing is finished in various batches or “lots” of wine, the wine is then blended to max ze th

K. COLD STABILIZATION

2.

Although this is strictly a cosmetic problem, it can be confusing to the consumer, and potential problem in the restaurant.

L. FINISHING

Once the wine is blended and finished, it can be filtered for one final time and then is bottled, case aged and ultimately distributed to the market.

Dessert Wines (higher sugar)

A. Grapes picked at higher natural sugar levels

B. Yeast can not metabolize all sugar = residual sugar

C. Fermentation sometimes stopped with low temperatures.

imi e potential of the final wine.

1. In temperature-controlled tanks, the temperature is dropped to below freezing where the cream of tartar forms crystals and falls out. White wines which are not cold stabilized risk formation of tartaric crystals in the bottle and on cork.

3.

Vinification of R

Types of winesed nes Wi

A. Table wine 14% alcohol and less

C. For win

D. Aro atized rmouth) Review of facto cont

ineyard.

3. B. Vinification t fruit)

2.

C. Intangibles of “Wine Growing”

Steps different from white wine process • PICKING – Decision to Harvest

o Reds best picked at 22 to 24 degrees Brix; pH = 3.4; acidity @ 0.6% and color of concern.

A. CRUSHING

1. Carbonic Maceration (alternative styles of fermentation) – Certain styles of red wines, whole clusters thrown into a tank without crushing.

a) Weight of the grape matter crushes the fruit and allows for the needed liquid for fermentation to begin.

b) Allowing the grapes to ferment slowly in the presence of carbon dioxide and some oxygen results in a deep color as the grapes ferment inside their skins and strong fruit flavors are extracted.

B.

Takes place BEFORE skins are separated must is moved into a tank, usually stainless steel, for fermentation.

ture isn’t needed to retain fruit flavors.

. Made by leaving the juice “on the skins” just long enough to extract a

f certain light reds like Gamay, into

2. Red wines do not benefit from lees contact, which often adds bitter components

3. As a rule “ageing” reds will be racked into fresh barrels three times during the hen transferred into a final ageing barrel.

ain wood

– 14% alcohol and less (1.5% leeway)

B. Sparkling wine –

tified e – over 14% but less than 24% alcohol. wine – 15.5 to 20% alcohol (vem

rs ributing to quality of wines

A. The grapes . The soil and location of the v1

2. Climatic conditions Viticulture practices

(science of making wine from tha1. Standards of the winery

Skill of the winemaker – luck

D. The concept

FERMENTATION

1.

Unfermented 2.

3. Fermentation temperatures generally higher than white wines give range? a) Purpose is to extract color and tannins b) Low tempera

4. Usually lasts 5-15 days. ROSĖ 5a)

little color. b) “Blush” wines often left just a few hours

Rosé wines left for a day or two c)

C. AGEING

1. After fermentation, red wine is racked off of solids and put into ageing container: most often wood barrels, or in the case ostainless steel vats.

first year, and t

. BARRELS 4

a) Open-grain wood vs. tight-gr

b) French oak vs. American oak effects

c) French barrel-making methods vs. American

nt st”

RMENTATION hrough” ML.

nerally made more drinkable. ttle, it can result in a “stinky” nose.

E. CLA ICA

is stirred into the wine, and an interaction with suspended s them to settle out, clarifying the wine. ed: egg whites, bentonite.

Prior to bottling a final filtering is often done to remove any microscopic particle, which might later cloud the wine appearance or result in

d) Thewinemakers.

The Benefits of Oa n W

cooper or tonnelier, producing the barrel. There may be a

e

els). This does have a uniform and impressive look to it.

ne composition in three ways: tion process – flavor from the oak nce the aroma and flavor

rovide controlled oxidation nins are softened, color and wine

(1) Split staves vs. sawed (2) Air-dried vs. Kiln-dried (3) -bent vs. beFire Steam-

d) Amount of char or “toa

D. MALOLACTIC FE

lated to “go t1. Most red wines are inocu

2. Wines are softened and ge

ously later in the bo3. If ML happens spontane

RIF TION

a) FINING

a) A substancesolids cause

s usb) Material

c) FILTRATION

a)

excessive sediment.

advisability and even the necessity of filtering is a matter of debate between

k o ine Composition

Oak Barrels — The staves of a barrel are held together by metal hoops, which are sometime positioned at slightly different distances, depending on the traditions of the

red color between the two innermost hoops, but this is added by winemakers whom wish to conceal their spillagmarks around the bung by dyeing the entire middle areawith red wine (usually red wine barr

Oak barrels contribute to wiThey improve the maturaare extracted which enhacomplexity and intensity. They pduring storage- tan

Mi ri ssou Mississippi

Pennsylvania Ohio Kentucky

Mi a nnesot Wisconsin Oregon

stability is increased and duced by the oxidative process. Barrel fermentation provides additional benefits during fermentation – strong reducing actions further enhance win omaOak is essential omp s, with the last three actually influencing the w dur not odorous by themselves but trans compounds. The important compounds entering the wine by simple diffusion are oak lactones which have a coconut-like aroma, aldehydes (particularly vanillin), phenolic phenols such as eugeno ich a range of other compoun The d class of volatile phenolics, which derive nly fr 5 and 35 percent of the dry weight of the wood. The most important compounds derived from oak lignin are vanillin (vanilla), eugenol

When the oak is toasted the amounts of vanillin (vanilla), guaiacol (smoky and

The amounts of oak extracted from the wood into the wine depend upon: the e the greater the extraction) the type of oak onger intensity than French) the method of drying

the wood (prolonged air drying is necessary for wine) the size (the larger the barrel the less surface of oak to volume of wine, and thus less extraction) and previous use of the barrel (new oak provides the greatest extractive yield).

Calculations based on the barrel surface area per liter of wine shows that for each millimeter that wine penetrates into the barrel, it extracts about 7.6 grams of oak extract for a 200 liter barrel and 5.6 grams for a 500 liter barrel. The diffusion of oak components into wine will change somewhat as the surface becomes exhausted, as larger molecules will take longer to diffuse. Because large oak chips have been found to provide many of the same benefits to wine as oak barrels, they have become a popular method of increasing the oak extract levels in previously used barrels. Primarily, oak chips are used during the fermentation and bulk storage of wines as an economical means of

obtaining characteristics, which, in many ways, are similar to barrel.

apa Tasting Shows Off American Oak hat’s in an oak barrel? Aside from young wine, an oak barrel can also harbor flavors of its own, adding

moke, caramel, cream, and spice and vanilla characteristics to a fine Chardonnay or Cabernet auvignon. rench oak is considered by many winemakers

elegant oak. It is ironic that American oak, longonly now beginning to find broader acceptancenumber of French coopers have set up branch

One such cooper, Tonnellerie Française Nadademonstrate the evolving quality of its Americawas not to compare French and American oakFrançaise cooper Alain Poisson, “but to examioffered attending winemakers samples of Char wn in Pennsylvania, Missouri, Virginia and Oregon. A fifth wine wasblind; each oak type remained unidentified unt Among Tonnellerie Française’s sample wines,to this palate) most refined and well integrated

med

various aroma compounds are pro

e ar s and flavors. ly c osed of cellulose, hemicelluloses, tannins and lignin’ine ing contact. The hemicelluloses do so indirectly – they are

are formed chemically through toasting, and thus serve as a base for other odorous

ketones which augment the vanillin aroma, volatile l wh have clove and carnation aromas, furanic derivatives from toasting, and

extractable constituents of oak fall largely into the broads.mai om the oak lignin comprising between 2

(spicy and clove-like), and guaiacol (smoky). These become a small but important part of the overall phenolic composition of wine.

Maturation Position

Fermenting Position

medicinal), 4-methyl guaiacol (smoky and clove-like), syringaldehyde, coniferaldehyde and sinapaldehyde in the wine are increased.

aging time (the longer the tim(American oak provides a str

N

WsS

F —particularly the French, of course—to be the most favored by many Spanish and Australian winemakers, is in the United States. Because of this new interest, a es in the United States to produce American oak barrels. lie USA, recently set up a tasting in Napa Valley to n oak casks. The results were strikingly good. Our intent “which belong to separate species,” said Tonnelerie ne the differences in varying American Oak.” Poisson donnay and Merlot aged in oak gro aged in a barrel made from French oak. The tasting was il after analysis.

both the Pennsylvanian and Virginian oak seemed (at last , particularly with merlot. The Oregonian oak was also

distinctive, mainly due to its strong smoke and bacon like edge. The Missourian and French oak seeto be least significant one way or the other. “When we first came here (to the United States), we didn’t know how to work with American oak.” Poisson recalled. He found that certain French cooperage techniques left his American barrels with flavors that remained too aggressive. Now he has discovered that higher toast levels—the amount of time a barrel is exposed to an open flame—seem to temper a

perceived rawness in American oak. Perhaps Poisson’s newly acquired expertise explains why only one out of same 60 California winemakers could identify which wine was aged in French oak.

Yes, I am afraid it’s anothe pace, you may feel, since the market continueChardonnay. But read on, It seems as though whene e truly international wine market, many parts of the world, o in the warmer regions, Cabefeatures of the land. Cabeexpressive blend of grape The trouble with Chardonnto express is grape, oak alocal variation. California, technically correct BFC fodeveloped a really distinctand Kittler perhaps, and Cnot to their taste. Oregon, Ontario: most of North Amproducing A BFC is a com

producing BFC for quite a

some of the very few identifiable individual fruit sources.

tch made by a young Frenchman at Moët Chandon’s Argentine outpost. In their efforts to prove that they too belong to the international wine club,

h

r-

ll over the frantically developing wineries of the former Soviet-bloc countries, hard-earned Western for French oak barrels destined to yield yet more BFC, as indigenous and Tamiioasa, have to struggle for recognition and, in some cases,

urvival. I understand why emerging wine regions need to produce BFC, almost as a rite of passage, I

Barrel-Fermented Chardonnay Band Wagon Hooray for Bordeaux, the Rhône Valley proper, the Douro, the central Asian republics and outer space. What they all share is that none of these places, to my knowledge, make any barrel-fermented Chardonnay.

r of those Chardonnay-knocking pieces. What a waste of ss to vote with its dollars overwhelmingly in favor of barrel-fermented please.

er an emerging wine region needs to prove that it has joined thv it must produce a Cabernet Sauvignon and a barrel-fermented Chardonnay. Inf course, it is impossible for Cabernet Sauvignon to ripen at all reliably, butrnet provides a good medium for communicating some of the distinguishing rnets vary in flavor and texture and can produce wines that develop into an and place.

ay, and BFC in particular, is that all they tend nd winemaking technique with remarkably little on the other hand, has produced oceans of r years. Yet how many of these have ive identity? Some bottling of Au Bon Climate harlene, which some would say is distinctively Washington, Idaho, Texas, Long Island, and erica has now been colonized by BFC. And mon goal among those striving to establish

new viticulture areas. Australia and New Zealand have also been

European Split while, with increasing sophistication of technique, but places such as Mudgee, Coonawarra, Gisborne and parts of the far southwest of Australia are Now every other place with pretensions of producing wine for the international consumer is desperately importing expensive French oak barrels just to prove that they too can produce BFC. Italy, Spain, Portugal, South Africa, Chile, Loire, Languedoc, Austria are just some of those places that have been busy producing new lines of BFC. And so, it seems are the even less likely wine regions. Within a few hours of arriving in Argentina for the first time earlier this year, for example, I was shown two almost identical BFCs—one made by Californian Paul Hobbs and labeled by his employer Dr. Catena, expressly for the American market, and another experimental ba

American Sawn

&Argentines are carving vineyards and irrigation systems out of the Andean foothills in cooler regions such as Tupungato. Meanwhile, they all but ignore their deliciously succulent, and cheap, red Malbec, whicseems to thrive in well-established areas such as Luján de Cuyo. In eastern Switzerland recently, I was amazed by one producer’s Pinot Blanc, Pinot Noir and even MülleThurgau, each of them with a long history in the area. But Daniel Gantenbein couldn’t resist the temptation to plant Chardonnay and make tiny quantities of BFC from relatively young vines—and quite remarkably un-Swiss it tastes too. Acurrency is being exchangedvarieties, such as Harslevelus

just hope they manage to hang on to what constitutes their own distinctive viticultural identity. It’s usuallya much better value.

ore News On Oak

l soon be ouquet, President of the American arm of the prestigious French

arrel-builder Seguin-Moreau.

000 barrels a year in Napa. While a sizable number, it is still small in comparison to the 35,000 barrels Seguin-Moreau builds annually in France.

ne veteran French cooper and arning the craft. The all-American

lf the cost of their French versions.

in the production of super an barrels will narrow the gap for nds American oak for Chardonnay

nd Zinfandel, but not Pinot Noir.

M Overwhelming French dominance in the esoteric but important realm of wine-barrel-making wilchallenged in Napa Valley by Alain Fb

In April, Fouquet will oversee the launching of a long-held dream—building a totally American barrel-making operation using native-grown oak from the Midwest plus French cooperage techniques. His 25,000-square foot cooperage will include a visitor’s center and elevated observation walkway. By the year 2000, Fouquet hopes to build 4,

American Oak Dust Light-toast

To realize his American goals, Fouquet will rely on o10 American coopers, who are now in France lebarrels will sell for $265 to $280, about ha Fouquet says that French oak will still be preferred premium wines, but that the availability of Americproducers of less expensive wines. He recommeand reds such as Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon a

French Oak Chips Medium-toast

American Oak Chips High-toast

White Wine Varietals

B. SauvignonC. Riesling D. Semillon E. Muscat F. GewürztraG. Chenin Bl

Chardonnay A. GROWN

1.

2. France: Burgundy, Champagne, Loire Valley (Touraine)

3. Italy: Tuscany, Piedmont, North Western (Friuli Alto Adige)

4. Australia, Spain, New Zealand, Chile

B. INFLUENCES

Wood vs. no wood, type, barrel fermentation, malolactic fermentation

C. FLAVORS

Tropical fruit, lemon, peach, nectarine, pear, apple, pineapple, guava, melon, banana, smoke, steel, cream, vanilla, butterscotch, toast, chalk, yeast, mint, honey.

Sauvignon Blanc

A. GROWN 1. America

a) California: Napa, Sonoma, Central Coast (North and South) Mendocino, Monterey, “Bay Area”, Amador

b) Oregon, Washington,

2. France: Loire (Sancerre, Pouilly Fume), Bordeaux (Graves, Sauternes)

3. New Zealand, Australia, Chile

B. INFLUENCES Wood vs. no wood, blended or 100%, sweet or dry

C. FLAVORS Grapefruit, herbs, gooseberry, lemon, lime melon, grass (cut), hay, straw, alfalfa, bell

pepper, asparagus, green olive, artichoke, stemmy, honey, smoke, apricot (in sweet styles, also pear and peach), mint, menthol.

Riesling

A. GROWN 1. America

a) California: Napa, Sonoma, Central Coast (North and South), Monterey, “Bay Area,” Mendocino

b) Washington, Oregon, Idaho 2. France: Alsace

3. Germany: Rhine and Mosel river areas, “other areas”

4. Australia, Italy (Friuli and Alto Adige)

B. INFLUENCES Sweet vs. dry style, wood ageing (minimal), sparkling

Primary white wine varietals are:

A. Chardonnay Blanc

miner anc

America a) California: Napa, Sonoma, Central Coast (North and South), Mendocino,

Monterey, “Bay Area” b) Pacific Northwest: Oregon, Washington, Idaho c) New York: Long Island, Finger Lakes d) Texas, etc.

C. FLAVORS

Green Apple, apricot, peach, nectarineasphalt, smoke, cream,

, honeysuckle, geranium, rose, licorice, petrol, earth

Sem

erica lifornia: Napa, Sonoma, Central Coast (North and South), Mendocino

n State rdeaux (sauternes), Southwest

a UENCES

no wood, sweeter vs. drier style, blended vs. 100% C. FLA

Pea am, honey, cinnamon, vanilla, apricot (in sweeter styles)

Muscat A. GROWN

1. h and South), Mendocino, ntere

B. INF NCE

r (light) toffee, lemon.

Ge rztrA.

y

France: Alsace Italy, Austria, Germany, USA (Oregon)

Dry vs. off dryC. FLAVORS

Very aroma , lych ve, cinnamon, honeysuckle, geranium, pepper, ora , ear rkraut, pine, anise.

A. GRrica

tral Coast (North and South), Mendocino,

B. Wood vs. no wood, dry vs. off dry vs. sweet, sparkling vs. still

uava, chalk, lemon, vanilla, cream, apple blossom, chamomile

illon A. GROWN

1. Ama C

Washingto: Bo2. France

3. AustraliB. INFL

Wood vs. VORS ch, pear, melon, fig cre,

California: Napa, Sonoma, Central Coast (Nort, Amador Mo y, “Bay Area”

2. France: Midi, Provence, Rhone, Alsace 3. Italy: (Piedmont-Asti) 4. Spain, Madeira, Portugal, South Africa, Cyprus LUE S

Dry vs. sweet, sparkling C. FLAVORS

Very aromatic, apricot, lychee, almond, earth, tangerine, raisin, peppe

wu aminer GROWN

1. California: Napa, Sonoma, Central Coast (North and South), Mendocino, “BaArea”

2. 3.

B. INFLUENCES wood or no wood ,

ee nuts, peach, apple, pear, cloticnge th, rubber, smoke, saue

Chenin Blanc OWN 1. Ame

a) California, Napa, Sonoma, CenMonterey, “Bay Area”

b) Texas 2. France: Loire Valley (Vouvray, Saumur, etc…) 3. South Africa, Australia

INFLUENCES

C. FLAVORS Apple, peach, pineapple, g

Basic Red of Wines

rimary red wi

A. Cabernet SauB. Pinot

G. G

Cabernet Sauvignon

A. GROWN

al Coast (North and South), Mendocino,

Idaho

Australia, Spain, New Zealand, Chile E

Woo s. no

D. FLABla k cherry raspberry, bell pepper,

hrooms, chocolate, molasses, smoke,

Pin Noi

A.

a) California: Napa, Sonoma, Central Coast (North and South), Mendocino, Monterey, “Bay Area”

2. 3. Germany, Italy (Lombardy), E. Europe, Australia, New Zealand

B. INF NCStill spar p. char treatment of oak)

ffee, spice, coriander, ginger,

erlot A. GROWN

1. America a) California: Napa, Sonoma, Central Coast (North and South), Monterey,

“Bay Area” Sierra Foothills. b) Washington State c) New York, Texas

2. France: Bordeaux (Pomerol, St. Emilion) S. West 3. Australia, E. Europe, Italy (N. East)

Wine Varietals

and Styles

P a als are:

ne v riet

vignon Noir

C. Merlot D. Zinfandel E. Syrah F. Gamay

ranache

1. America onoma, Centra) California: Napa, S

Monterey, Bay Area b) Pacific Northwest: Oregon, Washington,c) New York, Finger Lakes, Long island d) Texas & other states

2. France: Bordeaux, Loire Valley (Touraine, Anjou), S. West 3. Italy: Tuscany, Piedmont 4.

B. INFLUENC S d v wood, type, size and age of wood, blended or not. VORS

currack nt (cassis), blackberry, black plum, blact, black olive, green olive, earth, museucalyptus, min

cedar wood, tobacco, licorice.

ot r GROWN

1. America

b) Oregon France: Burgundy, Champagne, Alsace

LUE S , wood vs. no wood, (es

E vs. kling, Old vs. new wood

C. FLAVORS Cherry, raspberry, strawberry, prune, plum pomegranate, co

mon, earth, smoke, mushroom, “farm yard,” caramel, allspice, violets, lavender, clove, cinnajasmine, cocoa, sausage

M

B. INFLUENCES

wood, wood vs. no wood, blend or not, vinified like Cabernet

C. FLAVORS Black Plum, and flavors similar to cabernet sauvignon but “softer,” rounder when very ripe,

reen” flavors

in

California, Napa, Sonoma, Central Coast (North and South), Mendocino, Monterey, “Bay Area”, Amador, Sierra Foothills, Central Valley Italy / primitivo Australia (Western)

S od, age, size and type of wood, blend or not

plum, chocolate, olives, bell peppers,

Syrah

A. GROWN 1. erica; Ca a, Central Coast (North and South), “Bay

, blend or not.

ite and

2.

B. INF NCEWood vs. no wood, age, type and size of wood barrels, vinification style (carbonic

C. ,

Grenache

A.

a) California: Napa, Sonoma, Central Coast (North and South), Mendocino, Monterey, “Bay Area” Amador, Central Valley

s 2. 3. Spain, N

B. INFLUENC Wood vs. no wood, age, type and size of wood, blend or not.

C. FLAVORS Gra jam, epper, violet, rose petal

Type, size and age ofSauvignon?

focus on herbal and “g

Z fandel A. GROWN

1.

2. 3.

B. INFLUENCEWood vs. no wo

C. FLAVORS Blackberry, raspberry, jam, pepper, cherries, port, cloves, black pepper.

Am lifornia: Napa, SonomArea”, Amador, Monterey

2. France: Rhone, Midi 3. Australia, New Zealand

B. INFLUENCES Wood vs. no wood; age of wood, type of wood, and size of wood

C. FLAVORS Blueberry, blackberry, cassis (black currant), black raspberry, black plum, pepper (whblack), cinnamon, anise, prune, oak, soy, chocolate (cocoa), smoke, sausage (meat) toast/char, violet.

Gamay

A. GROWN 1. America

a) California: Napa, Sonoma, Monterey, “Bay Area”, Central Valley b) Oregon

s France: BeaujolaiLUE S

maceration) FLAVORS

cinnamon, clove, rose petal, jasmine, violet, cranberry Raspberry, strawberry

GROWN 1. America

b) TexaFrance: Provence, Midi, and Southern Rhone

. Africa, Australia ES

pe, berries, cinnamon, prune, tea, soy, p

Here are a few tips for serving nd joyin

What to loo

ol rom termine a wine’s quality:

Whe (your nose can pick up over 2000 distinct

as that translate into only four tastes—sweet, sour, bitter, and salty). So swirl a glass, and take a big sniff! A w b l that counts.

How to open it Take a sharp blade and cut around the top foil about a quarter-inch below the bottle’s rim. Wipe

the rim clean, and remove the cork with a corkscrew, found in most any grocery or house wares stor

ow ld? “Ro ine be s e to cool it down—but always avoid putting wine in the freezer. Otherwise the general rule of thumb is

storage for long-term storage of reds (older

the style the warmer and the lighter bodied the style cooler within the parameters given for both red and white.

What to drink it from?

Lots of different glasses aren’t necessary. The all-purpose tulip or the classic “balloon” shape work fine. For champagne, always use a flute—a saucer-shaped glass will make all those delightful bubbles disappear. But if you want to get the most from your wines, I recommend the

del Crystal from

Wh ser

Muc many good combinations exist, rules are made to be broken. What’s most important is enjoyment. You’ll

e ideas all through this course that will make it easy to discover delicious wine and food ry own “match made in heaven”!

How uch

For simp you 5 glasses of wine of approximately 5 ounces each (standard).

For a large party, figure on 60 glasses of wine per case.

Cor t WinIntroductio

A. service” will vary depending on the restaurant. s one need a sommelier?

Restaurant is large, formal and employs sommeliers Restaurant is semi formal, choose to highlight wines but not with sommelier

wine service is different than “very good” and proficient service. o the theatre, it’s all the same!

2. It’s anceCorrect serving temperature

Wh d ld 1. 2.

r temperatures for more complex delicate dry whites, especially Chardonnay

sert wines: 41-46ºF

B. 1. Often served TOO warm

a en g wines:

k for? C or, a a, and taste de

ether red, white or rosé, the color must be clear and brilliant The aroma gives a good idea of the wine’s tast

arom

ine s uldho e tasted first and foremost with enjoyment in mind. Do you like it? That’s al

?

e.

H co How warm? om temperature” comes from the days before central heating; when it’s suggested that a w

erved that way, it means at about 65Fº or 17Cº. Feel free to put even red wine in the fridg

45Fº or 7 Cº storage for whites and 55Fº or 12Cº vintages) and 58Fº to 60ºF or 15Cº for reds expected to be served sooner. Also, the fuller bodied

investment in a set of glasses made especially for the different varietals such as Rie Austria.

at to ve it with? h has been made lately of wine and food pairing, and it’s easy to get confused. While

sepairings. And you’ll find your ve

m to serve? le gath gs orerin intimate dinners, a standard 750 ml bottle (25.4 ounces) will give

rec e Service

n “Perfect wine1. Doe2. Restaurant is small and informal 3.4.

B. “Perfect” 1. If y u take away

a ch to “show your stuff”

A. ite wines: chille but not coOften Served TOO cold. Ideal range 45-55/57ºF

3. Warme4. Roses and med-light whites 45-50ºF 5. Des6. Sparkling wines 50ºF Red wines: cool, cellar temperature, NOT room temperature.

2. “Room temperature” – You should think of it as the room the WINE likes to live in, i.e. LLAR temperature

3. Will vary with weight and structure of wine. Ideal range 55-65ºF

50-57ºF 6. Fuller bodied reds 55-62ºF

Ope

A.

B. SPORTING – Remove bottle from the bin GENTLY. Either place in a cradle/basket, or it slowly to a vertical position and allow the sediment (if any) to tumble slowly down the

C.

sts.

E.

F.

VAL - Do not turn the bottle and do not pick the bottle up off the table if you

H. o

– Make sure you wipe the lip thoroughly both before and after you remove the

CE

4. 5. Light reds (fruity and low tannin)

ning and serving a bottle of wine

STORAGE – All bottles of red wine should be stored label up so that one knows on which side the sediment would settle. TRANmove side of the bottle. From this point on the bottle should be kept in an upright position. APPROVAL – Present the bottle from the right of the person who ordered it. Upon approval, place the bottle down gently on the corner of the table on a coaster or plate with the label facing the gue

D. SIDE STAND – You may use a side stand or adjacent table if it is convenient, but make certain that you are in full view of the guest. WHITE WINES - should be opened either on the table on a coaster or plate where room permits, or in an ice bucket. IN-HAND opening is not acceptable for a white or red wine. Sparkling wines are permitted in a bucket. NEVER open an older bottle of red wine in the air on any occasion.

G. FOIL REMOhave started it there. Cut the foil below the lower lip. The cut should be neat and complete!Pocket the foil. WIPING BOTTLE – White wines being removed from an ice bucket should be wiped so as tnot drip on the table.

I. WIPING LIPcork. Never touch the mouth of the bottle or lip with your fingers.

J. NAPKIN USE – If you must remove a stray piece of cork or tartar deposits, use the corner of a napkin. Always make certain that when you put it back on your forearm that any soiled spots are folded back, not visible to the guests.

ORK – insert the point of the corkscrew off center in the cork to ensure the auger

re to the right of the taster. It is

Pour an ounce or two for tasting. Stand back to the host’s right and make certain label is clearly in view. Wait for the taster’s approval.

ace, logistics, style of taura

gardless of seating proximity to

o

kwise around the table serving women

last, regardless of gender. filled no more than half to two-thirds full (particularly with

wine er). Rule of thumb: the larger the glass the less you pour.

e glass to the next. If you have tep from the table after each

ottle back on the table to the she choose to pour for them, and always with

K. PULLING Cgoes down the center of the cork. Screw it down until all the turns have disappeared (without penetrating the cork) and lever the cork out of the bottle.

L. THE CORK – The cork should be placed without fanfaappropriate to place the cork on some sort of holder/plate, but not necessary.

M. TASTING –the

N. guidelines, although spPOURING – The following are generalres nt etc.. may all dictate variances. 1. If there is a guest of honor, he or she is poured first re

the host. person wh2. If a couple, the “other” person should be served first, then the host/

ordered. ld move cloc3. If a group situation, then one shou

e men. first, then th4. The host is always served

O. FILL LEVEL – Glasses should be rgred s as glasses are often la

1. When in doubt, short pour, especially if you have concern that the bottle would not otherwise make it around the table.

2. Make sure that the pouring level is consistent from onp a sdifficulty gauging from a close up position, back u

pour to get a sense and your bearings. P. ase of a red wine, place the bBOTTLE PLACEMENT – In the c

right of the host and within range, should he or

the label facing the host. Make sure the wine is on a coaster or small plate. It should never come in contact with the table.

Service goe

A.

e bucket

to host’s right, within reach.

D.

F.

s beyond opening and pouring Ask about white wine temperature 1. Perhaps a chiller is more appropriate than a bucket. 2. It may be too cold.

B. Napkin placement on a win1. Wrapping is inappropriate. 2. A thin rectangle draped across the bucket. 3. Bucket should be placed

C. When pouring additional amounts: pour host last, regardless. Ask if you can bring another bottle and bring a fresh tasting glass.

E. Do NOT assume refills automatically’ always allow the option of refusing. Remove glassware of people not drinking; it can confuse both you and others who may beworking your table.

G. Decanting

1. WHY? a) To separate the clear wines from any of its’ sediment or residue.

g perature.

ould be l plate

erts the

oth situations, be careful not to agitate the bottle as you extract the cork.

hter, and upon both lighting

over the label of the bottle (so you will be

f the bottle 4-6 inches above the candle and

b) To allow the wine to breathe more effectively. c) To remove the wine from a cold bottle to a room temperature vessel to brin

the wine to a more appropriate temd) Theatre

2. HOW? a) TRANSPORTATION – Wine is transported to the table as described earlier.

b) TOOLS – Upon bringing the wine to the table, the tools for decanting shthere already or brought immediately thereafter: candle, decanter, smalfor cork if appropriate, etc…

c) If opening the bottle in an upright manner, proceed as above, opening always on a guerdon or the table.

d) CRADLE – If in a cradle, the bottle should be grasped firmly as one insauger of the corkscrew so as to insure a clean centered entry. After cork removal, the cradle is no longer of use and the bottle should be delicately removed from the cradle for the actual decanting process.

e) In bf) CANDLE – After presentation of the cork and lip wiping, light your candle. The

candle should be lit with matches rather than a ligthe match and extinguishing it, one should have his or her back at an angle from the guest to help shield the sulfur odors. Extinguish the match and place on candleholder.

g) DECANTING – Place your palmholding it in bin position) and grasp the neck of the decanter with your other hand.

(1) Position the neck oslightly behind, so it does not smoke.

(2) As you begin to pour the wine from the bottle into the decanteyo

r, ur eyes are focused where the shoulder of the bottle joins

eck, so the remaining foil will not be in the way (although T incorrect to remove the entire foil for a wine that will nted).

f the bottle against the decanter; should flow down the side of the decanter without r noise.

, slow, steady motion, Keep your eyes esidue pass. ediment approaches, raise the

ave been poured, y bottle behind the

ise. In the case of several decanted bottles, the wine bottle can serve as

Sparkling Wine Service A. Preliminaries

1. Never open a non-chilled bottle (even if guests are impatient). It WILL almost always explosively foam over.

2. If not pre-chilled, 10-15 minutes in ice from cellar temperature should be adequate. 3. Ice bucket mixture: 50/50 crushed ice and water. 4. Both opening in hand and in bucket are ok.

B. In-hand opening 1. Hold the bottle firmly in your hand, grasping the upper shoulder of bottle. 2. With your hand or thumb firmly over the cork (and napkin over the cork) untwist the wire

cage and loosen the wire gently without removing the foil. Do NOT remove the cage. 3. Grasp the napkin cork firmly in one hand, holding the bottle at 45º angles.

ur other hand to loosen the cork. Do not pull at the cork. it to ease

out ve6. After the cork is removed from the bottle, let the bottle remain at 45º for a few seconds, to

preve7. Dislodge the cork from the wire cage and pres

r as you would any other. The thumb-in-the-punt position is

9. The w 10. Corre h

glass at aan inch fr

11. The bunwrinkle

A. The bottleopening the b

B. After removing it clean of any w

the nit is NObe deca

(3) You should not rest the neck othe wine

re ofanfa(4) Pour in one continual

focused. You may let the wispy r

(5) As the “snake” of heavier dark sbottle gracefully to stop the flow.

h) Have the host taste the wine as usual, and when all guests hthe wine decanter is placed in front of the host with the emptdecanter until the wine is consumed or unless the host requests you to do otherwidentification of which wine is in which decanter.

4. Twist the bottle with yo5. Resist the pressure of the cork as it dislodges itself from the bottle, and allow

hiss” or “sigh.” ry slowly. There should be no “pop”, rather a light “

nt overflow. ent it to the host as you would any other.

8. Hold the bottle toaccep l

poutab e, but considered affected by many. ine should be tasted as usual. ct c ampagne service is performed in one or two pours, but if two pours, pour one

time. Letting the mousse subside in between. In flute glasses. Leave at least om the top.

ottle should then be placed in either a bucket or cooler and left with a clean, d napkin.

In bucket opening in the bucket is already at 45-degree angle. Remove the foil and proceed in

ottle as above. the cork for presentation, slowly remove the bottle from the bucket, wipingater and moisture that might drip on the table or guests.

Procedures for Opening a Bottle of Still Wine

1. Display bottle to host—label first with a folded napkin underneath 2. Cut foil under the lip and place foil in your pocket 3. Insert worm into the cork after wiping the top of the cork with damp

cloth 4. Slowly remove the cork with out popping. Make sure the worm has

not penetrated the bottom of the cork. 5. W ipe the inside of the bottle neck to remove any residue from the

cork. 6. Pour a 1/2 ounce sample in a glass and evaluate for soundness 7. Serve one (1) ounce sample to host for final approvals

ALWAYS TRY TO OPEN WINE ON A GUERIDON. IF NOT CORNER OF THE GUEST TABLE OR SIDE STAND IN VIEW OF GUEST. NOT IN THE AIR.

Section 3 – The Wines of France Overview of the Regions, Wines & Grapes of France

Champagne

Historical Overview Champagne wines have illuminated our lives for centuries with their style and grandeur. A holy wine until medieval times, the wine was blessed and drunk during mass. The wines of Champagne were given a unique destiny when the paths of geography and history crossed. It was Saint Rémi, bishop of Rheims, while living in a villa surrounded by vineyards near to the present town of Epérnay, who baptized Clovis, King of the Franks in Reims, when he converted. He was anointed with wine from the Champagne region one Christmas evening in 496. Several centuries later, the marriage of Jeanne de Navarre, heiress of Champagne, to the heir to the French throne, later Philip the Fair, linked the destiny of the Lords of Champagne to the crown of France. Blessed by history Between 898 and 1825 the kings of France were crowned in Reims, at the heart of the Champagne region. At the accompanying festivities, Champagne flowed freely. The wines were appreciated for their taste and finesse, and were to become the wines offered in homage to any visiting monarchs. Francis I received a few casks, as did Mary Stuart (later Mary Queen of Scots); while Louis XVI was offered several hundred pints for his coronation.

From the 12th century onwards, Champagne's reputation began to cross borders and their prestige grew continuously. As they grew in notoriety and were appreciated by the greats of this world, Champagne wines were the chosen wines for celebrations and major events. From Still to Sparkling In the beginning, the wines of Champagne were still, light and crisp. However, it was only from the end of the 17th century that they became sparkling wines. This made them the uncontested Kings of the world's celebrations. The Champenois, already dedicated to the unstinting search for excellence, made two fundamental advances. First was the pressing of black grapes to produce white wine. This inspired idea enabled the Champenois to produce a white wine of great purity and shine, as well as prolonging the life of the wine by up to 3 to 4 years. A slow but progressive pressing was needed, the general principles of which are still in use today. The second great advancement was capturing the sparkle. At the beginning, the natural fermentation of the wines began in the autumn, slowing with the onset of the winter chill in the cellars. The wines retained a proportion of their sugar and as soon as the temperature began to rise with the arrival of spring, the fermentation started again. However, as the wines were kept in large barrels, the effervescence escaped. When bottles replaced barrels, the wines natural sparkle remained imprisoned until they were opened. This is how Champagne wines found their sparkle. Wine Laws in Champagne Vineyards have been planted in Champagne ever since the beginning of our era. Although its surface area has been reduced over time, its unique characteristics were recognized very early on and the defense of its Appellations d’Origine (AOC) was the first to be accepted. The AOC is administered by the Institut National des Appellations d’Origine. As well as the delimitation of the area, the Appellation carries 35 rules to uphold the quality of Champagne wines; only 3 grape varieties are permitted, yields in both the vineyard and during pressing are limited, the pruning of vines, their height, spacing and density, harvesting must be done by hand and minimum aging periods among other things are all controlled. Regions & Grapes of Champagne The main regions of Champagne are; the Mountain of Reims, where the vineyards snake along the slopes between the plateau and the valleys of the Andre and Vesle in the region’s national park; the Marne Valley, where the slopes flank the river on both sides, following its curves as it meanders from Aÿ to beyond Château-Thierry in the Aisne; the Côtes des Blancs, where the vineyards follow the slopes that run from Epèrnay in the north down to the slopes around the town of Sézanne; the Côtes des Bars and Montgueux, where the low

hills between the river Seine and the river Aube at the southern tip of the region create the beautiful rolling countryside. The primary grapes of Champagne are:

• Chardonnay: This grape brings finesse, and provides the wine with floral and sometimes mineral aromas. Its slow development makes it ideal for aging. A white grape variety mostly planted in the Côte des Blancs.

• Pinot Noir: This noble variety imparts structure and power to the blend, as

well as aromas of red fruits. Black grape variety with white juice, it is grown mainly on the slopes of the Mountain of Reims and in the Côtes des Bar.

• Pinot Meunier: This variety is supple and fruity. Its bouquet is intense; it

develops quickly over time and gives certain roundness to a wine. Black grape variety with white juice, it is grown mainly in the Marne Valley and is characterized by its suppleness.

The Methode Champenoise (Champagne Method) The Methode Champenoise, or Champagne Method, is the only authorized method for sparkling wine production in Champagne. This method is also widely recognized as the method that produces the best quality, most complex sparkling wine. When used outside of Champagne, it is usually called the Traditional Method. Other methods of sparkling wine production will be discussed in the sections pertaining to the individual wines that employ them. Below is a description of all the steps involved. Picking, pressing and first fermentation: The grapes are picked with lower sugar and higher acid levels than for a traditional still wine. This has an effect on the style of the wine. By law, the grapes can only be picked by hand in whole clusters in order to avoid tainting of the juice, since most wine will end up being white, but starts with red grapes. The grapes are then pressed quickly to avoid any oxidation tainting. The first fermentation takes place as it would for any other still wine. The wines from different areas and from different grape varieties must be vinified and stored separately. So, Champagne starts out as a still wine.

The Cuvée: Approximately five months later, the wines are chosen and blended together in a very exhaustive (and exhausting!) fashion to form the assemblage or cuvee. This blend is what will be used to produce the sparkling wine. Usually blends consist of some proportion of wine from all three grape varieties. Achieving a consistent house style, the style of the basic Non Vintage wine produced by each individual Champagne house, is very important since it is the backbone of production and the ‘signature’ of the establishment. Second Fermentation in Bottle: Once the cuvée has been tasted and determined, the wine is placed in bottles along with a small quantity of live yeast and sugar dissolved in wine, which is called the liqueur de tirage. The bottle is then sealed with a crown cap and the secondary fermentation gets underway. As the yeast get to work on the sugar, the resultant CO2 has nowhere to go and is trapped in the bottle and integrated into the wine. Ageing: The time the wine spends in contact with the dead yeast cells, the lees, which result from the fermentation and settle as a powder on the side of the bottle are one of the key components of the individuality of Champagne. Just as in the case of a good white wine, contact with these spent yeast cells results in desirable flavors, textures and complexity. Ageing requirements are minimum 15 months for non-vintage and 3 years for vintage. Riddling: After sufficient ageing, the bottles are ready for their riddling (remuage in French), the process by which the clear wine is separated from the yeast residue. There are two processes for doing this, both resulting in the settling of the yeast deposit on the crown cap. In traditional riddling the bottles are placed in a level position and gradually moved to an almost inverted position in A-frame racks. Riddlers, the people who performed this time and work intensive process, rotate and ‘bang’ the bottles, every time leaving them at a more acute angle. Eventually all the residue settles in the neck, an the bottle ends up in an almost vertical position. The modern alternatives are VLM’s or Gyropalettes. These are machines that mimic the actions of riddling, mechanically and on a larger scale. The bottles are placed in a steel cage and a computer program moves the cage a fraction of a turn at a time, resulting in more efficient and large scale riddling. Disgorgement: After riddling, bottles are gently placed upside down (so as not to disturb the residue which has settled) in a shallow bath containing a sub-freezing liquid which freezes the liquid in the neck of the bottle into an ice plug containing the yeast deposit. The bottles are then removed from this bath and the crown opened. The ice plug pops out under pressure removing the yeast. Dosage: The amount of liquid lost in this process is replaced accompanied by a small amount of sweetened wine, called the dosage. The wine is bone dry at this point and the dosage level determines the sweetness level of the finished wine.

Bottling: The finished wine is now corked, caged and foiled. It is ready to sell, although most houses will let the wine rest (and the cork mold to the bottle) for a minimum of six months.

The Styles of Champagne Non-Vintage: The majority of sparkling wine produced falls under this category. Non-vintage is the Champagne style that represents an individual producer’s ‘house style’. The object is to make a consistent albeit evolving wine; one that can be recognized world wide, year in and year out. There are no rules governing percentages in the blend. Vintage: A sparkling wine made entirely (at least 95%) from fruit from a single vintage. This is generally only done in the best years. Vintage is not an automatic guarantee of quality, but in general vintage Champagnes can be aged longer and are definitely more expensive. Vintage can be of any type: in both production method and blend. Blanc de Blancs: This is a white wine made entirely from Chardonnay grapes. This style of wine is considered to be the lightest and most subtle. They can be both non-vintage and vintage dated. Blanc de Noirs: This is a white wine made from red grapes only. These wines tend show just a touch of pink or beige hues. Most commonly associated with wines made almost exclusively from the Pinot Noir grape. They can be both non-vintage and vintage dated. Rosé: The rosé color comes from red wine in one of two ways; blending of white and red wines, or traditional rosé vinification by controlled pigment bleeding into the wine during skin contact. They can be both non-vintage and vintage dated.

Cuvée Prestige or Tête du Cuvée: The top wine produced by each Champagne house. Accounts for approximately 15% of total champagne sales in the United States. Recognizable names of such wines would include Moët’s Dom Perignon, Roederer’s Cristal, and Mumm’s Grand Cordon. Although no legal regulations rule their production, they generally made from the best grapes from the best villages. Cremant: A somewhat confusing term. In Champagne, Cremant is a style of sparkling wine with less pressure than regular Champagne (3-4 vs. 5-6 atmospheres in the bottle), which means fewer, less aggressive bubbles. Also, Cremant is the French name for sparkling wines produced by the Method Champenoise but in areas French wine producing areas outside of France. Popular ones include Cremant d’Alsace, Cremant de Bourgogne and Cremant de la Loire. Thse are fully sparkling wines just like Champagne. The Levels of ‘Sweetness’ of Champagne: The style, in the chart below, represents the legend that will appear on the label. Perception indicates the sweetness perceived when tasting. The residual sugar percentages may vary somewhat from produced to producer.

Style Perception Approximate

Residual Sugar %

Brut Nature Bone dry 0.0 – 0.5% sugar Brut No apparent sweetness 0.5 – 1.5% Extra Dry Off-dry 1.2 – 2.0% Sec Slight sweetness 1.7 – 3.5% Demi-Sec Sweet 3.3 – 5.0% Doux (rare) Very sweet More than 5%

Special Considerations for Tasting Sparkling Wines Sparkling wines are the most difficult category to taste and judge. Setup: The glassware must be spotless. Any residue or soap scum will ruin the bubbles, if not eliminate them altogether. Flutes or special champagne glasses must be used in order to enhance the bubbles and the taster’s ability to see them. Appearance: When tasting sparkling wines, the size and uniformity of the bubbles is an indicator of quality. They should flow in strong streams to the top of the flute and form a visible yet not heavy crown around the rim of the glass. An older sparkling wine will have less bubbles; this is not a fault, just the natural effect of ageing. The color should be more green/hay-like in a chardonnay-based wine; more golden/yellow in a dark grape based wine.

Aromas: The best sparkling wines develop layers of aroma. The primary aromas include fruity, grapey notes. The secondary aromas are alcoholic/ester complexity and earthy, mineral notes. Tertiary aromas include yeasty, biscuity or bready aromas. Specific aromas include: lemon, citrus, apple, fern, honey, floral, toasty, biscuit, hazelnut, yeasty, doughy, bread, creamy. Alsace Protected from oceanic influence by the Vosges Mountains, Alsace enjoys practically the lowest rainfall in France (400-500mm per year) and is blessed with a semi-continental climate, sunny, hot and dry. This climate is ideal for slow, extended ripening of the grapes, giving wines with elegant, complex aromas.

The geology of Alsace is a genuine mosaic, made up of granite, limestone, gneiss, schist and sandstone. Such varied soils bring out the best in each different grape variety. The vineyards extend for one hundred kilometers from north to south along the eastern foothills of the Vosges, at 200-400m of altitude. Alsace’s Appellation System The appellation system for Alsace is one of the easiest in France. There are two levels: Alsace AC and Alsace Grand Cru AC. For Alsace AC, or Vin d’Alsace, the label will generally show the name of the grape variety used. It may also show a brand name or the word Edelzwicker if the is a blend Alsace Grand Cru AC status is given only to wines which satisfy particularly strict quality standards. They must come from specific vineyards, have a certain degree of natural ripeness and must pass a tasting test by a panel of experts. The label must show the grape variety and only the ‘noble’ grapes, Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris and Muscat are permitted. The vintage and the name of one of the fifty defined vineyards, which are entitled to Grand Cru status must

also appear on the label. The Alsace Grand Cru System was established in 1975 and only 50 vineyards are entitled to this status. The Styles of Alsatian Wine The vast majority of Alsatian wines are varietal wines, in other words, made from a single grape variety. Much like the wines of New World countries, the name of the grape variety will appear on the label. The exception to varietal wines is Edelzwicker, which consists of a blend of 2 or more grape varieties. Around 90% of the wine produced is white, and most of the wines will be vinified dry (with the exception of VT and SGN wines, which are discussed below). All Alsatian still white wines have to be bottled in Alsatian flutes, which are long and slender. Crémant d'Alsace is the name given to the sparkling wines of Alsace. Delicate and lively, they are made by the traditional method (as in Champagne), mainly from Pinot Blanc, but also from Pinot Gris, Pinot Noir, Riesling or Chardonnay. Vendages Tardives (VT): The term translates as ‘late harvest’ wines are made from the same varieties as those authorized for Grand Cru's (see below). Grapes are picked when over-ripe, often several weeks after the official start of the harvest. These wines are always sweet. Sélections de Grains Nobles: This translates to ‘selection of noble grapes’, wines come exclusively from grapes affected by noble rot, harvested in successive pickings. The character of the grape variety is overshadowed by the concentration yielding powerful wines with great complexity and exceptional length on the palate. These wines are always sweet. The most important grape varieties used in Alsace and are: Muscat d’Alsace is dry and very different from the sweet Muscats of the South of France. It is very aromatic and reveals the true flavor of the fresh grape. Sylvaner is a remarkably fresh and light wine with a delicate flavor. Refreshing and easy to enjoy. Pinot Blanc, well rounded yet delicate, combines freshness and softness. Pinot Gris develops a characteristic roundness and opulence in Alsace. Rich, full-bodied, with a long finish and complex aroma. Pinot Noir is the only Alsace variety used to produce red or rosé wines, characteristically fruity with hints of cherry. Vinified as a red wine it can be aged in oak casks, which adds grater structure and complexity to its aromas.

Riesling is made dry, refined and delicately fruity, with an elegant bouquet of mineral or floral notes and naturally high acidity. Acknowledged as one of the finest white grape varieties in the world. Gewurztraminer is full-bodied and well structured. Its intense bouquet displays rich aromas of fruit, flowers and spices (gewurz means spice). Powerful and seductive, sometimes slightly sweet, it often ages well. The Loire Valley The Loire Valley is a region that encompasses a wide variety of wine styles. It is an enormous region that flanks the Loire river from Central France until it opens to the Atlantic Ocean. The climate of the region goes from classic maritime in the Pays Nantais in the west to classic Continental in the Central Vineyards – and everything else in between! Central Vineyards The two most important appellations of the central vineyards are Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé. The grape that made this region famous Sauvignon Blanc. Sancerre is known for concentration and intensity, and Pouilly-Fumé is considered more delicate and displays a flinty aroma. Other Sauvignon Blanc producing regions include Quincy, Reuilly, Menetou Salon. Sancerre Rouge, made from Pinot Noir, is earthy and light. The Touraine The Touraine is the next region following the flow of the river from the Central Vineyards. Its quality production is dominated by the Chenin Blanc and Cabernet Franc grapes. Vouvray is the most famous white wine of the region and is produced in a diversity of styles from the Chenin Blanc grape. In some years, when grapes attain a high level of ripeness, they are vinified into a very sweet version of Vouvray. During average vintages most of the Vouvray produced is still slightly sweet, but not overly so, and is balanced by a healthy dose of acidity. The least ripe of the grapes in any vintage will be used to produce a sparkling Vouvray. Further downriver are the appellations of Chinon and Bourgueil, both producing dry red wines from the Cabernet Franc grape. Chinon is known for producing more delicate wines than Bourgueil, which sits across the river. Both, however, may be produced in either an early-drinking fruitier style, or in a more serious, age-worthy oak aged style.

Another important appellation is Touraine AC, which produces wines from Sauvignon Blanc and Gamay grapes. In good vintages these are great value wines. Anjou-Saumur This region produces a very wide range of wine styles. Dry, rich whites from Chenin Blanc in Savennieres; deep, rich dessert wines in the Coteaux du Layon from the same grape; reds and rosés are also a specialty of the region, as are their sparkling wines.

The Saumur appellation includes the famous sparkling wines of the region, made mostly from the Chenin Blanc grape in the Traditional Method. Saumur-Champigny AOC is an appellation producing very popular wines from the Cabernet Franc grape that some consider to be the best reds of the entire region. Another important product of the region is rosé wine in several styles. The Rosé d’Anjou is made from a blend of red grapes, is slightly sweet and generally not too interesting; some consider it the French white zinfandel. Cabernet d’Anjou is the highest quality rosé of the region, made from a blend of Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and is generally off-dry. The region of Savennieres on the north side of the river produces dry wines from the Chenin Blanc grape with incredible richness and concentration due to the long, dry ripening season. On the southern banks of the river, along the banks of the Layon (a tributary of the Loire) are the vineyards of the Coteaux du Layon which include Quarts de Chaume and Bonnezeaux, two areas known for producing some of the finest dessert wines in the world from grapes affected by Botrytis, or noble rot. Pays Nantais Here the vineyards lie very close to the Atlantic and the climate is fully maritime. The star grape of the region is the Muscadet (also know as the Melon de Bourgogne). Wines made from this grape are almost neutral in aroma with subtle grassy, citrusy notes and high acidity. They are ideal wines to accompany the fresh seafood of the region. There are three appellations for the production of Muscadet. Muscadet AOC is the most general. Muscadet

de Sevre et Maine AOC is produced in a better subregion. The best wines of the region come from the Muscadet de Sevre et Maine Sur Lie AOC which are wines bottled directly from the tank where the fermentation took place (hence the sur lie or ‘on the lees’ designation), the year following the harvest. This type of aging adds a bit more body and complexity and sometimes leaves a very gentle prickle of CO2 in the wine.

The Rhône Valley

General The Rhône region is around 125 miles in length and covers an are of 58,000 hectares of AOC vineyards. The Northern Rhône region starts south of the city of Vienne, and is composed of a series of granite slopes and hillsides specializing mainly in the production of wines based on the Syrah grape. The Southern Rhône, around the city of Avignon, is much warmer and flatter, producing wines based on the Grenache grape, with a large array of other grapes added to the blend. The Southern Rhône By volume, the most important AOC is Côtes du Rhône AOC, which is one of France’s largest, producing mostly red wines based on the Grenache grape with the addition of Mourvedre, Syrah and an array of other local varieties. Côtes du Rhône AOC is the general level appellation for the Rhône valley. Côtes du Rhône-Villages AOC is a wine produced from wines from selected villages which produce wines of higher quality. 16 of those villages are entitled to include their

name on the label. These wines tend to be of higher quality that basic CdR’s and represent good value. The two most famous dessert wines produced in the region fall under the Vin Doux Naturels category (fortified dessert wines). Muscat de Beaumes de Venise is made from the Muscat grape and Rasteau is made with the Grenache grape. Both of these are very sweet, potent wines fit for aging. Another important red wine producing village is Gigondas. It received AOC status in 1971 and has become famous for great wine at affordable prices. Gigondas produces red wines from Grenache (up to 65%), with the balance being Syrah and Mourvedre. Châteauneuf-du-Pape is the most famous appellation of the region. It has been an AOC since 1923, the first official AOC in France. Thirteen grapes are allowed for the production of this wine! In practice, the blends tend to consist primarily of Grenache with Syrah, Mourvedre and Cinsault forming the majority of the blend. White Châteauneuf-du-Pape accounts for a small percentage of the total production. The Northern Rhône Valley Heading north from the Southern Rhône region, one of the first appellations is Cornas, which produces wine from 100% Syrah grapes. These outstanding wines have exceptional structure and complexity and are sometimes dubbed ‘the poor man’s Hermitage’. Hermitage is the most famous appellation of the region. It sits on a south-facing hillside and produces some of the fullest bodied and most long-lived wines of the region. The wines are made mostly from Syrah grapes but can have up to 15% white grapes added. Around 20% of the wine produced is white, made from the Marsanne and Rousanne grapes. Crozes-Hermitage is a large region producing wines around the are of Hermitage from the same blend of grapes, but of much more inferior quality. The vineyards sit in flatter areas with mixed soils, and produce wines of inconsistent quality. It is important to know the small producers in this region and seek out wines only from the best. Saint-Joseph produces very attractive wines, mainly from the Syrah grape. These are considered the lightest bodied and fruitiest of the region and have a great reputation for quality. Château Grillet and Condrieu are two AOCs devoted to the production of white wine from the aromatic and rich Viognier grape. These wines tend to be very expensive because they are quite rare and very high in quality. Chateau Grillet is one of the smallest AOCs in France.

Côte-Rôtie, or ‘the roasted slope’, is one of the highest quality regions in the Rhône, producing wines from Syrah with up to 15% white grapes added. The wines from this northernmost area of the appellation have become extremely popular and have prices to match. The outstanding ones are complex and long-lived examples of the Syrah grape at its best.

Bordeaux

General Bordeaux sets the standard for Cabernet Sauvignon based wines the world over. Aside form being the largest AOC region in France, it is also one of the larges quality vineyard areas in the world. Within its confines are produced some of the most sought after wines in the world. Bordeaux lies on France’s Atlantic coast and is divided in half by the Gironde River estuary. The majority of its output is of red wine. Bordeaux’s appellation and ranking system is centered around the concept of the chateau, or the self-sufficient, wine producing house. In Bordeaux the chateaux themselves are ranked, and the rankings are not affected by changing of ownership at the chateau or the addition (or loss) of vineyard area. The Chateaux are like brands, in a sense. In other parts of France, particularly in Burgundy, what is ranked is the land where the grapes are grown, not the producer. The various rankings of the chateau of Bordeaux are included in the section corresponding to each region.

Grape Varieties The wines of Bordeaux are almost always blends of grapes. The reason for this is mainly a practical one, since the variable climate forces the producer to rely on a number of different grapes that ripen at different times. The red grapes: Cabernet Sauvignon: This late-ripening variety is the classic red grape of Bordeaux. It produces deeply colored, tannic wines with great acidity levels with great aging potential. Its aromas are very distinctive and complex, and they evolve into a beautiful bouquet with time in the bottle. Merlot: Softer and rounder than Cabernet, they are often blended together. Merlot ages faster and softens up Cabernet’s sometimes rough edges. Merlot is a great grape in its own right, producing some of the most famous wines of the region. Cabernet Franc: Lighter than Cabernet Sauvignon, it is a mainstay of most blends, particularly in regions where Merlot is the dominant grape. Malbec & Petit Verdot: These grapes are used like seasonings to add the finishing touches to the blends. In some areas wines may contain higher proportions of Malbec, which here produces wines meant for early drinking. The white grapes: Sauvignon Blanc: Crisp and high in acidity this grape is used for both dry and sweet wines. It is aromatic, displaying grassy, herbaceous notes. Sémillon: This grape yields full-bodied wines that are not very aromatic and may be low in acidity, especially when used in dessert wines. Sauvignon Blanc adds the acidity and the sharper aromatics; most whites consist of a blend of the two. Muscadelle: This is a very aromatic grape with a floral nose that is used to add more complex aromas to the blends; always used in small proportions. Regions of Bordeaux The banks of Bordeaux: Bordeaux is divided into two banks that sit across from each other, divided by three rivers: the Left Bank, containing the regions of the Médoc and Graves, and the Right Bank, containing the regions of St.-Emilion and Pomerol, among others. The Left Bank contains a high proportion of gravel in the soils, which is ideal for ripening Cabernet Sauvignon, and as a result, the wines from this bank

contain a high proportion of the grape in the blend. On the Right Bank, the soils are mostly clay-covered limestone, which is not conducive to the production of Cabernet Sauvignon, but is very well suited for Merlot; the wines of the Right Bank are usually blends of Merlot blended with Cabernet Franc. Virtually no Cabernet Sauvignon is grown on the Right Bank. The Left Bank The Haut-Médoc: The Haut-Médoc is the southern part of the Médoc, and is the sub-region where some of the most important communes and chateaux of Bordeaux are located. Since this is the left bank, the soils are gravelly and the main grape in the blends is the Cabernet Sauvignon, along Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Malbec, Petit Verdot. The Haut-Médoc is a sort of catch-all appellation that covers the whole region, and within this larger region are smaller individual communes. Below is a list of the most important communes of the Haut-Médoc.

• St-Estéphe: This is the northernmost of the communes and sits on hilly, gravelly terrain. This commune contains no First Growths, but there are several Classed Growth and Cru Bourgeois properties within its boundaries; Ch Cos d’Estournel (Second Growth), Ch Montrose (Second Growth); Ch Calon Segur (Third Growth). This wines are hearty and full.

• Pauillac: South of St-Estéphe, this town contains three of the five First

Growths of Bordeaux: Ch Lafite, Ch Latour and Ch Mouton. These wines are intense but supremely well balanced.

• St-Julien: Smallest of the important communes, south of Pauillac. 75%

of the classified growths are in this village, but no First Growths. Ch Leoville-Las Cases (called a ‘Super Second, as many think drinks like a first growth), Château Beychevelle. These wines are known for being powerful yet elegant.

• Moulis and Listrac: These two villages contain few recognizable

names. The bes are Château Poujeaux, Château Maucaillou, Château Chasse-Spleen and Château Clarke.

• Margaux: Largest top commune of the Haut-Medoc. This commune

contains many classed growths and one First Growth, Ch Margaux. Wines from this region are elegant and fragrant.

The Classfication of 1855: A classification of the chateaus of Bordeaux was commissioned by Napoleon for Exposition Universelle that would take place in Paris that year. The ranking was made by the local chamber of commerce and was base on the prices currently fetched by the wines. This classification has remained unchanged, except for one exception, since that time. The classification ranked the wines of the Haut-Médoc (red wine only), Sauternes-Barsac (dessert wines only) and one wine from Graves. It goes as follows: For the Haut-Médoc:

• Premier Cru (First Growth): 5 chateau (Ch Mouton-Rotschild was promoted to First Growth in 1973, and Ch Haut-Brion is the only chateau from outside the Haut-Médoc that was included in the classification).

• Deuxième Cru (Second Growth): 14 chateaus are in this class. • Troisième Cru (Third Growth): 14 chateaus here also. • Quatrième Cru (Fourth Growth): 10 chateaus. • Cinquième Cru (Fifth Growth): 18 chateaus.

For Sauterenes-Barsac:

• Premier Grand Cru Classe: Only one chateau here, Ch d’Yquem. • Premier Cru: 11 chateaus. • Deuxième Cru: 14 chateaus.

Since the 1855 classification included so few chateaus, a second ranking system, Cru Bourgeois, was created in 1932. This classification includes wine from the whole Médoc region (not just the Haut-Médoc). Over 400 chateau were originally ranked, but when the classification was revised for the third time in 2003 only 247 properties made the cut. Some sued, saying that the ranking was unfair and biased, and the classification has been suspended and is currently in limbo. The classification is divided into the following rankings:

• Cru Bourgeois Exceptionnel • Cru Bourgeois Superieur • Cru Bourgeois

The last ranking of the region is the Cru Artisan, which applies to very small chateau. A little over forty chateau are included in this classification. Graves: This is the next region south of the Médoc and includes the famous commune of Sauternes and the sub-region of Pessac-Leognan. The city of Bordeaux itself sits right north of the Pessac-Leognan. The style of the wines in this region is less ‘glossy’ than in the Médoc, but earthier and lighter.

Most of the best dry white wines of Bordeaux are produced in the Graves region, so the white wines of Bordeaux will be discussed here as well. Below are some of the sub regions of Graves.

• Pessac-Leognan: This relatively recently created sub region contains many of the best properties in the region. The most famous of all, and the only wine from outside the Médoc that was included in the 1855 classification is in this region: Ch Haut-Brion, one of the most famous wines in the world and one of the First Growths of Bordeaux.

• Sauternes: Sauternes is the name of a commune, but the appellation extends to the other four nearby communes of Bommes, Fargues, Barsac and Preignac. The wines of Sauternes are made with grapes affected by Botrytis Cinerea, or Noble Rot, which is a type of mold that attacks grapes under very specific conditions: misty mornings and dry afternoons. The mold breaks the skin of the grape, allowing water to evaporate and concentrate the sugar content and flavor of the berries. The wine is made to retain a high percentage of sugar, but at the same time a high level of acidity, which makes the wine balanced and refreshing although it is very sweet. Sémillon is the main grape used, with Sauvignon Blanc for acidity and small amounts of Muscadelle for aroma. The sweet wines of Sauternes were included in the 1855 classification.

• Dry White Wines: The best of these wines are made from Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon in the region of Graves. Here, the wines are often aged in oak and sometimes even fermented in oak. White Bordeaux is one of the great white wines of the world, and the best examples can age for decades. (Entre-deux-Mers, located between the Garonne and Dordogne rivers is another source of good white wines, although not of the same quality as those of the Graves). Some of these white wines are classified as part of the Graves Classification.

The Graves Classification: The list was created in 1959 and all the chateaus included in the list are classified as Cru Classe with no subdivisions or levels. The list includes chateau classified for their red wine, white wine or both red and white wines. The Right Bank The right bank of Bordeaux has a different soil composition that dictates which types of grapes will grow best there. The right bank is dominate by the Merlot and Cabernet Franc grapes, which grow better in the clay and limestone soils of the region. Below are listed the two main regions of the Right Bank:

• St-Emilion: This town has a much longer viticultural history than the Médoc as vines were planted here in Roman times. This region remained somewhat cut off from the rest of the world because of relative remoteness. Its wines display a great variety of styles depending on where the grapes are grown. The two main geographical areas are the Côtes, or hillsides below the town itself, and the the Graves, a gravelly plateau that sits closer to the Pomerol region. Styles vary widely, as does quality. The wines are made predominantly from Merlot, with Cabernet Franc added, however, the most famous wine of the region, Ch Cheval Blanc is made almost entirely from the latter.

Unlike the unchanging classification of the Haut-Médoc, the classification of St-Emilion was started in 1955 and is set to be revised every ten years (although lately there has been some contention as to the classification and it is currently suspended…). Also, this classification is built into the name of the appellation, which is unique for Bordeaux (i.e., St-Emilion Grand Cru AOC). The classification is as follows:

• St-Emilion Premier Grand Cru Classe (A): This is the top ranking and only two chateaus are in it.

• St-Emilion Premier Grand Cru Classe (B): This one includes a slightly larger number of chateaus.

• St-Emilion Grand Cru Classe: This includes a larger number of chateau, but is still a very prestigious classification.

• St-Emilion Grand Cru: This is the lowest tier before the regular appellation and contains an even larger number of chateau.

• Pomerol: This is a tiny appellation that produces outstanding wines

from the Merlot grape. The wines from this region are fleshy, plump and full of fruit and the best examples will age in bottle for decades. This area has no official classification.

Burgundy

General Burgundy is a region with centuries of tradition. Some of the plots of land that make the most famous wines of the region today were plotted out by monks many centuries ago. Burgundy is a region organized around the concept of terroir; in Burgundy’s rankings what is most important is where the grapes grow, not so much who grows them or makes them into wine. As is discussed below, in Burgundy the highest ranking goes to the vineyards themselves, in contrast with the rankings of Bordeaux, which focus on the producers. The region of Burgundy straddles across a number of departments and includes a great variety of climates and soils, from cold Chablis in the north, to sunny Beaujolais in the south. Also, the soils of the different regions vary widely and will be discussed in each individual section. The climate is continental, and the major risks are spring frosts, hail and rot at the time of harvest due to rain.

R E L A T I V E P O S I T I O N S O F T H E D I F F E R E N T A P P E L L A T I O N SR E L A T I V E P O S I T I O N S O F T H E D I F F E R E N T A P P E L L A T I O N S

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C O M M U N A LA P P E L L A T I O N S

R E G I O N A LA P P E L L A T I O N S

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G R A N D S C R U S

The Grapes of Burgundy The wines of Burgundy are made with single grape varieties, not blends like in Bordeaux. The red grapes are: Pinot Noir: The great red grape of Burgundy produces light and fruity wines at the village level and majestic and age-worthy wines in the more favored sites. Gamay: This grape is only used in the district of Beaujolais where for the most part it makes fruity, easy to drink wines. Although some more serious wines exist, it is nowhere near the quality of Pinot Noir. The white grapes are: Chardonnay: The quality white wine grape of the region. Makes crisp wine in Chablis, round and soft wine in the Cote d’Or, and fruity wines in the Maconnais. Aligoté: Used in very specific regions only. Appellation System Burgundy’s system of appellations applies to the whole region:

• General (Bourgogne AOC): Most general appellation. Wines have to be made from Pinot Noir if red, Chardonnay if white and can come from anywhere in the region.

• Regional: Includes a large district, like Chablis, or Macon. • Village: Includes a single village, like Gevrey-Chambertin, or Volnay. • Premier Cru: This classification ranks an individual vineyard. Premier cru

vineyards are the second best vineyards of the region and can be found in several appellations across the Burgundy.

• The label will indicate this status by showing both the name of the village and the name of the vineyard on the label. If the wine is a blend of several Premier Crus from one village, the village name will appear with the word Premier Cru. Some variations are possible, but these are the most common occurrences.

• Grand Cru: This classification ranks only the very best vineyards of the region.

• These vineyards are so famous that only the name of the vineyard, not the village, appears on the label. The words Grand Cru will usually appear as well, but there are exceptions.

The Burgundian classificationof A.O.C wines

23 %23 %COMMUNAL A.O.C.s

44 VILLAGEAPPELLATIONS23 %23 %

COMMUNAL A.O.C.s44 VILLAGE

APPELLATIONS

11 %11 %COMMUNAL A.O.C.swith name ofPREMIER CRU vineyard

562 PREMIER CRU VINEYARDS

11 %11 %COMMUNAL A.O.C.swith name ofPREMIER CRU vineyard

562 PREMIER CRU VINEYARDS

CATEGORY AND % SHARECATEGORY AND % SHAREOF TOTAL PRODUCTIONOF TOTAL PRODUCTION

COMMUNE

65 %65 %REGIONALA.O.C.sREGION ORREGION OR

SUBSUB--REGIONREGION

21 REGIONALAPPELLATIONS

NUMBERSNUMBERSCATEGORY AND % SHARECATEGORY AND % SHAREOF TOTAL PRODUCTIONOF TOTAL PRODUCTION

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65 %65 %REGIONALA.O.C.sREGION ORREGION OR

SUBSUB--REGIONREGION

21 REGIONALAPPELLATIONS65 %65 %

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21 REGIONALAPPELLATIONS

NUMBERSNUMBERS

1 %1 %GRAND CRU A.O.C.s CÔTE D’OR : 32CHABLIS : 1 (with 7 climats)1 %1 %GRAND CRU A.O.C.s CÔTE D’OR : 32CHABLIS : 1 (with 7 climats)

Part of the confusion regarding Burgundy’s appellations is that most vineyards are divided up among a number of producers, and each producer makes their wines somewhat differently. So quality not only varies between regions but between producers as well. Another variable is the negociant. Negociants are people or companies that buy someone else’s grapes or finished wines and sell them under their own label. More growers are starting to bottle their own wines, often called ‘domaine bottled wines’. Regions of Burgundy Chablis: Located about 130 kilometers northwest of Dijon, Chablis is Burgundy’s northernmost and coldest region. The limestone sub soils of the region are covered by a layer of Kimmeridgian clay contains a high amount of marine fossils. The only grape variety permitted under the Chablis appellation is the Chardonnay grape. The wines it produces in this region are known for their very high acidity, mineral nose and ability to age. The appellation contains 7 Grand Cru and 40 Premier Cru vineyards aside from the more general appellation.

The Côte d’Or: The Côte d’Or region produces the most famous wines of Burgundy. This small strip of east facing slopes is divided into two main regions: The Côte de Nuits in the north and the Côte de Beaune in the south.

• Côte de Nuits: This region grows both Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, however the best wines of the region are the reds. The Pinot Noir produced in this region is the world standard for this grape variety and the stuff of legends. All the Grand Cru vineyards in this sub-region are red, except for one. The soil is a patchwork of limestone and marl. Pinot Noir grows best where there is a highest concentration of Marl. Some of the most famous communes along with their most famous red Grand Cru vineyard are Gevrey-Chambertin with the Chambertin Grand Cru, Chambolle-Musigny with Le Musigny, Vougeot with the Clos de Vougeout Grand Cru, and probably the most famous village of all, Vosne-Romanee, with the Romanne-Conti and La Tache vineyards, among others.

• Côte de Beaune: This region is also planted with Pinot

Noir and Chardonnay, but here the most famous wines are white. Compared to the wines of the Chablis, these wines are much rounder and creamier, often aged or even fermented in new oak and having undergone malolactic fermentation as well as sur lie aging.

The best soils for Chardonnay are predominantly limestone.

Some of the most famous communes along with their most famous white Grand Cru vineyards are Aloxe-CCorton-Charlemagne Grand Crus, the communes of Chassagne-Montrachet and Puligny-Montrachet, which share the Montrachet Grand Cru.

orton, with the

Other important villages in the Côte de Beaune include Pommard and Volnay for reds, Beaune for reds and whites, and Mesault for whites.

The Côte Chalonnaise: This small area sits between the Côte de Beaune and the Maconnais. There are five communes in this region. These wines are seen as more affordable (albeit lighter) versions of the wines of the Côte d’Or. The main areas are:

• Rully makes both red and white wines from Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, and is also important for its sparkling wines.

• Mercurey is considered to be the best quality commune of the region, known mainly for reds, but it also produces whites.

• Givry is also known for reds and whites. • Montagny is a white wine appellation making wines exclusively form

Chardonnay. • Bouzeron is an appellation for the only appellation for the Aligoté grape.

The Mâconnais: This is a larger area south of the Côte Chalonnaise producing mainly white wine from the Chardonnay grape. These are some of the best value whites of Burgundy. Main appellations for Chardonnay within the region are:

• Mâcon is the most basic and general of the appellations. • Mâcon-Villages, or Mâcon followed the name of a specific village (for

example, Mâcon-Lugny) indicates either that the wine is a blend from one of the better villages, or if a name appears, that it comes from the named village.

• Pouilly-Fuissé is the most famous and expensive wine of the Mâconnais region. Other wines with similar names are made around Puilly, such as Pouilly-Vinzelles and Pouilly-Loche and can be quite good also.

• St-Véran from the south of the region that stylistically sits somewhere between Pouilly-Fuissé and Mâcon-Villages. These are usually good value Chardonnays.

Beaujolais: South of the Mâconnais, this region is famous for its easy-drinking fruity red wines made from the Gamay grape. The main appellations for the region are:

• Beaujolais is the most basic red wine appellation of the region. • Beaujolais-Villages is an appellation for wines made from a blend of

wines from a group of selected superior villages. • Beaujolais Noveau is a wine that is release the third Thursday of

November following the harvest. These wines made by Carbonic Maceration (see section 1, Enology), are light, fruity and low in tannin. Parties all over the world announce the arrival of the Beaujolais Noveau each year. Drink chilled!

• Cru Beaujolais: Ten villages sitting on a granite outcrop in the north of the region are considered to be the best in Beaujolais and are

called the Cru Beaujolais. These light, juicy wines only show the name of the village on the label. The villages are Saint Amour, Morgon, Fleurie, Regnie, Chenas, Julienas, Moulin-a-Vent, Brouilly, Cote de Brouilly and Chiroubles.

Section 4 – The Wines of Italy Overview of the Regions, Wines & Grapes of Italy

General Italy is one of the largest wine producers and consumers in the world. Wine has been made in the region for over four thousand years, and has been famous since the time of the Greeks. The diversity of its wines is incredible and the quality potential nearly limitless, yet it has suffered an ongoing image problem. Italy has been a victim of over production, many people coming to know Italian Wine through less than stellar examples. Another issue is the great diversity of wines, which can also be detrimental, making it difficult for the average consumer to find recognizable names on the shelves. Italian Wine Law The first serious attempt at establishing a coherent system of laws came in 1963, and although these laws were fraught with problems, they paved the way for the currents laws, known as the Goria Laws (named after the minister who passed them) of 1992. This set of laws attempted to tie loose ends and created the now very popular IGT category, among other improvements. Italian wine law is modeled on the AOC system of France, but has an additional ‘highest’ tier. Below is a list and description of each category, starting from the lowest catgory:

• Vino da Tavola (VdT): These wines are generic, simple wines that are not allowed to carry a vintage, grape variety or specific region’s name on the label.

• Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT): This appellation was introduced with the 1992 legislation. The purpose of this law was to elevate the best of the regional VdTs to a better category without having to include them in the next higher category, the DOC. This category is the equivalent of the Vin de Pays of France, allowing the producer to name a region, a grape variety and a vintage on the label. Additionally, IGTs allow more flexibility when it comes to grape varieties, giving producers the opportunity to grow foreign varieties without having to be dropped into the generic VdT category.

• Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC): Wines in this category state their region of origin of origin on the label and must follow certain standards in order to be able to use the appellation. This is roughly the equivalent of the French AOC, requiring specific vineyard and winery practices, as well as limiting or mandating the types of grape varieties that may be used. Most of the better known wines of Italy fall under this category.

• Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG): The

highest and strictest of the Italian categories. This category was designed to embrace only the best of Italian wines, although some contentious promotions have been made. DOCG wines display a special paper seal on the neck of the bottle. The majority of the wines awarded this distinction truly represent the greatest examples of Italian wine at its best. With the passage of the 1992 law, significant individual sub-regions and single vineyards may be specified on the label.

A few other terms often seen on labels are:

• Classico: This designation is applied to wines made in the original, historical region of production for that particular wine, before subsequent expansions of the appellation. These are usually the best examples of a particular type of wine.

• Riserva: This term denotes ageing (or additional ageing) in cask, and is generally a sign of higher quality.

• Frizzante: Lightly sparkling, not as bubbly as a regular sparkling wine. • Spumante: Fully sparkling wine.

Regions of Italy Three regions will be discussed in this section: Piedmont, in the northwest; the Veneto in the Northeast; and Tuscany in the central part of Italy. Piedmont This region has an outstanding reputation for red wine production. Piedmont’s wine producing region sits, for the most part, at the foothills of the Italian Alps, and its name means ‘at the foot of the mountains’.

• Barolo DOCG: Considered by some to be the best of all Italian wines, often called the ‘king of Italian’. The wine is named after a village but wine can also be made in some of the surrounding areas. It is made exclusively from the Nebbiolo grape, and can be rich, powerful and complex. It is very tannic in youth, and the best take many years to develop. Four years of wood ageing required for Riserva designation, five years for Riserva Speciale.

• Barbaresco DOCG: Also made from Nebbiolo and named for after the

town of the same name, and its surrounding areas. A more ‘softer’ version of Barolo, in many cases it can be extremely powerful and age-worthy. A little more approachable at a younger age.

• Gattinara DOCG: Also made from Nebbiolo (called Spanna in this

region), this area sits north of both Barolo and Barbaresco and

produces sturdy wines that age well. Small proportions of Bonarda and Vespolina grapes may be added to the Nebbiolo to soften it, specially in less favorable vintages.

• Barbera: Barbera is the name of grape, not a place. This is an earlier

ripening grape that produces approachable fruity wines with well integrated high acidity. Most popular are Barbera d’Asti and Barbera d’Alba, named after the areas where it is produced.

• Dolcetto: Also the name of the grape, it is made into an easy drinking

wine similar to a Beaujolais-Villages from Burgundy. The best come from Dogliani.

• Asti DOCG: This wine is made from the aromatic Muscat grape. It is a

sparkling wine that is allowed to retain some of its natural sugar by interruption of the fermentation in the tank. It is produced by using a modified version of the Charmat Method, where the must is put into a sealed tank to ferment, but the fermentation is stopped before it is completed in order to retain some of the grapes natural sugars.

Veneto This beautiful wine area sits on Italy’s northeastern corner and is a very important region, particularly in terms of volume.

• Valpolicella DOC: This wine is made from Corvina, Rondinella and other grapes. A light and fruity red wine that can often be uninteresting.

• Recioto della Valpolicella DOC: Made with Corvina, Rondinella and

other grapes. This wine is made using grapes that were allowed to shrivel up by air-drying or by laying them out on straw mats. This process, which increases the sugar to water ratio of each grape, is called recioto. This particular wine is made by stopping the fermentation before all the sugar is consumed to make for a slightly sweet wine.

• Amarone della Valpolicella DOC: Amarone is made using the recioto

procedure mentioned above, except the wine is allowed to ferment all the sugar, and is therefore dry. Amarone means ‘bitter one’, a reference to its dry finish.

• Bardolino DOC: Made from the same grapes as Valpolicella DOC, this

is a simple, light wine, often made as a rosé or chiaretto. The Bardolino Superiore area has been promoted to DOCG status.

• Soave DOC: This white wine is made using the Garganega grape among others, and is the second best selling DOC wine within Italy. Although often uninteresting, it has recently undergone a revival in quality. Soave’s Superiore region and a sweet wine, Recioto di Soave, have been given DOCG status.

Tuscany This hilly region in central Italy produces Italy’s most recognizable wines. It is also the place where the now legendary Super Tuscans originated.

• Chianti DOCG: Italy’s most famous red wine, made primarily with the Sangiovese grape (75 to 90%), and the balance compose of varying amounts of Canaiolo, Cabernet Sauvignon, and the white grapes, Trebbiano and Malvasia. The use of white grape is for the most part a thing of the past.

• Chianti Classico DOCG: This region produces the best wines of the Chianti region, comprising the original are production in the hills between Florence and Siena. This wine may be made from Sangiovese in its entirety, or may be blended with other red grapes (no white grapes), and up to 15% Cabernet Sauvignon. The best wines of this region are among the greatest wines in the world.

• Other Chianti DOCG Areas: Six other areas around the Classico

region also were also awarded DOCG status. The two most important are Chianti Rufina and Chianti Colli Fiorentini, which may produce wines as good as the ones from the Classico region.

• Brunello di Montalcino DOCG: Made in the town of the same name.

Brunello is the local name for the clone of Sangiovese used to make the wine. This is one of the best wines of Italy, standing shoulder to shoulder with the other great wine, Barolo. The wine must be made exclusively with the Sangiovese grape, no other grapes may be blended in. It is a wine designed for long ageing.

• Rosso di Montalcino: Made in the same region and from the same

grape variety as Brunello, but using slightly inferior grapes, or grapes from younger vines. These wines serve as a Brunello producer’s second wine.

• Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG: From the town of Montepulciano,

this wine is made from a blend very similar to that of Chianti. It is not as fashionable as the other wines of the area but can be excellent.

• Vernaccia di San Gimignano DOCG: The most distinctive white wine made from grape the Vernaccia grape around the town of the same name. This was the first wine to be awarded DOC status in Italy.

• Vin Santo: Produced from the white Malvasia and Trebbiano grapes,

these wines range from very sweet to bone dry. The wines are produced by allowing grapes to shrivel up (recioto) in a well ventilated area in order to concentrate the sugar content, and they are then pressed and placed in barrels in hot sheds or attics. The barrels are never topped up, so oxidation takes place as part of the wine evaporates over time. These wines are concentrated and complex, displaying beautiful amber color.

Section 5 – The Wines of Spain Overview of the Regions, Wines & Grapes of Spain

Introduction Spain has made a staggeringly quick about-face in recent times, rapidly modernizing its wine industry and finding a niche with wines that are sometimes unabashedly forward and rich – and often cheap! Spain’s wines have also scored big with American critics. For many years of its long history dating back to Roman times, Spain was known for oxidized whites and dried-out over-aged reds – but no more. Spain has joined the rest of the world and is quickly regaining its place among the best wine-producers in the world.

Spain has more land under vine than any other country in the world, and a large variety of excellent terroirs. The advent of new winemaking technology, and the promise of expanding export markets (particularly the US), have breathed new life into the Spanish wine industry. The traditions of very long aging in oak has been curbed, although some of the better aspects of the tradition continue to be very important; and the once tired and yellowing Spanish whites were given a new lease on life thanks to refrigeration. It is an exciting time for this great wine nation. Spanish Wine Laws Spain adopted a system of laws similar to those of France. The DO laws (Denominación de Origen, or Appellation of Origin) were established in the 1930’s. These laws are similar to Italy’s laws in that they include a ‘highest’ category, DOCa, that carries more prestige than just the basic DO. Spanish wine is known for long periods of ageing in barrel and the current wine law allows for the length of aging to be included on the label by using one of several standard terms. The categories of Spanish wine are as follows: Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa): This is the highest category a Spanish wine can achieve. The word Calificada, although not a direct translation, is equivalent to the Garantita used by the Italians – an added guarantee of quality. Only two wines have made it into this category, Rioja and Priorat. It seems that Ribera del Duero be awarded this status in 2008. To be in this category, wines are made under stricter rules than the regular DO’s and the regions have to have a track record for excellence. Denominación de Origen (DO): This category includes all of the most important wines of Spain and is equivalent to the AOC of France or DOC of Italy. The usual rules apply as far as region of origin, grapes used, methods of viticulture and vinification, etc. Vino de la Tierra: This is the equivalent of the Vin de Pays category of France or the IGT of Italy. The producer is given more freedom as to where grapes may be grown, which grapes may be used and also allows for varietal labeling. Vino de Mesa: The lowest of Spains wine categories, the equivalent of the Vin de Table. The categories and terms used to indicate the length of aging: Crianza: This indication applies to red wines aged for a minimum of 24 months, of which 6 months are spent in oak containers with a capacity of 330 liters maximum; and to white and rosé wines aged for at least 18 months.

Reserva: Reserva is applied to red wines that are aged for a minimum of 36 months, to include at least 12 months in oak and the rest in the bottle; and to white and rosé wines aged for 18 months, to include 6 months on wood. Gran Reserva: This distinction is given to red wines aged for a minimum of 60 months, to include at least 18 months in oak, and to white and rosé wines aged for 48 months, to include 6 months on wood. This indication may also be used by those sparkling wines that have been given the Cava designation and which have undergone ageing for at least 30 months from tirage to disgorging. Spain’s Wine Regions Rioja This is Spain’s most prestigious appellation besides Sherry. It is located in the province of Logroño and sits on the Ebro River. The name Rioja comes from Rio Oja (Oja River), one of the Ebro’s tributaries. The most important red grape of

Rioja is the Tempranillo grape, followed by Garnacha (Grenache). Rioja is composed of three distinct growing regions:

• Rioja Alta: Cool climate-high rainfall region. The wines made here have the most finesse and are ageworthy. Tempranillo dominates in this region.

• Rioja Alavesa: Southern exposure slopes with chalky soils. Very fragrant, smooth and lush reds.

• Rioja Baja: Warmest and driest, sits closest to the river. Richer alluvial soils perfect for garnacha tinta.

Most wines are blends of all three regions and most producers own vineyards in all three. The proportion of wine from each region determines the aging potential and to some extent the quality of the blends. Single region and single vineyard wines are a very new development but are becoming quite popular. Rioja wines are still commonly aged in American oak, as they have been for a very long time; French oak aging is a new development. Another new development is that aging times are shorter as producers try to emphasize the aromas of the fruit over those of the wood. Catalonia and Penedés This region enjoys an excellent climate for wine production and is essentially an extension of France’s Rousillon. Because of this proximity there is a good deal of French influence in the wine styles of the region.

Another powerful influence is the Torres family, a winemaking powerhouse that brought experimentation and innovation to the region both in technology as well as in the use of foreign grape varieties. Cava DO: This region is very important for the Production of Cava, Spain’s Traditional Method sparkling wine. Produced in the same manner as Champagne, it differs in ageing time requirements and the grapes used, which in this case are parellada, xarel-lo and macabeo. Some chardonnay may be added. Priorat DOCa: The other important and popular star of the region is Spain’s second DOCa, Priorat. Wines are made mostly from garnacha and cariñena, which in the very poor llicorella soils of the region produce very low yields of extremely concentrated grapes. Alcohol levels in this hot region routinely hit the 16%+ mark, but producer are trying to keep those levels down. These wines are still very concentrated and full bodied. Castilla-La Mancha and Valdepeñas Castilla-La Mancha: This region of south central Spain contains several DOs, all known for producing run of the mill wines in large quantities. Valdepeñas DO: This subregion attained independent DO status because its wines are considered to be of higher quality. The main quality grape of the region is cencibel, the local name for Tempranillo. The Duero River Region The Duero River, the same as Portugal’s famous Douro, contains a string of important appellations, Toro, Rueda and Ribera del Duero. The whites of Rueda and the reds from Ribera del Duero are among Spain’s best wines. Ribera del Duero DO: Spain’s most famous wine and its one shining star when all other wines seemed drab and backward is Vega Sicilia, a blend of Tempranillo and Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Malbec. This wine has now been incorporated into the Ribera del Duero DO, which was created in 1982. Rueda DO: This up-and-coming DO is known for its crisp whites from the Verdejo and Sauvignon Blanc grapes, which are often blended here.

Rias Baixas This region in the cold and rainy northwestern corner of the country is known for its crisp, refreshing wines made from the Albariño grape. These popular wines make a great match for fresh seafood dishes.

Section 6 – The Wines of Germany Overview of the Regions, Wines & Grapes of Germany

Introduction Arguably the most under appreciated wine region in Western Europe, Germany produces some of the greatest white wine in the world. Germany is also home of the Riesling grape, which many consider to be the greatest of all white grape varieties. Vineyards were established in Germany during Roman times, and then controlled by the church until they were handed over to private land owner’s following Napoleonic conquest. Appellation System German wine labels are notoriously difficult for the novice to decipher. Information on the label includes the region, sometimes the town and vineyard, the ripeness level of the grapes at harvest and the degree of dryness of the wine. Germany’s vineyards are ‘on the edge’ as far as where grapes can be grown and ripened with any degree of success. Because of the marginal nature of viticulture here, producers avail themselves of every trick in the book: grapes are planted on slopes steeply angled towards the sun and close to rivers and the vineyards are planted with grapes adapted to the cool conditions. The climate is harsh, however, and ripening the grapes fully is no easy task; this is why Germany’s highest quality wine category is based on the degree of ripeness of the grapes at harvest time. This category, the QmP will be discussed below. Another complicating factor is that place names and vineyard names often overlap or repeat. So a great quality vineyard, town and group of vineyards may have very similar names, and the label gives no indication as to which is which. In this course book, however, the main focus will be the ripeness level of the grapes as an indicator of style and quality. The categories of German wines will be listed from lowest to highest.

• Tafelwein: This is the equivalent of the Vin de Table, or table wine in the French appellation and represents a fairly insignificant proportion of wine in Germany. Almost none of it is exported.

• Landwein: This category is the equivalent of the French Vin de Pays.

These wine can be made from non-traditional varieties and using non-traditional methods. Unlike in Italy, Spain or France, this category is very small in Germany and very little of the wine is exported.

• Qualitaswein Bestimmter Anbaugabiet (QbA): This is the lower of the two

top-tier quality designations for German wines. QbA means ‘quality wines from specified regions’. There are 13 demarcated wine regions where the wine may be made from approved grape varieties. The bottle must indicate the place of origin, grape variety and vintage on the label. At this quality category wines may be Chaptalized (sugar added to increase

alcohol content). These are generally simple, inexpensive and slightly sweet wines.

• Qualitatswein mit Pradikat (QmP): This represents the highest quality

category of German wines. QmP means ‘quality wines with attributes’. These attributes are a label designation that indicates the level of ripeness of the grapes at the time of picking. The sugar content of the grape is determined using a scale called Oeschle, which measures the must weight of the grapes. There are six categories listed here from least ripe to ripest: Kabinett, Spatlese, Auslese, Beerenauslese (BA), Eiswein, and Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA). These wines may not be Chaptalized, however they may be sweetened by adding sussreserve, or unfermented grape must.

The ripeness levels are:

• Kabinett: Usually light wines made from ripe grapes intended to

be light quaffing wines or to be matched with light food. They can be dry, medium-dry or sweet and the best can be very flavorful and crisp.

• Spatlese: This term means ‘late harvest’. These wines are made from grapes harvested after the first pass through the vineyard or from more favorable sites. Spatlese are more intense in flavor and concentration than Kabinetts. May be matched with richer food or consumed alone; also a great match with spicy Asian dishes. The later harvest allows the grapes to dry and ripen on sunny autumn days, increasing the intensity of the flavors. These can be dry, medium-dry or sweet in style.

• Auslese: Harvest of selected, very ripe bunches. Great wines with intense in bouquets and flavors. These are usually sweet, although they may be vinified dry, making them higher in alcohol but still very crisp and aromatic. Great for matching with heavier dishes such as baked ham and other main course dishes. Until

• Beerenauslese (BA): This translates roughly to ‘selectively picked berries’ and is made from individually harvested overripe grapes often affected by noble rot. Remarkably rich, sweet dessert wines to be enjoyed as dessert by themselves or with dessert.

• Eiswein: Literally, ice wine, this wine is made from BA ripeness level grapes that are left to freeze on the vine. When pressed,

the ice separates from the sweet essence of the grapes, yielding remarkably fresh tasting and concentrated dessert wines.

• Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA): These wines made from ‘selectively picked dried berries’ is made from grapes so severely affected by noble rot that they don’t look like grapes anymore! Rich, sweet, luscious, honey-like wines with great acidity for balance. Rare and expensive.

Sekt: This term indicates a German quality sparkling wine. These are generally produced using the tank or transfer methods. Sekt can be made from wines from anywhere in the EU and Deutscher Sekt must be made from grapes grown in Germany. These wines are usually dry or off-dry and can offer great value.

Note: The ripeness level of the grapes is not the same as the sweetness level of the wine. How sweet or dry the wine is, is determined by the winemaker. Auslese grapes have considerable sugar, for example, but may make dry wines. Also, wines in the first three levels may be produced as sweet or dry. Wines made in a dry style will have the word trocken on the label. Halbtrocken, or half-dry are semi-dry wines with a slight residual sweetness, but nowhere near sweet. If neither of these appears on the label the wines is almost certainly fairly sweet. Wine Producing Regions As was mentioned before, Germany’s climate is a very difficult one for grape growing. Grapes have to be in the right place to ripen into quality wines. Those that aren’t tend to go into Chaptalized ‘sugar water’ style Liebfraumilch (see Rheinhessen below) blends that are sold for very cheap and are a pale shadow of what Germany can truly produce. The king of German grapes is undisputedly the white Riesling grape, which finds its most pure and exhilarating expression here. Naturally high in acidity and grown in this cool climate, it is fresh and crisp but sometimes needs a bit of sweetness to tame its steely nature. Müller-Thurgau, the second most important white grape by volume but of much lesser quality than Riesling, this grape is what goes into the more anonymous blends. Pinot Noir, here called Spätburgunder, is the best quality red grape. Below is a list of Germany’s 13 approved wine producing regions: Ahr Northernmost and one of smallest, produces mostly red wine. Mittelrhein Located just south of Bonn, this region produces mostly white wines of local interest.

Mosel-Saar-Ruwer (or Mosel) One of Germany’s greatest wine producing regions. Riesling finds its highest expression in the slate soils that flank the river Mosel. The most noteworthy subregion of the Mosel are Bernkastel and Piesport. Rheingau More centrally located, this region is one long hillside looking south over the Rhine. The Riesling produced here is the other benchmark for the grape; fuller and rounder than in the Mosel. Some very good Spatburgunder (Pinot Noir) produced here too. Noteworthy subregions include: Rudesheim and Johannisberg. Nahe Located west of the Rhinehessen, bordering the Mosel region. Diverse wines produced in diverse terroirs. Whites are dominant in this up-and-coming region. Rheinhessen This region is mainly known for Liebfraumilch, or uninteresting generic blends. Liebfraumilch can be blended only from grapes from the Rheinhessen, Rhinegau, Pfalz, the Nahe. Some great quality wine also produced in a few noteworthy subregions, mainly Nierstein and Oppenheim. Pfalz Important production area mostly known for quality white wines. Franken The easternmost wine growing region in the country. Produces great wines that come in flat bocksbeutels, a wine bottle that is only used in this region. Great food wines. Hessiche Bergstrasse This is the smallest wine region. Its wines are rare and generally not exported. Wurtemberg This region produces mostly red wines that are consumed locally. Baden Southernmost wine region in Germany, basically a continuation of the region of Alsace in France. Produces reds, whites and rosés. Sachsen and Salee-Unstrut These small regions are in Eastern Germany and their wines are mainly of local interest.

Section 7 – The United States of America Overview of the Regions, Wines & Grapes of the USA Introduction Although the United States now has wineries in 50 of its 50 states – the major regions being the Pacific Northwest, California and New York State – winemaking here has been through numberless ups and downs. For the past two decades, however, the US has been a dominant force in the world wine market, both in terms of influence and production. The US is now the fourth wine-producer by volume, trailing only France, Italy and Spain. But more so than its grapes, it’s the demand created for its style of wines that has made a great impact on wine worldwide; America more than any other country is seen as the champion of the ‘new world’ style. Aside from availing itself from the newest technology, the US has a myriad of terroirs suitable to quality viticulture, and the freedom allowed to producers with essentially no traditions to bind them up, has made the US into the powerhouse that it is in record time. Unlike the laws of Europe, US appellation laws are much less restrictive (see below), and virtually any grape can be grown and vinified in the country. The west coast is dominated by vitis vinifera grapes, while the east coast and the mid-west tend to rely more on local hybrids and other members of the vitis family. Wine laws, the areas of California, the Pacific Northwest and New York State will be discussed below. Wine Laws AVAs American wine laws are organized around the concept of the American Viticultural Area or AVA. An AVA is a demarcated growing region that is distinguished or united by specific geographical features (at least in theory – some AVA choices have been very controversial). The AVA is the ‘smallest’ appellation level (Napa Valley, or Walla Walla Valley); wines may also be labeled by county (Monterrey County), state (California Wine) or country (American Wine). Just like in Europe, the smaller the appellation, the more ‘individual’ the wine tends to be, and generally the higher the price, but AVA’s are not intended

as an indication of quality. All they are intended to do is to inform the consumer of where the grapes came from. American Labeling Laws Labeling laws are intended to give the consumer an accurate picture of what’s in the bottle. Compliance with these laws is regulated by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB). Below are some of the of label items commonly listed with an explanation of the exact requirements.

• Wine Type: A wine may be labeled by a grape name such as Chardonnay or Cabernet Sauvignon, or it may be given a generic name such as "Red Table Wine." Wines listing specific grape names must contain at least 75% of the named grape variety by volume.

• Provenance: If an AVA appears on the label at least 85% of the wine must be made from grapes from the named AVA. The requirement is 75% for county appellations; requirements for wines bearing a state appellation vary by state.

• Vintage: The vintage year designates the year in which the grapes were harvested. The law requires that at least 95% of the grapes be from the stated vintage.

• Vineyard of Origin: If a specific vineyard is mentioned at least 95% of the grapes have to be from the named vineyard.

• Producer and Bottler: This part of the label gives a great deal of information about the production of the wine. The label must indicate the bottler and its location. The specific language used is a clue as to the involvement of the bottler in the finished wine.

• Estate Bottled: This term means that 100% of the grapes were grown on

land either owned or managed by the winery and that the winery performed the whole vinification process all the way to bottling. Another requirement is that the vineyard and the winery must be within the same AVA.

• Alcohol Content: This statement on a table wine indicates the alcohol content by volume, with a tolerance of plus or minus 1.5%. However, the tolerance cannot be used to label as a table wine a wine containing more than 14% alcohol. Dessert wines contain more than 14% but no more than 21% alcohol and are permitted a plus or minus margin of 1%.

Declaration of Sulfites Mandatory. Beginning in 1988, wines which have a level of 10 parts per million or greater of sulfur dioxide must be labeled with a sulfite declaration.

California History California’s wine industry, like that of much of the new world, started with the missionaries. Franciscan missionary Junipero Serra, who established the first full-fledged vineyards in the California coast in mid to late 1700’s, is considered by some to be the father of the California wine industry. The grape used by the missionaries, the mission grape, is believed to be the same as the Criolla Chica of Argentina, a hardy variety that responds well in almost any climate. This was the dominant grape in the region until the early 1800’s. In 1833 Jean-Louis Vignes planted a vineyard using exclusively European grape varieties. Soon after, in the mid-1800’s, a Hungarian, Agoston Haraszthy brought hundreds of vine cuttings from Europe’s premier vineyards and is considered in many ways to be the father of the modern California industry. He saw the potential for producing wine just as good as the wine of the old world. The wine industry continued to improve and strengthen getting an initial boost from the gold rush. It seemed as though California was on its way to becoming an important member of the wine scene. But Phylloxera Vastatrix had other plans. Phylloxera is a root louse (an insect that feeds on vine roots) that was fairly contained to the east coast of the US. The wild vines that inhabited the American continent for millennia had grown resistant to Phylloxera, but it proved deadly to the European vinifera varieties. The pest was brought over to Europe in plant samples sent to England and soon spread, devastating almost all the vineyards of the old continent. No cure was found for a long time. Some tried crossing American vines with European vines in an attempt to build resistance, but the resulting vines tasted nothing like the original grapes of Europe. Then someone had a stroke of genius; an American root stock (the root part of an American plant) was grafted with the scion (the top of the plant) of a European vine; and this was the solution, the root was resistant to Phylloxera, while the vine that grew tasted like the European grape variety. Almost all the vineyards of the world are planted on American rootstock to this day, since no cure has been found. After Phylloxera, Prohibition struck the American wine industry from 1919 until 1933. The industry was severely weakened and didn’t really start to recover until the mid 60’s. In 1976 a tasting between the wines of France and those of California was organized in London. It wasn’t meant to be a big event, but luckily for the US, one reporter was there to cover it. The wines were tasted blind and all the judges were French. The wines to be tasted were Bordeaux wines vs. California Cabernets, and White Burgundies vs. California Chardonnays. The French judges (unknowingly) chose the American wines over the French…and

the rest is history. This legitimized American wine quality in the eyes of many and the wine industry has continued to grow briskly ever since. Wine Regions California borders the Pacific Ocean, Oregon, Nevada, Arizona and Mexico. It is the largest state in the US and contains five major wine growing regions: North Coast, Central Coast, Central Valley, South Coast and Sierra Foothills. The Central Valley is hot and dry and accounts for the more generic wine produced in the State. The areas involved in quality wine production rely on the influence of the Pacific to cool the vineyards down with winds and fogs. California produces 90% of all the wine in the US and contains the largest number of AVAs. Below is a list of California’s main wine regions. Lake, Mendocino, Napa and Sonoma Counties are located in the North Coast.

• Napa Valley: This is California’s best known wine producing region, although its total output is very small. This narrow valley is surrounded by the Vaca and Mayacama’s mountain ranges. The chief influence on its climate is San Francisco bay, which fills the valley with fog during the day and cools down the vineyards. This causes the valley to be hottest at the north end and coolest in the south. Cabernet Sauvignon is Napa’s most famous grape, although it produces many others with great success. It’s AVAs are among the most famous in the country and include Oakville, Stag’s Leap and Rutherford and Carneros.

• Sonoma County: This is one of the oldest wine producing regions in

California but has only become prominent in consumers’ minds in recent years. Being closer to the Pacific it is generally cooler than Napa, although there are some very warm areas where the Ocean’s influence is cut off. It produces a staggering variety of wines, and is very well regarded for its Chardonnays, Zinfandels and most recently, its Pinot Noirs. Famous AVA’s of Sonoma include Sonoma Valley, Russian River Valley and the Alexander Valley.

• Lake & Mendocino Counties: These are California’s northernmost and coolest wine regions and produce good wine from a variety of mostly cool climate grapes like Gewurtztraminer, Pinot Noir and Chardonnay.

The Central Coast is comprised of a number of counties that often receive the ocean’s influence more directly than those in the North Coast. Some of the best cool climate growing regions are in this area.

• Monterrey County: This coastal area contains several AVAs, among them the Chalone and Arroyo Seco AVAs. The newest and possibly soon to become best of Monterrey’s appellations is the Santa Lucia Highlands AVA; this region has the right combination of sunshine and cooling influences to produce outstanding cool climate Chardonnay and more recently Pinot Noir.

• San Luis Obispo County: The most important sub-region of San Luis Obispo County is Paso Robles, a warm region within this generally cool county. Paso Robles is famous for its Cabernet Sauvignon and Rhone-style blends.

• Santa Barbara County: Santa Barbara contains a number of cool climate AVAs that are becoming well known for Burgundian varietals and Syrah grown in the Santa Ynez Valley and the Santa Rita Hills AVAs.

Washington In 1775 the Spanish declared the land now known as Washington State. 17 years later, Robert Gray, captain of tfirst US ship to sail the globe, claimit for the Americas. In 1889, it became the 42nd State. The first planting ovines in Washington was roughly in 1825, at Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River, by traders workthe Hudson’s Bay Company. Tearliest winery was established at Walla Walla in the 1860’s and thevinifera vines were planted at Yakima in 1871, although the production of wine on a commercial scale era allowed funding of the Columbia River Irrigation project which transformarid desert into an agricultural paradise.

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1962, with the beginning of relatively large-scale plantings of vinifera grapes. Today, there are more than 30,000 acres producing almost 7 million cases of wine. In April 2007, the Washington Wine Commission announced in Seattle thWashington State has now reached the 500-winery mark. This solidifies its position as America's No. 2 wine state.

ine Regions and Terroir WWashington is the north-weshigh mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state. Western Washington, west of the Cascades, has a mostly marine west coasclimate with relatively mild temperatures, wet winters, and dry summers. In contrast, Eastern Washington, east of the Cascades, has a relatively dry clim

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WWashington now fogrowing. Sales are dominated by one major winery group with high proportion of the grapes coming from independent growers. Currently, Washington State has 9 AVAs. The major growing regions in Washington are the Yakima Valley, the Walla Walla Valley, the Columbia Valley and Puget Sound all of which are AVAs

rape Varieties GAll but 1% of Wasside of the cascades where it is cooler. Approximately 57% of the grapes grownin Washington are red. The leading red varieties in Washington are Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Sangiovese. For the whites, the leading varieties are Chardonnay, Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon and Viognier.

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HThe first 1854. These and other vinifera vineyards were still in existence at the time of Prohibition, but as in Washington, the wine industry in Oregon relied mostly onlabrusca grapes of the concord varietal until the 1970’s. Changes began in smaways in the 1960’s and 70’s, when wineries were established by winemakers from California looking for something different, specially cooler regions. RicharSommer (Hill Crest), David Lett (The Eyrie Vineyards), and Bill Fuller (Tualatin) are among the pioneers in this region.

regon came into the forefront in 1979,ONoir in a blind tasting competition organized by Robert Drouhin. Lett’s Pinot Noircame in in second place defeating Drouhin’s fabulous 1961 Clos-de-Beze and many other prestigious Burgundies. This had a similar effect to the Paris tasting

of 1976 in legitimizing the wines of the region. In just 40 years Oregon has evolved into a world-class wine growing state with 15 approved winegrowingregions, and more than 300 wineries.

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ver 5600 acres are now underOValley, Umpqua Valley, and Willamette Valley. Other key regions on Oregon areWalla Walla, S.W. Oregon, and the Columbia Valley, which is shared with Washington State. Oregon has 90% varietal law except for Cabernet Sauviwhich is only 75%.

rape Varieties GThe most successChardonnay Merlot and Riesling. Pinot Noir wines span the full spectrum between red and black fruit, frequently accented by a pronounced spicinessuggests cinnamon or mint. They can be full-bodied and rich but not heavy, and very flavorful. Oregon Pinots are usually fresher than their California counterparts, with higher acidity, and fruitier than Burgundies. Oregonusually handcrafted by small producers and tend to be of great quality.

NHistory New Yormuch of the production is not used for wine. In 1973, Alex and Louisa Hargrave planted the first vines in the silty-sandy potato fields on the North Fork of Long Island. Vines have been grown commercially in upper New York State around the Finger Lakes since 1850. New York’s first recorded commercial vineyard waplanted in 1829 in the Hudson River Valley.

ine RegionWThere are three major vineyareas for the production of wine in New York; the Finger Lakes, the Hudson Valley, and Long Island. Long Island, with its maritime climate is New Yorkanswer to Bordeaux. The

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fewer than 200 days are frost-free and winters are long with extremely low temperatures. Vinifera Vines can be vulnerable in the Hudson Valley area because climate is not moderated by neither ocean nor lake. Wine Production New York currently is home to 9 AVAs. Three of which are on Long Island; the North Fork AVA, The Hamptons AVA and Long Island AVA. There are 60 vineyards ranging in size from 2 ½ to over 500 acres. Another four AVAs are around the Finger Lakes; Cayuga Lake, Lake Erie, Niagara Escarpment, Finger Lakes and Seneca Lake. Lastly, the Hudson River Region has it’s own AVA. Grape Varieties Long Island is home to an enormous amount of grape varieties. The most popular varietals are Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. The Finger Lakes produce world-class Rieslings, full-bodied Cabernets, crisp, elegant Chardonnays, sparkling wine and many varietals unique to that specific region. In the Hudson Valley the local industry was built on hybrid varieties like Seyval Blanc and Baco Noir; cool climate vinifera grapes, like Chardonnay and Cabernet Franc are also finding a niche in some areas.

Section 8 – Australia, New Zealand & South Africa Overview of the Regions, Wines & Grapes Australia

Introduction Australia has become a very successful model of what a new world winemaking country can be. Its wineries use the most modern equipment and techniques (many invented or pioneered by the Australians themselves) to produce a lot of wine with mass appeal. Also, Australia has a very clear strategy and is intent on becoming the number one exporter of wines in the world – and it’s well on its way to succeeding. Australian’s have been very savvy when it comes to marketing and to finding what it is that people want in a new world wine, sometimes, some critics say, at the expense of character and terroir. Most of the wine made in the country is dominated by a handful of huge corporations that own many wineries. Australia is a country about the same size as the US, but has around the same population as California. So if you are a great corporation and you want to sell the local market is not enough. This is why a great part of the focus has been on exports and on consistency. Pound for pound (or gallon for gallon) Australian wine at the lower end of the price spectrum is hard to beat. Australians also stretched the boundaries of branding when it comes to wine, having succeeded to quickly make some Australian wines into a household name. That is not to say, however, that all Australian wine is bland, mass-produced stuff. There are many very interesting regions with very well defined terroirs.

Labeling The equivalent of the US’s AVAs in Australia are called GIs or Geographical Indications. They work in much the same way. They define a region and appear on the label but don’t require anything else from the producer. Australian labeling law is also very easy to remember:

• GI: If a GI appears on the label 85% of the grapes must’ve come from the GI named.

• Grape Variety: 85% of the wine must be made from the grape name that appears on the label.

• Vintage: 85% of the wine in the bottle must be from the vintage that appears on the label.

The country is divided into zones which correspond with the states. Within the states are smaller zones, and inside those might be even smaller regions. The most important wine producing regions are in the southeastern half of the country and they are South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales. All these zones fall within a ‘Super Zone’ called South Eastern Australia. Most wines from Australia are labeled as South Eastern Australia and are blends made from across the country to ensure consistency. Most vineyards in Australia are concentrated on the southern coastal areas. The rest of the country is too hot for viticulture. Inland areas around rivers, such as Riverina and Riverland provide the grapes for the more generic blends. The climate in Australia is generally warm, but there are some cooler wine growing regions that are starting to become very important. Australian wine has also closely identified with one grape variety: Shiraz. Shiraz is the same grape as the Syrah of the Rhone Valley in France. Following Australia’s lead, many new world countries have attached their name to a single grape – as we’ll see, some have been more successful than others! Regions Some of Australia’s most important zones and regions are listed below. • South Australia:

The most important zone, most large wineries are based here. This zone is further subdivided into several regions, of which we’ll look at: Barossa, Clare & Eden Valleys, Adelaide Hills and Coonawarra. Most of the wine production occurs on its eastern side, where it borders other important wine producing regions.

• The Barossa Valley: This area is world renowned for its rich, ripe and supple Shiraz. This is arguably Australia’s most prestigious wine region and many of its most famous wines come from here. Barossa has become almost synonymous with Shiraz. Other grape varieties make great wine here, Cabernet Sauvignon being one of them.

• The Clare Valley and the Eden Valley: Both of these are cooler wine growing regions up in the hills and they both specialize in one grape: Riesling. The Rieslings made here are generally dry, fairly crisp and elegant.

• Adelaide Hills Region: This region is famous for its Chardonnays. It is a cooler region (also at some elevation) and the wines show that in their crispness and elegance.

• Coonawarra: This region is located in southern South Australia, in a region called the Limestone Coast. It has a special type of soil called ‘terra rossa’, meaning red earth, that consists of a top layer of red earth (high iron content) and a limestone subsoil. The most famous grape grown here is the Cabernet Sauvignon. These wines are full-bodied but very elegant, with very interesting aromas and good acidity.

• Victoria: Victoria was the most important zone in Australia for a long time until

Phylloxera struck the region. It remained a quiet place while Barossa took the lead. Now the region is coming back to the forefront, producing many outstanding wines. Victoria is the only region of Australia to have suffered a widespread Phylloxera outbreak.

• The Yarra Valley: Yarra is one of Australia’s most famous cooler

climate regions. This area is world renowned for its fruity Pinot Noirs and excellent Chardonnays. They also produce some of the better sparkling wines in Australia.

• Mornington Peninsula: This thin, long peninsula is also a cool climate

region on the south of the zone. Famous for its Pinot Noirs and Chardonnays, this area is relatively new, but is already making a great name for itself.

• Rutherglen: This is an extremely hot region in northern Victoria. These

famous wines are made from the Muscat grape that produces many of the world’s famous dessert wines in France, Italy and all over the world. Here they are called Rutherglen Muscats. This wine is produced by allowing the grapes to dry up on the vine and then pressing them to extract the syrupy juice. Once the fermentation gets going and the right amount of residual sugar is left in the wine, spirit is added to arrest the fermentation. The sweet wine then is aged in hot sheds, concentrating the juice and adding the aromas and flavors of oxidation to the wine.

• New South Wales: New South Wales is an area whose importance may be in

decline. Its most famous area is the Hunter Valley.

• The Hunter Valley: The Hunter Valley is an extremely hot region. This area has long been famous for its wines made from the Semillon grape and for its Shiraz.

• Tasmania: Tasmania is Australia’s coolest wine growing region and is famous

for its sparkling wines, Pinot Noirs and Chardonnays. • Western Australia: Western Australia sits all the way across the country from

all the other important wine regions. Also, the wines from this region can’t be included in those South Eastern Australia blends. This is a region of small producers crafting very high quality wines.

• The Margaret River: This area is the most famous internationally. It is a

cooler climate region that is known for its outstanding Cabernet Sauvignon and Bordeaux style blends. In contrast with the more widely seen wines of Australia, these Bdx style wines are very ‘old world’ in style.

New Zealand New Zealand comprises of two Islands: North and South, with North being the same latitude as Tasmania. The cultivation of the vine was one of the first agricultural tasks undertaken by early settlers. According to various reports, an Anglican missionary named Samuel Mardsen planted the first vines in the northland region in 1819. At first the progress of viticulture was slow. Later, James Bushby a pioneer of the Australian wine industry expanded further some of the existing cultivated lands and planted new vines in 1833. In the second half of the nineteenth century, many settlers from Dalmatia came to work the gum fields of North Island and, in due course, they planted vineyards. Early on Müller Thurgau was the most widely planted varietal but in the 1970’s this changed and now Chardonnay is the most widely planted varietal in New Zealand, followed by Sauvignon Blanc and Müller Thurgau. Riesling, Chenin Blanc, Sémillon and Gewürztraminer are also grown. Most vineyards are on the North Island, but South vineyard plantings are increasing rapidly especially around Marlborough.

Waikato and Bay of Plenty

Location and Climate Almost a third of the vineyards are located near Auckland where a government run experimental station is situated. The country is located within the temperate belt. The climate is influenced by the ocean, which surrounds it. The vines are

considered the most easterly and southerly in the world. Because it consists of two relatively long narrow islands, the climate is predominantly Maritime, though in the northern island around Auckland it is subtropical. The sunniest vineyard region is Marlborough in the north east of the South Island. Driest and most continental is Central Otago, which is the most southerly vineyard area in the world. Excessive rainfall is perceived to be the most important climatic problem and for this reason, most vineyard areas are on the eastern seaboard, where they are protected from the prevailing west wind by the mountainous ranges of the country. GROWING REGIONS New Zealand has a total of ten growing regions, four on South Island and six on North Island. The principal growing regions are Marlborough, on South Island, and Hawke’s Bay and Gisborne, on North Island. Together, these three regions account for more than 80% of New Zealand’s wine production. • Gisborne: Situated on the North Island's sunny east coast, Gisborne has

assumed the title of Chardonnay capital of New Zealand, a title bestowed by its own viticulturists and winemakers. Gisborne Chardonnay is distinctive with soft tropical and stone fruit flavors. Although home to major 'bag in box' bulk wine production by the big industry players, there has been an improvement in the mix of varieties planted. Major replanting due to the presence of Phylloxera has seen Chardonnay overtake Muller Thurgau to become the dominant variety, and it now occupies around half the planted area. As well as Chardonnay, Gewurztraminer produces high quality wines. Gisborne is also home to New Zealand's first certified organic producer, Millton Vineyards, who follow biodynamic principles. Soils are alluvial loams over sandy or volcanic subsoils. Top producers: Millton, Montana, Amor Bendall.

• Wairarapa: This region is located at the southernmost end of North Island. It’s

about an hour away from New Zealand’s capital city of Wellington. The region includes only a small vineyard area. But more than 12% of the country’s wineries are located here. Most of these wineries are small, but they have built an excellent reputation for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. Despite its somewhat cool growing climate, the region has also produced some of the country’s best examples of Cabernet Sauvignon.

• Northland: Although Northland was the 'birthplace' of New Zealand viticulture,

with vine plantings dating back to 1819, only recently has viticulture regained some significance in the area. With better site selection and modern winegrowing methods, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Chardonnay show promise in the warm, temperate maritime conditions of New Zealand's most northerly region. Soil type ranges from shallow clay over sandy clay subsoil to free draining volcanic. Top producer, Okahu.

• Auckland: Auckland is home to New Zealand's biggest wine producers and has significant processing facilities. Auckland viticulture declined through the 1970s and 1980s with the rise of Hawkes Bay and Marlborough, but with improved viticultural methods it is now resurgent. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Chardonnay are favored. High quality reds produced at Waiheke Island in the Hauraki Gulf and at Matakana to the north have helped raise Auckland's reputation as a high quality wine region. Shallow clays over hard silty-clay or sandy loam predominate. Top producers: Stoneyridge, Goldwater, Obsidian. Kumeu River

• Waikato: It’s relatively new and still very small, accounting for around 1% of

the national vineyard, but the Waikato is on the rise. Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc are most popular. Heavy loam soils over clay. Top producer: Rongopai.

• Hawke’s Bay: New Zealand's most important region for red wines based on

Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, it has been hailed by British wine commentator Oz Clark as potentially New Zealand's greatest. The region is currently second to Marlborough in proportion of national vineyard area, and makes around a quarter of the country's wine. Hawke's Bay already has a century of production to its credit. Chardonnay is the most important variety for whites and is the most widely planted variety overall. Sauvignon Blanc is also of significance but makes a softer wine than Marlborough. Syrah also shows promise in the warmest sites. A broad range of wine styles reflects the diversity in local terroir. Mesoclimates vary with altitude, topography and coastal influence , and there is considerable variation in soil type. The area benefits from very high sunshine hours. Compare the warm Gimblett Road sub-region, with its free draining soils, to the Central Hawkes Bay sub-region, making wine in a cool climate style at higher altitude. Top producers: Bilancia, Craggy Range, Clearview, Esk Valley, Ngatarawa, Redmetal, Sacred Hill, Stonecroft, Sileni, Te Mata, Trinity Hill.

• Nelson: Nelson is an area of polyculture, with viticulture mixed with other

agricultural and horticultural activities. It is New Zealand's eighth-largest region. Chardonnay is the most widely planted, followed by Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir. Top producers make excellent examples, the equal of New Zealand's best. Nelson is situated in a rain-shadow, the influence of which combines with the tempering effect of the nearby ocean to create excellent conditions for vine-culture. Soil types are alluvial loam and clay loam over hard clay subsoil. Top producers: Neudorf, Seifried, Greenhough.

• Marlborough: Marlborough is New Zealand's biggest and most famous wine

region, thanks largely to the phenomenal success of its Sauvignon Blanc. Marlborough redefined a style of Sauvignon Blanc associated with the Loire Valley in France, in particular Sancerre, adding new dimensions and giving

New Zealand its own classic wine style. Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc, with its signature zesty, herbaceous gooseberry and tropical fruit flavors, is well established as a firm favorite in the crucial British market. My own experience working in the English trade confirms this - these wines would sell as fast as you could put them on a shelf. Situated in an alluvial valley, the best soils are stony and free draining. A classic cool climate with warm days and cool evenings ensures flavor retention in grapes. Irrigation is common, given the free-draining soils and dry summers. Sub-regions are the Wairau Valley and the more recently developed Awatere Valley. Chardonnay is second to Sauvignon Blanc by area planted, a portion being diverted to production of Methode Traditionelle sparkling wine along with Pinot Noir, which also exhibits great promise as a single varietal. Beautiful steely Rieslings and excellent botrytis sweet wines are made also. Top producers: Cloudy Bay, Framingham, Fromm, Huia, Hunter's, Isabel, Lawson's Dry Hills, Nautilus, St Clair, Seresin, Vavasour, Villa Maria, Wither Hills. Around 47% of the national crop comes from Marlborough.

• Canterbury: Vineyards are distributed among the sub-regions of Waipara,

north of the city of Christchurch; the plains around the city, and Banks Peninsula to the east. Chardonnay, Pinot Noir (the two most widely planted), Riesling and Sauvignon Blanc have all produced top quality wines, and Bob Campbell in his 2001 Cuisine Wine Annual proclaims the region as having the most potential in New Zealand. The Canterbury region is New Zealand's fourth largest by planting. Top producers: Daniel Schuster, Geisen, Kaituna Valley, Muddy Water, Mountford, Pegasus Bay.

• Central Otago: "In certain parts of this district where a good aspect and well

sheltered spots are available, the cultivation of the vine may be undertaken, but judgment must be exercised in the selection of the varieties to be planted, and cultivation and pruning methods must be adopted that meet the requirements of the colder vine-growing zones." Central Otago is set apart from the rest of New Zealand's vine growing districts in that it has a continental climate. All others have a maritime climate. Careful site selection is critical, but with silt loams of heavy schist and mica deposits, the short but warm growing season and cool nights, wines of great character and quality is being produced in Central Otago. Some said it wasn’t possible. But a Pinot Noir from the 2000 vintage was declared champion Burgundy or Pinot Noir at the 2001 London International Wine Challenge - arguably the world's most prestigious wine competition. Pinot Noir is easily the most planted variety followed by Chardonnay, Riesling, Gewurztraminer and Pinot Gris. The region is expanding extremely fast as investors are lured by the potential to produce great Pinot Noir wines, encouraged by a run of very good to excellent vintages. Top producers: Akarua, Mt Difficulty, Felton Road, Mount Edward, Peregine, Gibbston Valley, Kawarau Estate, Olssens, Quartz Reef, Valli.

South Africa

At the southern tip of Africa, where two mighty oceans meet in the shadow of landmark Table Mountain, lies the fairest Cape in the world. Known locally as the Mother City, Cape Town is the gateway to the South African wine lands and one of the great wine capitals of the world. Here the cultures of Africa, Europe and the East have met and mingled for over 350 years, shaping a city both ancient and modern, rich in colorful history and culturally diverse.

History The Cape has witnessed many momentous events in South Africa's history: the landing of the Dutch settlers in 1652, the British invasion during the Napoleonic Wars, and the rebellion into the interior known as the Groot Trek. This was where, in 1990, Nelson Mandela took his first historic walk to freedom. And it was here, four years later, that Archbishop Tutu described the new South African nation as 'the rainbow people of God', and the 'rainbow nation' was born.

Today South Africa is a peaceful democracy, a vibrant and exciting country of enormous diversity. This variety is reflected in our wines. With a winemaking history dating back more than 300 years, the industry reflects the classicism of the Old World but is also influenced by the contemporary fruit-driven styles of the New World. This rare combination makes for wines which are complex yet accessible, refined yet powerful, eloquently expressing the unique terroir and people of the Cape.

In the last few years, a dynamic new vision has given momentum to changes within an industry which is innovation driven, market directed, globally competitive and highly profitable. This new ethos has seen the local wine industry emerge as a global enterprise with strong cultural roots and a sense of social responsibility. It has truly come of age. With the advent of democracy, the opening of new markets and exposure to international trends, South Africa can now compete with confidence on the world wine stage. A passionate new generation of winemakers, many with experience of harvests around the globe, is keen to learn, experiment and consolidate. There's also been a focused shift from grape farming to wine growing.

Wine Trade After Apartheid With new wineries opening up at a steady rate and South African wines attracting increasing acclaim internationally, Su Birch, CEO of WOSA, says: "A growing visibility in key markets abroad, the recognition by foreign trade and consumers of the value South African wines offer across price ranges, and the rise in South African wine tourism have all contributed to aggressive growth. Positive international media coverage has also played a key role. South Africa has the advantage of being able to supply foreign markets with regionally diverse wine styles which highlight the Cape's biodiversity." The Cape wine-growing areas, situated in the narrow viticultural zone of the southern hemisphere, mainly have a Mediterranean climate and the mountain slopes and valleys form the ideal habitat for the wine grape Vitis vinifera, the products of which have given pleasure to man for many centuries. Long, sun-drenched summers ensure grapes with enough sugar to provide excellent wines year after year. Wet winters with cool sea breezes and temperatures of 0-10°C also contribute to the ideal conditions for viticulture at the Cape.

With this favorable combination of climate and soil, more than 4 340 farmers cultivate some 108 000 hectares of land under vines. Their farm workers and co-operative cellar staff, together with their dependants, constitute a workforce of some 345 500 people. About 834 million liters of wine are produced annually. The South African wine industry is backed by a state research body, the Nietvoorbij Institute for Viticulture and Oenology, employing some 250 staff; the departments of viniculture and viticulture at the University of Stellenbosch; and the Elsenburg Agricultural College, which offers cellar technology.

An extensive distribution network of wholesalers and retailers, as well as co-operative cellars, estates and other organizations which market wine directly, ensure that these products reach consumers around the country. In the past, most wine was sold through domestic wholesalers. However, with the opening up of foreign markets, rapidly increasing quantities of South African wines are being sold abroad. South African wine exports in 2002 were 20% up on the previous year and projected figures in export volume look positive. All wines for export must be granted an export license. Samples of each batch of wine destined for foreign climes are sent to the Wine & Spirit Board at Nietvoorbij, Stellenbosch where they undergo detailed tasting tests and chemical analysis in the laboratories before licenses are granted. The Wine & Spirit Board, which verifies that the claims made on the label regarding origin, gives an official seal to each bottle, vintage and grape variety are true. As far as international wine production is concerned, France leads with 20.9% of the total; Italy is second with 18.7%, Spain third with 15,1% and South Africa eighth with 2.5% (2000 figures).

Wine Producers Estate wineries, which can make wine only from grapes grown on their own land; Co-operatives, which on a communal basis process the grapes of their farmer member shareholders into wine - these co-operatives alone have invested vast amounts in production equipment and they press about 80% of South Africa's total wine harvest; Independent cellars and a number of wholesalers who buy in both grapes and wine, and make wine for bottling under their brand names, as well as making wine from grapes grown on their own wine farms.

Cultivars (Grape Varieties) In keeping with the spirit of renewal in the South African wine industry, in recent years over 40% of the vineyards have been replanted as the industry has realigned its product to compete globally, moving from volume production to noble cultivars and quality wines. South African vineyards have been dominated by white grape varieties but the trend now is towards a more market-driven balance between white and red. Noble varieties, which have been cultivated increasingly in the past few years, include Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay, which produce top-class white wines, and Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz and Pinot Noir. A significant proportion of our red wine vineyards are currently very young - 75% are under 10 years old. Some of our oldest grape varieties (also called cultivars) date back to ancient times and were developed from wild vines. The original wild vine belongs to the genus Vitis and it is generally accepted that it was cultivated for the first time in Asia Minor, south of the Caspian and Black seas. All the wine grape varieties cultivated in South Africa, which were originally imported from Europe, belong to the species Vitis vinifera. Unfortunately the

roots of European vines are susceptible to an insect disease called phylloxera and, in order to avoid it, they are often grafted onto American rootstock, which is largely resistant to the insect. A vine yields its first crop after three years and is fully productive after five. On average, the South African vineyard is replaced after 25 years but this depends on factors such as the area in which it is situated and how heavily it has yielded. Generally, its lifespan may be anything between 15 and 30 years although vines as old as 100 years still in production can be found. The vine is a remarkable plant, which lends itself to selection, propagation and grafting factors, which make possible a continuous improvement in both plant and quality. Although most of the vine varieties cultivated here today were originally imported, up to now six local crossings have been released. The best known of these is a red variety, Pinotage, a cross of Pinot Noir and Hermitage (Cinsaut), which is cultivated locally on a fairly large scale. The Worcester Region has the most vineyard plantings (19% of all vines), followed by Paarl and Stellenbosch (17%), Robertson (14%), Malmesbury (12%), Olifants River (9%), Orange River (9%) and Little Karoo (3%). The Worcester Region also produces the most wine (26%), followed by Olifants River (16%), Robertson (15%), Paarl (13%), Stellenbosch (10%), Orange River (9%), Malmesbury (8%) and Little Karoo (3,9%).

Section 9 – Argentina & Chile & Uruguay Overview of the Regions, Wines & Grapes Introduction Chile and Argentina are the two most important wine producers in South America. They sit side by side in the southernmost area of the continent, sharing the Andes mountain range. Chile sits west of the Andes, on the Pacific, and Argentina faces east, to the Atlantic. Both of these countries have had traditional wine industries that were mainly of local interest. Nowadays, their industries are focused on the export markets, mainly the US, and their wines have changed very much over the last 10 or 15 years. In looking for a place in the global wine market, both of these countries have set out to produce solid new world style wines: soft fruit, concentration and often lots of new oak. Chile

Introduction Chile is, to this day, the only important wine producing nation that was never struck by Phylloxera. This caused an early boost for the Chilean wine industry around the turn of the 20th century while other countries were trying to get rid of the scourge. After that, Chile’s wine industry turned inward, and was not significant on the world stage until the last few decades.

Winemaking in Chile started with the Spanish missionaries who brought with them the País grape, which is virtually the same as the Mission grape used by the missionaries in North America. It is still grown in some areas. Wealthy landowners in Chile often established wineries, and the model was always France, and of course Bordeaux. So, most plantings in Chile are of Bordeaux varieties.

Carmenere is Chile’s flagship grape variety, in the mold of Australia’s Shiraz and New Zealand’s Sauvignon Blanc. This grape originated in Bordeaux, where it was used exclusively as a blending grape. The twist to this story is that until not so long ago, no-one really knew it was there! For a long time, Chilean wine producers thought that they were growing Merlot grapes, when in fact they were actually growing Carmenere. A French ampelographer noticed the mistake, and the rest is history. Carmenere all but disappeared in Bordeaux after Phylloxera struck, but Chile got the vines prior to that time.

And that was not the only case of mistaken identity. For many years Chile didn’t seem to be able to make a decent Sauvignon Blanc. They tried everything and nothing worked … until they realized that what they had in their vineyards wasn’t Sauvignon Blanc, but rather the lesser Sauvignonasse! Now that the vineyards are being replanted with true Sauvignon Blanc, Chilean Sauvignon Blancs have become some of the best of the New World.

Regions Chile is a long slender country, and most of the wine growing regions are a string of valleys running along its center. Where the coastal range of the Andes has gaps, the influence of the Pacific is stronger and the weather is wetter and colder. Most of the valleys, however, are very dry, and viticulture would be impossible without irrigation. So, let’s look at Chile’s winegrowing regions:

• The Casablanca Valley: The Casablanca Valley is located in the northern Aconcagua region. It is a cool climate region heavily influenced by the Pacific, since this area is not sheltered by the

coastal range. Fogs cover the vineyards just like in many areas of California and this creates great conditions for cool climate varieties. Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are the best varieties produced here.

• The Central Valley: The Central Valley is Chile’s largest and most important region. It is divided

into several sub-regions, each with its own characteristics.

• The Maipo Valley: This sub-region is known for producing great Cabernet Sauvignon-based wines. It sits right around the city of Santiago, Chile’s capital.

• Rapel Valley: This valley contains the sub-region of Colchagua, which is gaining a great

reputation for its wines made from Bordeaux varieties, including its Carmeneres.

• Further south, but still within the Central Valley region are the Curico and Maule Valleys. Numerous red and white international varieties are grown here.

Argentina

Introduction Argentina’s wine industry has a long history for volume but not necessarily for quality until recently. Like Chile, Argentina also has a ‘flagship’ variety. And like Chile it more and more produces wines in the international style. Argentina’s flagship variety is the Malbec grape. Malbec, like Carmenere is a blending grape in Bordeaux. However, Malbec has a long history of making wines based on its own merits. The traditional region of Cahors in southwestern France has been famous for Malbec-based wines for centuries. In its new world incarnation, Malbec makes fruity, deeply colored and mostly easy drinking wines. Argentina has been very successful with this grape variety. Argentina also has its own white grape variety. Torrontés, when made to retain its acidity can be a wonderful wine. It is very aromatic, reminiscent of Muscat or Gewurztraminer, but is vinified dry. Although not as well known as Malbec, this grape is rising in popularity.

Regions • Mendoza: This is Argentina’s largest and most

important wine region. Most of Argentina’s vineyards are at elevation, for it would be too hot to grow the grapes on the valley floor. Vineyard plantings start at 1600 feet above sea level, and go all the way to 6000 feet and more. All sorts of international grape varieties are grown in Mendoza.

• One of Mendoza’s sub-regions is Lujan de Cuyo. Some of the best Malbec’s made in Argentina come from this region.

• Salta: This province in the north of the country is another important wine growing region. Vineyards here are at extremely high elevations to avoid the extreme heat.

• Cafayate, a cool sub-region of Salta, is known to produce the best Torrontes. Although they develop a fairly ripe aromatic character, these wines retain crisp acidity.

• Rio Negro: This region is a cool wine growing region in the south of the country. It is known for cool climate white varieties, and also for Malbec made in a more restrained and structured style.

Uruguay

Uruguay is the fourth most important wine producer in South America after Chile, Argentina and Brazil. Uruguayan wines have a long tradition and a growing recognition in the world market. The history of Uruguayan grapes and wines is as old as the country; Vineyards in URUGUAY have a 250 year of history, even though its progressive development began less than a century ago.The first grapevines were brought directly from Spain, as early as the first half of the 18th Century, followed by the Tannat (Harriague) and Folle Noire (Vidiella) from the Southwest Bordeaux-France. The year of 1870 marks the beginning of commercial winemaking. In the 1970’s, the Uruguayan wine industry initiated a new era towards excellency, renewing wine-stocks and perfecting the process of wine making and production. In 1988 the Vitivinicultural National Institute (INAVI) was created to coordinate the efforts of the State and of the wine makers, to develop and modernize the sector and to study and plan its economy. It promotes quality and disseminates knowledge of

wine as a means to stimulate its consumption. Consequently, Uruguayan viticulture has changed considerably over the past twenty years. The new plantations were mainly established with French imported vines of noble varieties. The wines produced from the new plantations are elaborated with modern techniques, and their type and quality allows them to compete with some of the world´s finest wines. The wines from Tannat grape are wines that will repay keeping, although, they are already drinking well now. Made in a number of styles, this grape is a deeply colored, tannic, astringent and intense. Brazil Overview

90% of Brazilian wine comes from the mountainous regions of the most southern state of the Brazilian Federation, called Rio Grande do Sul. Currently, local winemakers supply the market with wines of outstanding quality.

Brazilian winemaking is one of the best-equipped industries in South America thanks to foreign companies such as Chandon, Cinzano, Martini and others. During the last twenty or thirty years, these companies have invested large amounts of money in the restoration of local vineyards and wineries. . You can find technologies of both domestic and foreign origin in all the wineries of Brazil. The casks and oak chips produced in Rio Grande do Sul are made of imported French or American oak components. Almost 95% of all wineries producing fine wines are family businesses. Wine tourism is well organized there, and Vale dos Vinhedos is well prepared Vineyards

There are about 78,000 hectares of vineyards located in the states of Rio Grande do Sul (about 40,000 hectares), Santa Catarina, Parana, Sao Paulo, Minas Gerais and Pernambuco. There are about 16,000 producers.

Varieties Brazil grows all fine wine varieties. White wines: Riesling Italico, Malvasia, Sauvignon, Semillon, Chardonnay, Gewurtztraminer, Pinot Bianco and Moscato. Red wines: Merlot, Cabernet, Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Gamay, Syrah, Tannat, Pinot Noir, and also Nebbiolo and Barbera. Legislation

Wine Laws The regulations for viticulture have not yet been fully defined; for example, there is no compulsory deadline for harvesting. However, as every wine in the world, Brazilian wines comply with certain compulsory labelling regulations. The law stipulates the following identification marks:

• The wine producer's and the bottler's name • The region and winery address • Name, fineness, classification, type and origin of the product

• Agricultural area and the registration number of the product • The INDUSTRIA BRASILEIRA sign • Net volume • Actual alcoholic strength by volume • All used additives or their code and class

It is forbidden to put a false geographical indication on the label. The most common type of wine, the slightly sweetened "vinho de mesa" (table wine), must be indicated "suave" or "doce" (dry or sweet), printed on the label. Sparkling wines must be indicated with the method of production (gaseificado - aerated). This word must be printed in letters sized min. 50 % of the biggest word and must be in the same colour as the other information.

Explanatory Notes Comum - wine produced from hybrids and American vine Seco - wine containing less than 5 g/l of sugar Leve - wine containing 1 to 10 g/l of sugar Meio doce - wine containing 5 to 20 g/l of sugar Doce ou Suave - wine containing more than 20 g/l of sugar Varietal - wine produced from min. 60 % of the grape variety stated on the label Vinho de mesa - wine containing 10 to 13 % of alcohol Vinho

Section 10 Fortified Wines - Port & Sherry The Fortified Wines of Portugal and Spain

Introduction

What is a fortified wine?

• Generally over 15% but less than 24% alcohol by volume

• Fortified wines were born of the need to preserve European wines on long trade voyages during the 16th and 17th centuries. Measures of brandy were added before or during the fermentation process to stabilize the wine. On long sea voyages, fortified wines were able to withstand the wildly fluctuating temperatures and constant motion they were subjected to in the ship's hold.

• Virtually the same process is used to make today's fortified wines. The resulting wines typically contain between 15 and 21 per cent alcohol, and are more stable than ordinary table wines and less likely to spoil once opened. If Brandy is added after the fermentation process, the result is a dry wine. If added before fermentation, the result is a sweet wine with high sugar content.

• There are many types of fortified wines: Port, Sherry (named for Jerez, its Spanish birthplace), Madiera [muh-DEH-rah] (named for the island southwest of Portugal on which it is made), Marsala (the best-known fortified wine of Italy), Vin Doux Naturel, Vin de Liqueur.

• The most common additive is brandy (a spirit distilled from wine). As mentioned, the original reason for fortification was to preserve wines, as the higher alcohol level and additional sweetness help to preserve the wine (when supplemental alcohol is added before fermentation finishes, it kills the yeast and leaves residual sugar). Even though other preservation methods exist, the fortification process survives, as consumers have developed tastes for wines preserved this way.

• Fortified wines must be distinguished from spirits made from wine. While both have increased alcohol content, spirits are the result of a process of distillation; while fortified wines have spirits added to them. Fortified wines generally have an alcohol content between that of wines and spirits.

• Fortified wines are legally called dessert wines in the U.S. but are called vin de liqueur wines in Europe.

Basic Types of Fortified Wines:

• Those that are fortified by adding spirit or brandy during or before the fermentation and hence arresting it and retaining some of the natural sugar:

• Port (during)

• Madeira (during)

• Vin de Liqueur (before)

• Vin Doux Naturel (during)

• Those that are fortified by adding spirit or brandy after the fermentation and hence arresting it and retaining some of the natural sugar:

• Sherry

• Marsala

Port The Basics

A. Port, the real thing, comes from the region of Oporto in Portugal’s north-eastern area.

B. Two distinctive areas for production of port

1. The Duoro valley-up the river from the city of Oporto where the grapes are grown and the wine made.

2. Vila Nova de Gaia: Within Oporto, where the port houses store and age the port before selling, bottling and shipping it.

C. Grapes: many ports not just one or two, actually there are over 40!

1. Touriga Nacional 2. Tinta Francesca 3. Bastardo 4. Tinta Cao 5. Souzao 6. Mourisco

D. Vineyards 1. Vineyard site very important: Graded

a) A-F: A is the best! b) Soil type

2. Location a) Grapes b) Vine concentration etc…

E. Severe climate: hot and cold

F. Production: 1. Grapes harvested

• Either into special auto-vinificators, which expedite a quick and vigorous fermentation, or into “lagers” where they are foot trodden.

2. After approx. 36 hours (well before total fermentation), they must is strained off into vats containing brandy (10 pts: 45 pts. Must)

3. Fermentation is arrested (and later removed from macerating) and the wine is left till the spring when it will be shipped down river to Vila Nova.

4. The port is shortly after further fortified, classified and blended

G. TYPES OF PORT 1. Ruby port: Youngest, least expensive – most prevalent

a) Blended from more than one year, non vintage and sold after approximately three to four years

2. Tawny port: 2 types-commercial and traditional a) Traditional tawnies are made by blending the ports of several years and

maturing them for a long period of time in oak b) Minimal seven or eight year barrel age c) 10, 15, 20 years etc… d) Long term ageing has several effects

(1) Leaches color from the wine (2) Softens and adds texture (3) Pulls some of the sweetness

2. Vintage port: only in exceptional years a) From only one year, though can be a blend of several lots

b) Matured in oak for two years and then into bottle c) Crust will form, later need to decant d) Aged in black bottle to slow the process

3. Late bottle vintage port: LBV’s a) As it sounds, “a late bottled vintage” b) From one year, but aged in cask 4-6 first

4. Single Quinta port: great wine in off years a) From a single special vineyard b) Made in years NOT declared, but that vineyard was of exceptional quality c) Treated as vintage port d) Examples

(1) Taylor (Vargellas (2) Graham (Malvedos) (3) Fonseca (Guimaraes)

Assessment of vineyards Scoring Method Classification of parcels

Class Score A - Highest >1200 B Between 1001 and 1200 points C Between 801 and 1000 points D Between 601 and 800 points E Between 401 and 600 points F - Lowest Between 201 and 400 points

Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e Porto (IVDP or Port and Douro Wine Institute) Regulates the Port industry in Portugal. Port wine is typically richer, sweeter, heavier, and possesses a higher alcohol content than most other wines. This is caused by the addition of distilled grape spirits (aquardente similar to brandy) to fortify the wine and halt fermentation before all the sugar is converted to alcohol.

Section 11 Fortified Wines - Sherry The Fortified Wines of Spain

Introduction to Sherry

A. From the “Jerez” region in the southwest region around Cadiz in Andalucia.

B. Never a vintage, always a special blend.

C. Gapes: Palomino, Pedro Ximenez (PX) and Moscatel (Muscat)

D. Soil is special: Albariza

E. Production of sherry:

1. Grapes are harvested. Palomino directly to the press house. PX and Muscat left to dry and raisin – extra concentration

2. Gypsum sometimes added to fermenting wine to enhance dryness and acidity.

3. After wine has almost completed it fermentation, it’s drawn off into oak barrels to about 2/3 full.

4. Taken to ageing bodegas to finish and age

5. Wines are fortified with spirit and then classified by status

a) Vinegary lots are sold off for vinegar b) Oxidized and nutty c) Those with flor, will be finos

F. The Solera System: The uniqueness of sherry

1. A sherry’s ideal is to be consistent in flavor, like non-vintage champagne or scotch.

2. New wines placed in barrels and placed into lowest level of the criadera.

3. The sherry is drawn off the solera in a house formula, and the barrels are replenished back from the next oldest

4. Solera year sherries refer to the year that a solera was started. EX: 1872

5. Color and sweetness are obtained through the addition of :”sweet” and “color” wines made from PX and moscatel.

G. TYPES OF SHERRY

1. Manzanilla: Driest style (slightly salty)

2. Fino: dry and delicate

3. Amontillado: dry and older – darker a) Commercial: add color and sweetness b) Traditional: aged fino

4. Oloroso: less dry and full bodied a) Cream sherries made by sweetening this b) Almancenista: old original dry sherries

1. Unblended from special soleras

US Sommelier Association Wine School Matching Wine with Food

Most wines are produced as an accompaniment to food, and there are many established guidelines for matching wine with food successfully. Originally wine styles evolved to complement the cuisine of a region, so this is often a good starting point for finding a good wine and food combination.

• There is no single choice of wine that must be drunk with a certain dish, but some are definitely a better match than others.

The Basic Considerations

To achieve the best match it is necessary to analyze the basic components in both the wine and the food. The principle is to try to strike a balance between these; so neither one overpowers the other. The main elements to consider are:

• Match the weight/richness of the food and the body of the wine. • Match the flavor intensity of the food and the flavor intensity of the wine. • Match acidic foods with high-acid wines. • Match sweet foods with sweet wines.

Avoid combining oily or very salty foods with high-tannin red wines.

These guidelines will help avoid wine and food clashes, or one overpowering the other. Other considerations can help us find wine and food combinations where the wine and the food really enhance each other.

• Pair ‘chewy’ meat with tannic wines. • Pair salty foods with sweet or high-acid wines. • Pair fatty and oily food with high-acid wines. • Match or contrast flavor characteristics of the food and the wine.

Weight/Richness of the Food and the Wine

The first and most important consideration is to match the weight of the food with that of the wine. Rich heavyweight foods, like game, roast meats and red meat casseroles, need a full-bodied wine. Powerful red wines are often the favored choice, although it is the body of the wine, which is the most important consideration rather than its color or flavor.

For many meat dishes, a rich full-bodied white wine is a better match than a lighter red wine. Lighter food, such as plain white meat or fish, is

complemented by more delicate wine. Although white wines are the normal choice, light-bodied, low-tannin red wines such as young Pinot Noir can also be successful.

Always remember the contribution of the sauce. A rich creamy sauce will need a wine of sufficient body to match the food and flavors that will complement the smooth creamy, buttery taste.

Flavor Intensity of the Food and the Wine

After weight, the next most important element to consider is flavor and how intense that flavor is. Flavor intensity, although similar to weight, is not the same thing.

Think of a food that has a lot of weight but is low in flavor, say a plate of plain boiled potatoes or plain boiled rice; both are heavy in weight but light in flavor. At the other end of the scale think of a plate of raw, thinly sliced red or green peppers; these are high in flavor but light in weight. Wines can be the same.

Riesling, for example, makes a lightweight wine that is intensely flavored, while Chardonnay makes full-bodied, heavyweight wines that can be low in flavor. Delicate wines and strong-flavored foods do not m

It is also

atch.

worth considering the way the food has been cooked. If a food is cooked by a

ed intensely

rs in food make wines taste less acidic, and ny

e

lian red wines is their atoes

r acidic e

Vinaigrette is an example of acidity being added to a dish. The oil needs to be cut by the

e

hen consumed with any food with a degree of

ines,

Tannins ith oily fish can result in an unpleasant metallic taste, so the

with salty foods.

moist, gentle method such as steaming, it will require a lighter-flavored wine than a food that is roasted, which will require a wine that is fuller-bodied and more robust inflavor because the method of cooking adds intensity of flavors to the food.

A slow-cooked dish that has been braised or stewed will be weightier and neflavored wines, because the food’s flavors are intensified by the method of cooking.

Acidity in the Food and the Wine Sour flavotherefore less vibrant and refreshing. For this reason, aacidity found in the food should be matched by acidity in thaccompanying wines. Acidity is something we rarely think about in food. Tomatoes, lemons, pineapples, apples and vinegar are all high in acidity.

One of the characteristics of Itanoticeable acidity. This is because two ingredients –tomand olive oil, dominate much Italian cuisine and otheingredients such as lemons, vinegar (balsamic) and wine aroften used –hence wines that go with Italian food need highacidity.

sharpness of acidity, so when making a vinaigrette you blend olive oil and vinegar together. Dishes dominated by tart acidic flavors, like lemon, lime or vinegar, can bdifficult and require care when matching as they will overpower many wines.

Sweetness in the Food and the Wine Dry wines can seem tart and over-acidic wsweetness. Sweet food is best with wine, which has a similar or greater degree of sweetness; the sweeter the food, the sweeter the wine needs to be. Late-harvest wespecially botrytis-affected wines, and sweet Muscat-based wines are the ideal choice for puddings.

Oil, Salt and Tannin in combination wgeneral recommendation is to avoid red wines with fish. However, low tannin reds or rosés are fine with meaty fish. Wines with a high tannin content can also taste bitter

‘Chewy’ Meat and Tannins Tannin in red wine reacts with protein. Foods

icularly rare

icella, will re

as

eanced by a touch of sweetness. Think of classic combinations like

quefort cheese and Sauternes, or Port

h can

Wines with a good level of acidity can be superb with ods, such as pâté. For example, Sauternes

and unoaked

Foods that have been cooked by frying will need wines with high acidity, because the rough’ by the acidity. Low

lement or contrast with flavors in the is in the sauce.

r for Brut Champagne;

with a high protein content, partred meat, will soften the effects of the tannin on the palate. This is why wines from high-tannin grape varieties, such as Cabernet Sauvignon or Syrah/ Shiraz, go well with roastmeats, stews and steaks.

Light, fruity red wines with low levels of tannin, like Beaujolais and Valpolcomplement white meats because these alow in proteins and lighter than meats such lamb and beef.

Salty Foods and Sweet or High-Acid WinSalty foods are enh

s

prosciutto and figs. The same works with wine. Roand Stilton are famous matches. Salty foods also benefit from a little acidity.

Salty foods such as olives, oysters and other shellfish go best with crisp, dry, light-bodied white wines. Although neither sweet nor high in acid, Fino Sherry (whicappear to have a light ‘saltiness’ of its own) is a classic accompaniment for olives orsalted nuts.

Fatty/Oily Foods and High-Acid Wines

rich, oily foworks well with foie gras. Here the weight of both wineand food are similar, and the acidity in the wine helps it cut through the fattiness of the food.

This is also an example of matching a sweet wine to a savory food. Crisp wines such as RieslingBarberas can make a good match with fatty meats such as duck and goose.

fat content, which is ‘cut th

method of cooking increases theacid wines would result in a ‘cloying’ combination.

Key Flavors in the Food and the Wine The flavor character of a food can sometimes compwine. Often the dominant flavor of the food

• Smoked foods need wines with enough character to cope with the strength of the smoking. Lightly smoked salmon is a classic partnesmoked meats like pork can benefit from some slight sweetness in the wine like that found in some German Rieslings; smoky barbecued flavors suit powerful oaked wines like Australian Shiraz. The stronger the smoke, the greater the oak flavor in a wine can be without dominating. (The inside of oak barrels are often ‘charred’ over a naked flame, so oak-ageing can sometimes impart a ‘smokiness’ or subtle ‘burnt’ character to a wine).

• ed (many spices accentuate the flavors of

o

•

The gindividu tation can yield surprising results.

e

the past two decades a radical change has come about in all except the most long-tries: the names of a handful of grape varieties have become the

s of quality. But for now, for most people, grape

helps comparisons between regions. Hence the originally Californian term

s of wine. • To

Blanc a The ol

rapes for red wine th juicy damson fruit and

ructure for serious ageing.

giving dark, fruity, often sharp

Spicy foods are best matched by wines that are made from really ripe, juicy fruit, either unoaked or very lightly oakak). Wines such as New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc can work well with highly

spiced foods, as can ripe Chilean Merlot. Spicy wines, such as Gewurztraminer can also complement spicy dishes. (When describing a wine, the term ‘spice’ can mean a number of different aromas and flavors such as white pepper, black pepper, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg and ginger.) Hot spices like chili reduce the sweetness in wine and can make dry red wines seem more astringent.

Fruity flavors in food can be matched with fruity/floral wines. For example, a Muscat might be paired with a fruit salad.

se uidelines and recommendations should avoid disastrous combinations, but al taste is the final consideration. Experimen

Perhaps one of the most striking illustrations of this is strawberry steeped in red win(try un-oaked Shiraz) with freshly ground black pepper. Grape varieties Inestablished wine counready reference to wine. In senior wine countries, above all France and Italy (betweenthem producing nearly half the world’s wine), more complex traditions prevail. All wine of old prestige is known by its origin, more or less narrowly defined, not just the particular fruit-juice that fermented. For the present the two notions are in rivalry. Eventually the primacy of place over fruit

ill become obvious, at least for winewtastes are the easy reference-point – despite the fact that they are often confused by the added taste of oak. If grape flavors were really all that mattered these notes would be short. But of course they do matter, and a knowledge of them both guides you to flavors you njoy ande

“varietal wine” – meaning, in principle, from one grape variety. • At least seven varieties –

o Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc, rztraminer, and Muscat – have tastes and smells Chardonnay, Gewu

distinct and memorable enough to form international categoriethese you can add Merlot, Malbec, Syrah, Semillon, Chenin Blanc, Pinots

nd Gris, Sylvaner, Viognier, Nebbiolo, Sangiovese, Tempranillo

f lowing are the best and/or most popular wine grapes. GAgiorgitiko (St George) Versatile Greek (Nemea) variety wivelvety tannins. Sufficient st

Baga Bairrada (Portugal) grape. Dark and tannic. Has great potential, but hard to grow.

Barbera Widely grown in Italy, at its best in Piedmont, wine. Fashionable in California and Australia; promising in Argentina.

Blaufränkisch Mostly Austrian; can be light and juicy but at best (in Burgenland) a considerable red. LEMBERGER in Germany, KEKFRANKOS in Hungary.

Brunello Alias for SANGIOVESE, splendid at Montalcino.

Cabernet Franc, alias Bouchet (Cab Fr) The lesser of two sorts of Cabernet grown in Bordeaux but dominant (as “Bouchet”) in St-Emilion. The Cabernet of the Loire,

with also makes most of the

quality potential.

nd Savoie.

naturel– especially in the South

er

of real quality.

n Médoc

making Chinon, Saumur, Champigny, and rosé. Used for blending with CABERNET SAUVIGNON, etc, or increasingly, alone, in California, Australia.

Cabernet Sauvignon (Cab Sauv) Grape of great character: spicy, herby, tannic,characteristic blackcurrant aroma. The first grape of the Médoc; best California, South American, East European reds. Vies with Shiraz in Australia. Its wine almost always needs ageing; usually benefits from blending with eg MERLOT, CABERNET FRANC, SYRAH, TEMPRANILLO, SANGIOVESE etc. Makes aromatic rosé.

Cannonau GRENACHE in its Sardinian manifestation: can be very fine, potent.

Carignan In decline in France. Needs low yields, old vines; best in Corbières. Otherwise dull but harmless. Common in North Africa, Spain, and California.

Carmènere An old Bordeaux variety now virtually extinct in France. Widely used in Chile where until recently it was often mistaken for MERLOT.

Cinsault/Cinsaut Usually bulk-producing grape of Southern France; in South Africacrossed with PINOT NOIR to make PINOTAGE. Pale wine, but

Dolcetto Source of soft seductive dry red in Piedmont. Now high fashion.

Gamay The Beaujolais grape: light, very fragrant wines, at their best young. Makes even lighter wine in the Loire Valley, in central France, and in Switzerland aKnown as “Napa Gamay” in California.

Grenache, alias Garnacha, Cannonau Useful grape for strong and fruity but pale wine: good rosé and vin doux of France, Spain, and California – but also the mainstay of beefy Priorato. Old-vine versions are prized in South Australia. Usually blended with othvarieties (eg in Châteauneuf-du-Pape).

Grignolino Makes one of the good everyday table wines of Piedmont.

Kadarka, alias Gamza Makes healthy, sound, agreeable reds in East Europe.

Kékfrankos Hungarian BLAUFRÄNKISCH; similar lightish reds.

Lambrusco Productive grape of the lower Po Valley, giving quintessentially Italian, cheerful, sweet, and fizzy red.

Lemberger See BLAUFRÄNKISCH. Württemberg’s red.

Malbec, alias Côt Minor in Bordeaux, major in Cahors (alias Auxerrois) and especially in Argentina. Dark, dense, tannic wine capable

Merlot Adaptable grape making the great fragrant and plummy wines of Pomerol and (with CABERNET FRANC) St-Emilion, an important element ireds, soft and strong (and à la mode) in California, Washington, Chile, Australia. Lighter but often good in North Italy, Italian Switzerland, Slovenia, Argentina, South Africa, New Zealand etc. Grassy when not fully ripe.

Montepulciano A good central-eastern Italian grape, and a Tuscan town.

Morellino Alias for SANGIOVESE in Scansano, southern Tuscany.

Mourvèdre, alias Mataro Excellent dark aromatic tannic grape used mainly new

pes; nse, nobly fruity,

in

es light wines rarely of much

s

fruity terestingly, but often jammy.

ines, especially when grown

ines.

gioveto) Main red grape of Chianti and much of central

iting.

n speciality. Also in the Pfalz.

n, and rom Southwest France. Also rosé. Now the star of Uruguay.

nt

-bodied

for blending in Provence (but solo in Bandol) and the Midi. Enjoyinginterest in, for example, South Australia and California.

Nebbiolo, alias Spanna and Chiavennasca One of Italy’s best red gramakes Barolo, Barbaresco, Gattinara, and Valtellina. Inteperfumed wine but very tannic: improves for years.

Periquita Ubiquitous in Portugal for firm-flavored reds. Often blended withCABERNET SAUVIGNON and also known as Castelão.

Petit Verdot Excellent but awkward Médoc grape, now increasingly planted Cabernet areas worldwide for extra fragrance.

Pinot Noir (Pinot N) The glory of Burgundy’s Côte d’Or, with scent, flavor, and texture that are unmatched anywhere. Makdistinction in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and Hungary. But now also splendid results in California’s Sonoma, Carneros, and Central Coast, as well

nd’as Oregon, Ontario, Yarra Valley, Adelaide Hills, Tasmania, and New ZealaSouth Island.

Pinotage Singular South African grape (PINOT NOIR x CINSAUT). Can be veryand can age in

Primitivo Southern Italian grape making big, rustic wines, now fashionable because genetically identical to ZINFANDEL.

Refosco In northeast Italy possibly a synonym for Mondeuse of Savoie. Produces deep, flavorsome and age-worthy win warmer climates.

Sagrantino Italian grape found in Umbria for powerful cherry-flavoured w

Sangiovese (or SanItaly. Aliases include BRUNELLO and MORELLINO. Interesting in Australia.

Saperavi Makes good, sharp, very long-lived wine in Georgia, Ukraine etc. Blends very well with CAB SAUV (eg in Moldova).

Spätburgunder German for PINOT N. Quality is variable, seldom wildly exc

St-Laurent Dark, smooth and full-flavored Austria

Syrah, alias Shiraz The great Rhône red grape: tannic, purple, peppery wine, which matures superbly. Very important as Shiraz in Australia, and under either name in California, Washington State, South Africa, Chile, and elsewhere.

Tannat Raspberry-perfumed, highly tannic force behind Madiran, Tursaother firm reds f

Tempranillo Aromatic fine Rioja grape, called Ull de Llebre in Catalonia, Cencibel in La Mancha, Tinto Fino in Ribera del Duero, Tinta Roriz in Douro, Aragonez in southern Portugal. Now Australia, too. Very fashionable; elegain cool climates, beefy in warm. Early ripening.

Touriga Nacional Top port grape grown in the Douro Valley. Also makes full

reds in south Portugal.

Zinfandel (Zin) Fruity adaptable grape of California (though identical to PRIMITIVO) with blackberry-like, and sometimes metallic, flavour. Can be

ia. Both fashionable and expensive in Spain.

erring to its In California used

or t in Switzerland (where it is supreme), Gutedel in Germany.

,

tly fruity, nicely sharp grape, makes everyday wine in South

picy wine in Campania.

le flavour make this ideal for brandy. Called Gros ia.

ey

eet

structured and gloriously lush, but also makes “blush” white wine.

Grapes for white wine

The Spanish name for North Portugal’s Alvarinho, making excellent Albariño fresh and fragrant wine in Galic

Aligoté Burgundy’s second-rank white grape. Crisp (often sharp) wine, needs drinking in 1–3 years. Perfect for mixing with cassis (blackcurrant liqueur) to make “Kir”. Widely planted in East Europe, especially Russia.

Arinto White central Portuguese grape for crisp, fragrant dry whites.

Arneis Aromatic, high-priced grape, DOC in Roero, Piedmont.

Blanc Fumé Occasional (New World) alias of SAUVIGNON BLANC, refsmoky smell, particularly from the Loire (Sancerre and Pouilly).for oak-aged Sauvignon and reversed to “Fumé Blanc”. (The smoke is oak.)

Bourboulenc This and the rare Rolle make some of the Midi’s best wines.

Bual Makes top-quality sweet madeira wines, not quite so rich as malmsey.

Chardonnay (Chard) The white grape of burgundy, Champagne, and the New World, partly because it is one of the easiest to grow and vinify. All regions are trying it, mostly aged (or, better, fermented) in oak to reproducethe flavors of burgundy. Australia and California make classics (but also much dross). Italy, Spain, New Zealand, South Africa, New York State, Argentina, Chile, Hungary and the Midi are all coming on strong. Called Morillon in Austria.

Chasselas Prolific early-ripening grape with little aroma, mainly grown feating. AKA Fendan

Chenin Blanc (Chenin Bl) Great white grape of the middle Loire (VouvrayLayon, etc). Wine can be dry or sweet (or very sweet), but with plenty of acidity. Bulk wine in California, but increasingly serious in South Africa. See also STEEN.

Clairette A low-acid grape, part of many southern French blends.

Colombard SlighAfrica, California, and Southwest France.

Fendant See CHASSELAS.

Fiano High quality grape giving peachy, s

Folle Blanche High acid/littPlant in Brittany, Picpoul in Armagnac. Also respectable in Californ

Furmint A grape of great character: the trademark of Hungary both as the principal grape in Tokáj and as vivid, vigorous table wine with an applflavour. Called Sipon in Slovenia. Some grown in Austria.

Garganega The best grape in the Soave blend. Top wines, especially sw

ones, age well.

Gewurztraminer, alias Traminer (Gewurz) One of the most pungent grapes, y with aromas like rose petals and grapefruit. Wines are

rape of central and south Italy noted for the vitality

it can be delicious: light but dry, peppery and

body.

gary’s best whites.

ILVANER, flowery (but often too

hriesling,

ly alvoisie in

Joseph, St-Péray). Also good in Australia, California,

.

d Pfalz G

as erglen Muscat.

tly made into perfumed sweet

distinctively spicoften rich and soft, even when fully dry. Best in Alsace; but also good in Germany (Gewürztraminer), East Europe, Australia, California, Pacific Northwest, and New Zealand.

Grauburgunder See PINOT GRIS.

Grechetto or Greco Ancient gand stylishness of its wine.

Grüner Veltliner Austria’s favorite. Around Vienna and in the Wachau and Weinviertel (also in Moravia)lively. Excellent young, but the best age five years or so.

Hárslevelü Other main grape of Tokáj (with FURMINT). Adds softness and

Kéknyelü Low-yielding, flavorful grape giving one of HunHas the potential for fieriness and spice. To be watched.

Kerner The most successful of recent German varieties, mostly RIESLING x Sbut in this case Riesling x (red) Trollinger. Early-ripening, blatant) wine with good acidity. Popular in Pfalz, Rheinhessen, etc.

Laski Rizling Grown in northern Italy and Eastern Europe. Much inferior to Rhine RIESLING, with lower acidity, best in sweet wines. Alias WelscRiesling Italico, Olaszrizling (no longer legally labelled simply “Riesling”).

Loureiro The best and most fragrant Vinho Verde variety in Portugal.

Macabeo The workhorse white grape of north Spain, widespread in Rioja(alias Viura) and in Catalan cava country. Good quality potential.

Malvasia A family of grapes rather than a single variety, found all over Itaand Iberia. May be red, white, or pink. Usually plump, soft wine. MFrance is unrelated.

Marsanne Principal white grape (with ROUSSANNE) of the northern Rhône (eg in Hermitage, St-and (as Ermitage Blanc) the Valais. Soft full wines that age very well.

Moschofilero Good, aromatic pink Greek grape. Makes white or rosé wine

Müller-Thurgau (Müller-T) Dominant in Germany’s Rheinhessen anand too common on the Mosel. It was thought to be a cross between RIESLINand Chasselas de Courtellier, but recent studies suggests otherwise. Soft aromatic wines for drinking young. Makes good sweet wines but usually dull, often coarse, dry ones. Should have no place in top vineyards.

Muscadelle Adds aroma to white Bordeaux, especially Sauternes. In Victoria Tokay it is used (with MUSCAT, to which it is unrelated) for Ruth

Muscadet, alias Melon de Bourgogne Makes light, refreshing, very dry wines with a seaside tang round Nantes in Brittany.

Muscat (Many varieties; the best is Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains.) Widely grown, easily recognized, pungent grapes, mos

wines, often fortified (as in France’s vins doux naturels). Superb in Australia.

ountry: elsewhere in the Southwest.

for Italian

alias Ruländer (sweet) nia,

ralia) for making white, sparkling, or very

ell.

often mineral in Sancerre, riper in Australia;

uxom.

ere, serious commentators agree that Riesling stands level

ous,

this ht

cessful good.

The third element in Tokáj Aszú. Rarely (eg Alsace) made dry.

Palomino, alias Listán Makes all the best sherry but poor table wine.

Pedro Ximénez, alias PX Makes very strong wine in Montilla and Málaga. Used in blending sweet sherries. Also grown in Argentina, the Canaries, Australia, California, and South Africa.

Petit (and Gros) Manseng The secret weapon of the French Basque cvital for Jurançon; increasingly blended

Pinot Blanc (Pinot Bl) A cousin of PINOT NOIR, similar to but milder than CHARDONNAY: light, fresh, fruity, not aromatic, to drink young. Goodspumante. Grown in Alsace, northern Italy, south Germany, and East Europe.Weissburgunder in Germany. See also MUSCADET.

Pinot Gris (Pinot Gr) At best makes rather heavy, even “thick”, full-bodied whites with a certain spicy style. In Germany can beor GRAUBURGUNDER (dry); Pinot Grigio in Italy. Also found in Hungary, SloveCanada, Oregon, New Zealand...

Pinot Noir (Pinot N) Superlative black grape (See p.12) used in Champagne and elsewhere (eg California, Austpale pink “vin gris”.

Roussanne Rhône grape of great finesse, now popping up in California and Australia. Can age w

Sauvignon Blanc (Sauv Bl) Makes very distinctive aromatic grassy wines, pungent in New Zealand,also good in Rueda, Austria, north Italy, Chile’s Casablanca Valley, and South Africa. Blended with SEMILLON in Bordeaux. Can be austere or bMay be called BLANC FUMÉ.

Savagnin The grape of vin jauneof Savoie: related to TRAMINER?

Riesling (Ries) Riesling is making its re-entrance on the world-stage through, as it wthe back door. Allwith Chardonnay as the world’s best white wine grape, though in diametrically opposite style. Chardonnay gives full-bodied but aromaticallydiscreet wines, while Riesling offers a range from steely to voluptualways positively perfumed, and with more ageing potential than Chardonnay. Germany makes the greatest Riesling in all styles. Yet its popularity is being revived in, of all places, South Australia, wherecool-climate grape does its best to ape Chardonnay. Holding the middleground, with forceful but still steely wines, is Austria. While lovers of ligand fragrant, often piercingly refreshing Rieslings have the Mosel as theirexclusive playground. Also grown in Alsace (but nowhere else in France), Pacific Northwest, Ontario, California, New Zealand, and South Africa.

Scheurebe Spicy-flavoured German RIES x SILVANER (possibly), very sucin Pfalz, especially for Auslese. Can be weedy: must be very ripe to be

Semillon (Sem) Contributes the lusciousness to Sauternes and increasingly

important for Graves and other dry white Bordeaux. Grassy if not fully ripe, but can make soft dry wine of great ageing potential. Superb in Australia: old

dHunter Valley Sem, though light, can be great wine. Promising in New Zealan

.

G).

n

le”. gnonasse (see SAUVIGNON BLANC).

able SCAT.

ly

g-lived.

t medium-sweet wine; in Australia,

sfying texture and ageing capacity.

accia di San

lia.

te in restaurants. Four people have chosen different dishes. ttle of white and then one of red is conventional, regardless of

Before the meal – apéritifs

Sercial Makes the driest madeira (where myth used to identify it with RIESLIN

Seyval Blanc (Seyval Bl) French-made hybrid of French and American vines. Very hardy and attractively fruity. Popular and reasonably successful in eastern States and England but dogmatically banned by EU from “quality” wines.

Steen South African alias for CHENIN BLANC, not used for better examples.

Silvaner, alias Sylvaner Germany’s former workhorse grape. Rarely fineexcept in Franken – where it is savoury and ages admirably – and in Rheinhessen and Pfalz, where it is enjoying a renaissance. Good in the Italia

as Tyrol; now declining in popularity in Alsace. Very good (and powerful)Johannisberg in the Valais, Switzerland.

Tocai Friulano North Italian grape with a flavour best described as “subtNo relation to TOKAY, but could be Sauvi

Tokay See PINOT GRIS. Also supposedly Hungarian grape in Australia and a tgrape in California. The wine Tokay (Tokáj) is FURMINT, HARSLEVELU and MU

Torrontes Strongly aromatic, MUSCAT-like Argentine speciality, usually dry.

Trebbiano Important but mediocre grape of central Italy (Orvieto, Soave etc). Also grown in southern France as Ugni Blanc, and Cognac as St-Emilion. Mostthin, bland wine; needs blending (and more careful growing).

Ugni Blanc (Ugni Bl) See TREBBIANO.

Verdejo The grape of Rueda in Castile, potentially fine and lon

Verdelho Madeira grape making excellenfresh soft dry wine of great character.

Verdicchio Potentially good dry wine in central-eastern Italy.

Vermentino Italian, sprightly with sati

Vernaccia Name given to many unrelated grapes in Italy. VernGimignano is crisp, lively; Vernaccia di Oristano is sherry-like.

Viognier Ultra-fashionable Rhône grape, finest in Condrieu, less fine but stillaromatic in the Midi. Good examples from California and Austra

Viura See MACABEO.

Welschriesling See LASKI RIZLING.

Food and Wine

The dilemma is most acuThe host calculates. A bothe food. The formula works up to a point.

But it can be refined – or replaced with something more original, something to really bring out the flavors of both food and wine.

The conventional apéritif wines are either sparkling (epitomized by Champagne) or fortified (epitomized by sherry in Britain, port in France, vermouth in Italy, etc). A glass

d) table wine before eating is presently in vogue. It calls ter;

quencher is needed for its garlic heat. Rhône, sparkling dry white;

light young Chianti); fino sherry.

t (55 60 63 66 70 75 82).

e e. With hollandaise Full-

ros or Yarra

our, ell

tter or hollandaise. Alsace Pinot Gr, even dry Muscat is gd, or Jurançon

tto. Baked aubergine dishes can need sturdier reds: Shiraz, Zin.

r Bl, or a

l treat.

, Roussillon, Gevrey-Chambertin, or

seradish kills everything – but can be worth

a era del Duero or Douro red.

hors, Hermitage, late-harvest Zin – even Moldovan Negru de Purkar.

of white or rosé (or in France refor something light and stimulating, fairly dry but not acidic, with a degree of characChenin Blanc or Riesling rather than Chardonnay. Please note: Avoid peanuts; they destroy wine flavors. Olives are also too piquant for many wines; they need sherry or a Martini. Eat almonds, pistachios or walnuts, plain crisps or cheese straws instead.

Food A–Z

Abalone Dry or medium white: Sauv Bl, Côte de Beaune Blanc, Pinot Gr, or Grüner Veltliner. Chinese style: try vintage Champagne.

Aïoli A thirst-Provence rosé, Verdicchio.

Anchovies A robust white – or fino sherry.

Antipasti Dry white: Italian (Arneis, Soave, Pinot Grigio, prosecco, Vermentino);red (Dolcetto, Franciacorta,

Apples, Cox’s Orange Pippins Vintage por

Artichoke vinaigrette An incisive dry white: New Zealand Sauv Bl; Côtes de Gascognor a modern Greek; young red: Bordeaux, Côtes du Rhônbodied slightly crisp dry white: Pouilly-Fuissé, Pfalz Spätlese, or a CarneValley Chard.

Asparagus A difficult flavour for wine, being slightly bitter. Sauv Bl echoes the flavbut needs to be ripe, as in Chile. Sem beats Chard, esp Australian, but Chard works wwith melted buSec.

Aubergine purée (Melitzanosalata) Crisp New World Sauv Bl eg from South Africa or New Zealand; or modern Greek or Sicilian dry white. Or try Bardolino red or Chiare

Avocado with seafood Dry or slightly sharp white: Rheingau or Pfalz Kabinett, GrüneVeltliner, Wachau Ries, Sancerre, Pinot Gr; Sonoma or Australian Chard or Sauvdry rosé. Or Chablis Premier Cru.

Avocado with vinaigrette Manzanilla sherry.

Barbecues The local wine would be Australian. Or south Italian, Tempranillo, Zin or Argentine Malbec. Bandol for a rea

Beef, boiled Red: Bordeaux (Bourg or Fronsac)Côte-Rôtie. Medium-ranking white burgundy is gd, eg. Auxey-Duresses. Or top-notch beer. Mustard softens tannic reds, and horthe sacrifice. roast Ideal partner for fine red wine of any kind, esp Cab Sauv.

Beef stew Sturdy red: Pomerol or St-Emilion, Hermitage, Cornas, Barbera, Shiraz, NapCab Sauv, Rib

Beef Stroganoff Dramatic red: Barolo, Valpolicella Amarone, Ca

Beurre blanc, fish with A top-notch Muscadet-sur-lie, a Sauv Bl/Sem blend, Chablis Premier Cru, Vouvray or a Rheingau Riesling.

Sem.

Bl, esp when served with apples: dry

Midi or Rhône,

st France (Gaillac, Minervois, Corbières,

isp aromatic white: Sancerre, Ries Spätlese,

died

nd

N. Young Argentine or Italian reds. Sauv Bl

turkey/guinea fowl, roast Virtually any wine, including very best e

wine red or white burgundy). Try sparkling Shiraz with

Young red: Beaujolais, Zin, or Argentine Malbec.

Bisques Dry white with plenty of body: Pinot Gr, Chard, Gruner Veltliner. Fino or dry amontillado sherry, or montilla. West Australian

Boudin noir (blood sausage) Local Sauv Bl or Chenin Bl – esp in the Loire. Or Beaujolais Cru, esp Morgon. blanc Loire CheninVouvray, Saumur or Savennières. Mature red Côtes de Beaune, if without apple.

Bouillabaisse Savoury dry white, Marsanne from the Corsican or Spanish rosé, or Cassis, Verdicchio, South African Sauv Bl.

Brandade Chablis, Sancerre Rouge or New Zealand Pinot Noir.

Bread-and-butter pudding Fine 10-yr-old Barsac, Tokáj Azsú or Australian botrytized Sem.

Brill Very delicate: hence a top fish for fine old Puligny and the like.

Cajun food Works well with Fleurie, Brouilly or Sauv Bl. With gumbo: amontillado or Mexican beer.

Carpaccio, beef Seems to work well with the flavour of most wines. Top Tuscan is appropriate, but fine Chards are gd. So are vintage and pink Champagnes.

Cassoulet Red from southweSt-Chinian or Fitou) or Shiraz. But best of all is Beaujolais Cru or young Tempranillo.

Cauliflower cheese CrMuscat, English Seyval Bl, or Schönburger.

Caviar Iced vodka. If you prefer Champagne, it should be full-bo(eg Bollinger, Krug).

Ceviche Try Australian Ries or Verdelho; South African or New ZealaSauv Bl.

Charcuterie Young Beaujolais-Villages, Loire reds such as Saumur, Swiss or Oregon Pinotcan work well too.

Chicken/bottles of dry to medium white and finest old reds (esp burgundy). Thmeat of fowl can be adapted with sauces to match almost any fine (eg coq au vinwith strong, sweet, or spicy stuffings and trimmings.

Chicken Kiev Alsace or Pfalz Ries, Hungarian Furmint, young Pinot N.

Cheesecake Sweet white: Vouvray or Anjou or fizz, refreshing but nothing special.

Cheese fondue Dry white: Valais Fendant or any other Swiss Chasselas, Roussette de Savoie, Grüner Veltliner, Alsace Ries, or Pinot Gr. Or a Beaujolais Cru. For Wine & cheese, see p.27.

Chilli con carne

Chinese Food • Canton or Peking style Dry to medium-dry white – Mosel Ries Kabinett

hout a Chinese banquet. Light (but brilliant with s. Dry or off-dry

es but I often

ChocoBual, T

ousse Médoc can match of good rum.

lis, er,

eaune.

.

n

r, du-Mont, or Monbazillac.

eira or Tokáj.

or Spätlese trocken – can be gd througMonbazillac, too. Gewurz is often suggested but rarely works

et Chasselas and Pinot Gr are attractive alternativeginger), ysparkling cuts the oil and matches sweetness. Eschew sweet-and-sour dish

ck. try St-Emilion __, New World Pinot N, or Châteauneuf-du-Pape with duserve both white and red wines concurrently during Chinese meals.

Szechuan style Verdicchio, Alsace Pinot Blanc or very cold beer.

late Generally only powerful flavors can compete. California Orange Muscat, okáj Aszú, Australian Liqueur Muscat, 10-yr-old tawny port; Asti for light, fluffy

m s. Experiment with rich, ripe reds: Syrah, Zin, even sparkling Shiraz. bitter black chocolate. Banyuls for a weightier partnership. Or a tot

Chowders Big-scale white, not necessarily bone dry: Pinot Gr, Rhine Spätlese, Albariño, Australian Sem, buttery Chard. Or fino sherry.

Choucroute garni Alsace Pinot Blanc, Pinot Gris, Ries. Or beer.

Christmas pudding, mince pies Tawny port, cream sherry, or liquid Christmas pudding itself, Pedro Ximénez sherry. Asti or Banyuls.

Cold meats Generally better with full-flavoured white than red. Mosel Spätlese or Hochheimer and Côte Chalonnaise are v.gd, as is Beaujolais. Leftover cold beef with leftover Champagne is bliss.

Cod If roast, a good neutral background for fine dry whites: ChabMeursault, Corton-Charlemagne, cru classé Graves, Grüner VeltlinGerman (medium) Kabinett or dry Spätlesen or a gd light red, eg B

Coffee desserts Sweet Muscat inc Australia liqueur or Tokáj Aszú

Confit d’oie/de canard Young tannic red Bordeaux Cru Bourgeois, California Cab Sauv and Merlot, and Priorato all cut the richness. Choose Alsace Pinot Gr or Gewurz to match it.

Consommé Medium-dry amontillado sherry or sercial madeira.

Coq au vin Red burgundy. In an ideal world, one bottle of Chambertiin the dish, two on the table.

Crab and Ries are part of the Creator’s plan.

cioppino Sauv Bl; but West Coast friends insist on Zin. Also California sparkling wine – or any other full-bodied sparkler.

cold, with salad Alsace, Austrian or Rhine Ries; dry Australian Ries or Condrieu. Show off your favorite white.

soft-shell Top Chard or top-quality German Ries Spätlese. with black bean sauce A big Barossa Shiraz/Syrah.

Creams, custards, fools, syllabubs See also Chocolate, Coffee, Gingeand Rum. Sauternes, Loupiac, Ste-Croix-

Crème brûlée Sauternes or Rhine Beerenauslese, best Mad(With concealed fruit, a more modest sweet wine.)

Crêpes Suzette Sweet Champagne, Orange Muscat or Asti.

Crostini Morellino di Scansano, Montepulciano d’Abruzzo, Valpolicella,

ois, Chianti, Pinot N;

ld fizz.

rdeaux, or

s.

Schnapps.

ost wines and tually spoil gd ones. But local wine with local egg dishes is

oak

ampagne.

ine

as), St-Véran or Aligoté. In

d dishes Sauv Bl, or young, fresh red like Beaujolais.

auv

a salt crust Full-bodied white or rosé; Meursault, Rioja,

nes. Others prefer a

or a dry Italian white such as Verdicchio or Orvieto.

Crudités Light red or rosé: Côtes du Rhône, Minervor fino sherry. For whites: Alsace Sylvaner or Pinot Blanc.

Dim-Sum Classically, China tea. For fun: Pinot Grigio or Ries; light red (Bardolino or Loire ). NV Champagne or gd New Wor

Duck or goose Rather rich white: Pfalz Spätlese or off-dry Alsace Grand Cru. Or mature gamey red: Morey-St-Denis, Côte-Rôtie, Boburgundy. With oranges or peaches, the Sauternais propose drinking Sauternes, others Monbazillac or Ries Auslese.

Peking See Chinese food.

wild duck Big-scale red such as Hermitage, Bandol, California or South African Cab Sauv, or Barossa Shiraz – Grange if you can find it.

with olives Top-notch Chianti or other Tuscan

Eel, • jellied NV Champagne or a nice cup of (Ceylon) tea. • smoked Strong/sharp wine: fino sherry or Bourgogne Aligoté.

Eggs See also Soufflés. Difficult: eggs clash with mcan aca safe bet. So ____ of whatever is going. Try Pinot Bl or not too

y Chard. As a last resort I can bring myself to drink Champagne with scrambled eggs.

Quail’s eggs Blanc de Blancs Champagne.

Seagull’s (or gull’s) eggs Mature white burgundy or vintage Ch

Oeufs en meurette Burgundian genius: eggs in red wine calls for wof the same.

Escargots Rhône reds (Gigondas, Vacqueyrthe Midi, v.gd Petits-Gris go with local white, rosé or red. In Alsace, Pinot Bl or Muscat.

Fennel-base

Fish and chips, fritto misto (or tempura) Chablis, white Bordeaux, SBl, Pinot Bl, Gavi, fino, montilla, Koshu, tea; or NV Champagne and Cava.

Fish baked inAlbariño, Sicily, Côtes de Lubéron or Minervois.

Fish pie (with creamy sauce) Albariño, Soave Classico, Pinot Gr d’Alsace.

Fish terrine Pfalz Ries Spätlese Trocken, Grüner Veltliner, Chablis Premier Cru, Clare Valley Ries, Sonoma Chard; or manzanilla.

Foie gras White. In Bordeaux they drink Sauterlate-harvest Pinot Gr or Ries (inc New World), Vouvray, Montlouis, Jurançon Moelleux or Gewurz. Tokáj Aszú 5 puttonyos is a Lucullan

choice. Old dry amontillado can be sublime. If the foie gras is served

er

Moscato di ia or Spanish dessert Tarragona.

dried fruit (and compotes) Banyuls, Rivesaltes or Maury. y or Anjou.

Game d you can afford. rd, Santenay or

n’s Chateau Musar.

Ga •

a a uv Bl.

Go s

rkish.

ne.

any stylish white, inc Grand Cru Chablis or Chard from Sonoma or New Zealand.

malt whisky.

Hake S

: Beaujolais or Australian Cab Sauv, Chianti or Zin.

hot, mature vintage Champagne. But never Chard or Sauv Bl.

Frankfurters German Ries, Beaujolais or light Pinot N. Or Budweis(Budvar) beer.

Fruit • fresh Sweet Coteaux du Layon or light sweet Muscat. • poached Sweet Muscatel: try Muscat de Beaumes- de-Venise,

Panteller• • flans and tarts Sauternes, Monbazillac; sweet Vouvra• salads A fine sweet sherry or any Muscat-based wine.

birds, young, plain-roasted The best re• older birds in casseroles Red (Gevrey-Chambertin, Pomma

Grand Cru St-Emilion, Napa Valley Cab Sauv or Rhône). • well-hung game Vega Sicilia, great red Rhône, Lebano• cold game Mature vintage Champagne.

me pie, hot Red: Oregon Pinot N.

• cold Gd quality white burgundy, cru Beaujolais or Champagne.

G zp cho A glass of fino before and after. Or Sa

Ginger desserts Sweet Muscats, New World botrytized Ries and Sem.

at’ cheese (warm) Sancerre, Pouilly-Fumé or New World Sauv Bl.Chilled Chinon, Saumur-Champigny or Provence rosé. Australian sparkling Shiraz or strong east Mediterranean reds: eg Greek or Tu

Goulash Flavoursome young red such as Hungarian Zin, Uruguayan Tannat, Morellino di Scansano or a young Australian Shiraz.

Gravadlax Akvavit or iced sake. Grand Cru Chablis; California,Washingtonor Margaret River Chard; Mosel Spätlese (not Trocken).

Guacamole California Chard, Sauv Blanc, dry Muscat or NV ChampagOr Mexican beer.

Haddock Rich dry whites: Meursault, California or New Zealand Chard, Marsanne or Albariño.

• smoked, mousse or brandade A wonderful dish for showing off full-bodied

Haggis Fruity red, eg young claret, Châteauneuf-du-Pape or New World Cab Sauv. Or of course

auv Bl or any fresh fruity white: Pacherenc, Tursan, white Navarra.

Halibut As for turbot.

u Pinot Gr, crisp Italian white or Ham, raw or cured Alsace Grand Crsweetish German white (Rhine Spätlese). Soft Pinot Noir or lightish Cab Sauv. With Spanish pata negraor jamon, try fino sherry or tawny port.

Hamburger Young red

Hare Calls for flavorful red: not-too-old burgundy or Bordeaux, Rhône (eg Gigondas), Bandol, Barbaresco, Ribero del Duero or Rioja Reserva. Australia’s Grange would be an experience.

Herrings, • raw or pickled Dutch gin (young, not aged) or Scandinavian akvavit, and cold

ss. Rully,

Ice-cr iqueur Muscat, Ban lwith va

as,

tejo.

d.

d pa

.

s

many r the wine.

Beaujolais-Villages, St-Joseph, Cab Sauv,

u

rieu, Mosel

beer. If wine is essential, try Muscadet 2003. e acidity to cut their richne• fried/grilled Need a white with som

Chablis, Bourgogne Aligoté, Greek white or dry Sauv Bl. Or try cider.

Houmous Pungent, spicy dry white, eg Furmint or modern Greek white.

eams and sorbets Fortified wine (Australian lyu s, PX sherry); sweet Asti or sparkling Moscato. Amaretto liqueur

nilla; rum with chocolate.

Indian food Medium-sweet white, very cold: Orvieto Abboccato, South African Chenin Bl, Alsace Pinot Bl, Indian sparkling, Mateus Rosé, cavaand NV Champagne. Or emphasize the heat with a tannic Barolo or

s such as Châteauneuf-du-Pape, CornBarbaresco, or deep-flavoured redAustralian Grenache or Mourvèdre, or Valpolicella Amarone.

Kedgeree Full white, still or sparkling: Mâcon-Villages, South African Chard. At breakfast: Champagne.

Kidneys Red: St-Emilion or Fronsac: Nuits-St-Georges, Cornas, Barbaresco, Rioja, Spanish or Australian Cab Sauv or top Alen

Kippers A gd cup of tea, preferably Ceylon (milk, no sugar). Scotch? Dry oloroso sherry is surprisingly g

Lamb, roast One of the traditional and best partners for v.gd reBordeaux – or its Cab Sauv equivalents from the New World, esp Naand Coonawarra. In Spain, the partner of the finest old Rioja and

nd Pinot N for spicy lamb dishesRibera del Duero Reservas. New ZealaAs for roast lamb, but a little less grand. cutlets or chops

Lamproie à la Bordelaise 5-yr-old St-Emilion or Fronsac. Or Douro redwith Portuguese lampreys.

Lemon desserts For dishes like Tarte au Citron, sweet Ries from Geror Austria, or Tokáj Aszú; the sharper the lemon, the sweete

Lentil dishes Sturdy reds such as southern French, or Zin or Shiraz.

Liver Choose a young red: Merlot, Zin or Portuguese.

• Calf’s Red Rioja crianza, Salice Salentino Riserva or Fleurie.

Lobster, richly sauced Vintage Champagne, fine white burgundy, crclassé Graves, California Chard or Australian Ries, Pfalz Spätlese.

ne, Alsace Ries, Chablis Premier Cru, Cond• salad NV ChampagSpätlese, Penedès Chard or Cava.

Mackerel Hard or sharp white: Sauv Bl from Touraine, Gaillac, Vinho Verde, white Rioja or English white. Guinness is gd.

• smoked An oily wine-destroyer. Manzanilla sherry, proper dry Vinho VerdeSchnapps, peppered or bison-grass

or vodka. Or lager.

gondas or Coteaux

du

ering

ch as Moscato

es. hard, Oregon Pinot N or Chilean Merlot.

w Zealand Pinot N.

ghtly oaked Chard.

.

St-Georges, Barolo, Châteauneuf-du-Pape. Or Rioja

ru, Muscadet, white

gne is gd with

Pan ttokáj A

Frascati or Alto Adige Chard. t.

(basil) sauce Barbera, Ligurian Vermentino, New Zealand Sauv Bl,

white Rioja, Cirò, or Sauv

Mediterranean vegetable dishes Vigorous young red: Chianti, NewZealand Cab Sauv or Merlot; young red Bordeaux, Gi

Languedoc. Or characterful white.

ues Recioto di Soave, Asti or Champagne doux. M

Mezze A selection of hot and cold vegetable dishes. Sparkling is a gd all-purpose choice, as is rosé from the Languedoc or Provence. Fino sherry is in its element.

Mille-feuille desserts Delicate sweet sparkling white sud’Asti or demi-sec Champagne.

Monkfish Often roasted, which needs fuller rather than leaner winTry Australian/New Zealand C

Moussaka Red or rosé: Naoussa from Greece, Sangiovese, Corbières, Côtes de Provence, Ajaccio or Ne

Mullet, red A chameleon, adaptable to gd white or red, esp Pinot N.

Mullet, grey Verdicchio, Rully or unoaked Chard.

Mussels Muscadet-sur-lie, Chablis Premier Cru or a li

Nuts Finest oloroso sherry, madeira, vintage or tawny port (nature’s match for walnuts), Vin Santo or Setúbal Moscatel.

Orange desserts Experiment with old Sauternes, Tokáj Aszú, or California Orange Muscat.

Osso buco Low tannin, supple red, such as Dolcetto d’Alba or Pinot NOr dry Italian whites such as Soave and Lugana.

Oxtail Match with a rather rich French red such as St-Emilion, Pomerol, Pommard, Nuits-Reserva or Ribera del Duero. Or California or Coonawarra Cab Sauv.

Oysters, raw NV Champagne, Chablis Premier CGraves, Sauv Bl or Guinness.

• cooked Puligny-Montrachet or gd New World Chard. Champaeither.

Paella Young Spanish wines: red, dry white or rosé from Penedès, Somontano, Navarra or Rioja.

e one Jurançon moelleux, late-harvest Ries, Barsac, Vin Santo or szú. T

Pasta Red or white according to the sauce or trimmings: • cream sauce Orvieto, • meat sauce Montepulciano d’Abruzzo, Salice Salentino or Merlo• pesto

Hungarian Hárslevelü or Furmint. • seafood sauce (eg vongole) Verdicchio, Soave, top

Bl.

• tomato sauce Barbera, south Italian red, Zin, or South Australian Grenache

mi Alsace Ries, young Sangiovese,

.

Pas a

Pâté

anti Classico, or Pomerol. fish pâté Muscadet, Mâcon-Villages, or Australian Chard (unoaked).

Pea s Rie e

Pec

can try Tempranillo or Grenache.

top white

e. mature claret.

Pizza A

a fairly light red or rich

s,

ingau;

;

which

tr or Cab Fr.

• chicken liver Calls for pungent white (Alsace Pinot Gr or Marsanne), a smoothred like a light Pomerol or Volnay, or even amontillado sherry.

• duck pâté Châteauneuf-du-Pape, Cornas, Chi• • Pâté de campagne A dry white __: Gd vin de pays, Graves, Pfalz Ries.

in red wine A pause before the port. Or try Rivesaltes, Banyulsr or s B erenauslese.

an pie Orange Muscat or Australian liqueur Muscat.

Peperonata Dry Australian Ries, Western Australia Sem or New Zealand Sauv Bl. Red drinkers

Perch, sandre Exquisite freshwater fish for finest wines:burgundy, Alsace Ries Grand Cru or noble Mosels. Or try top Swiss Fendant or Johannisberg.

Pigeon Lively reds: Savigny, Chambolle-Musigny; Crozes-Hermitage, Chianti Classico, or California Pinot N. Or try Franken Silvaner Spätles

• squab Fine white or red burgundy, Alsace Ries Grand Cru or

Pipérade Rosé, or dry South Australian Ries.

Pimentos, roasted Sauv Bl, or light reds.

ny __ dry Italian red. Or Rioja, Australian Shiraz, southern French red or Douro red.

Pork, roast A gd rich neutral background towhite. It deserves __ treatment – Médoc is fine. Portugal’s suckling pig is eaten with Bairrada Garrafeira. Chinese is gd with Pinot N.

Pot au feu, bollito misto, cocido Rustic red wines from the region of origin; Sangiovese di Romagna, Chusclan, Lirac, Rasteau, Portuguese Alentejo or Yecla and Jumilla from Spain.

Pumpkin/Squash dishes Full-bodied fruity dry or off-dry white: Viognier or Marsanne, demi-sec Vouvray, Gavi or South African Chenin Bl.

dry white: burgundy, GravePrawns, shrimps or langoustines Fine New Zealand Chard, Pfalz Ries – even fine mature Champagne. (“Cocktail sauce” kills wine, and in time, people.)

Quail Alsace Ries Grand Cru, Rioja Reserva, mature claret or Pinot N.

Quiches Dry full-bodied white: Alsace, Graves, Sauv Bl, dry Rhe ingredients. or young red (Tempranillo, Periquita), according to

Rabbit Lively medium-bodied young Italian red or Aglianico del VultureChiroubles, Chinon, Saumur-Champigny, or New Zealand Pinot Noir.

Raspberries (no cream, little sugar) Excellent with fine redsthemselves taste of raspberries: young Juliénas, Regnié, even Pomerol.

Risotto, with seafood Pinot Gr from Friuli, Gavi, youngish Sem, Dolcetto

Sal s nd

osé: Provençal,

ou want salad at f

Sal oMon aVeltliner, Condrieu, California, Idaho or New Zealand Chard, Rheingau

ablis Grand lso vodka,

, California Chard or New Zealand Sauv

Sand-

Sar nor modern Greek.

ealand.

azing.

lightly sweet dish, best with finest whites. , or dry

Ries, or Gewurz.

Sea adeli te

Shark’ f Cognac. Sip amontillado.

r sauces. With s.

or Barbera d’Alba. • with fungi porcini Finest mature Barolo or Barbaresco.

Rum desserts (baba, mousses, ice-cream) Muscat – from Asti to ccording to weight of dish. Australian liqueur, a

ad As a first course, esp with blue cheese dressing, any dry aappetizing white wine.

ht or flowery white or r• salade niçoise Very dry, __, not too ligRhône, or Corsican; Fernão Pires, Sauv Bl.

• NB Vinegar in salad dressings destroys the flavour of wine. If ya meal with fine wine, dress the salad with wine or a little lemon juice instead ovinegar.

m n, seared or grilled Fine white burgundy: Puligny- or Chassagne- tr chet, Meursault, Corton-Charlemagne, Chablis Grand Cru; Grüner

Kabinett/Spätlese, Australian Ries. Young Pinot N can be gd. Salmon fishcakes call for similar, but less grand, wines.

• smoked A dry but pungent white: fino sherry, Alsace Pinot Gr, ChCru, Pouilly-Fumé, Pfalz Ries Spätlese or vintage Champagne. Aschnapps or akvavit.

• carpaccio Puligny-Montrachet, CondrieuBl.

dabs This sublime fish can handle your fullest Chard (not oaky).

di es, fresh grilled Very dry white: Vinho Verde, Soave, Muscadet,

Sashimi If you are prepared to forego the wasabi, sparkling wines will match. Or Washington or Tasmanian Chard, Chablis Grand Cru,

English Seyval Bl. Otherwise, iced sake, fino Rheingau Ries andsherry or beer. Trials have matched 5-putt Tokáj with fat tuna, sea urchin and anago (eel).

ew ZSatay Australia’s McLaren Vale Shiraz. Gewurz from Alsace or N

Sauerkraut (German) Lager or Pils. But a Ries Auslese can be am

Scallops An inherently s• in cream sauces German Spätlese, Montrachet, top Australian Chard

Vouvray. grilled or seared Hermitage Blanc, Grüner Veltliner, Entre-Deux-Mers, vintage • Champagne, or Pinot N.

• with Asian seasoning New Zealand, South African Sauv Bl, Verdelho, Australian

b ss Weissburgunder from Baden or Pfalz. V.gd for any fine or ca white: Clare Valley dry Ries, Chablis or Châteauneuf-du-Pape.

s fin soup Add a teaspoon o

Shellfish Dry white with plain boiled shellfish, richer wines with richeplateaux de fruits de mer: Muscadet, Chablis, unoaked Chard or dry Rie

Skate with brown butter White with some pungency (eg Pinot Gr d’Alsace), or a

ine wines: white

r tomato sauce,

many kinds of soufflé. or rich)

Ste

Ste Valpolic

ut not old arnaise sauce: top Californian Chard is better). My choice:

es Red burgundy comes into its own; otherwise

cream Sauternes or similar sweet Bordeaux, Vouvray

s of a gd vintage (95 96 97 98).

cken hamp. Or, of course, sake or beer.

pranillo, Sangiovese, Merlot and Shiraz.

ge of

white or rosé.

clean straightforward wine like Muscadet or Verdicchio.

Snapper Sauv Bl if cooked with Oriental flavours; white Rhône with Mediterranean flavours.

Sole, plaice, etc: plain, grilled or fried Perfect with fburgundy, or its equivalent.

nding on the ingredients: sharp dry wine fo• with sauce Depefairly rich for sole véroniquewith its sweet grapes, etc.

se deserve ___ wines. Soufflés As show dishes the• fish Dry white: ___ Burgundy, Bordeaux, Alsace, Chard, etc. • cheese Red burgundy or mature Cab Sauv. • spinach (tougher on wine) Light Chard (Mâcon-Villages, St-Véran), or

Valpolicella. Champagne can also be gd with • sweet soufflés Sauternes or Vouvray moelleux. Or a sweet (

Champagne.

ak au poivre A fairly young Rhône red or Cab Sauv.

ak tartare Vodka or light young red: Beaujolais, Bergerac or ella.

Korean Yuk Whe (The world’s best steak tartare.) Sake.

filet, tournedos, T-bone, fiorentina (bistecca) Any top red (bwines with BéChâteau Haut-Brion.

Steak and kidney pie or pudding Red Rioja Reserva, Douro red, or mature Cabernet.

Stews and casserollusty full-flavoured red, such as Toro, Corbières, Barbera, Shiraz, or Zin.

Strawberries andMoelleux or Jurançon Vendange Tardive.

Strawberries, wild (no cream) Serve with red Bordeaux (most exquisitely Margaux) poured over.

Summer pudding Fairly young Sauterne

Sushi Hot wasabi is usually hidden in every piece. German QbA trowines, simple Chablis, or NV brut C

Sweetbreads A grand dish, so grand wine, but not too dry: Rhine Ries or Franken Silvaner Spätlese, top Alsace Pinot Gr or Condrieu, depending on the sauce.

Swordfish Full-bodied dry white of the country. Nothing grand.

Tagines These vary enormously, but fruity young reds are a gd bet: Beaujolais, Tem

Tapas Perfect with fino sherry, which can cope with the wide ranflavours in both hot and cold dishes.

Tapenade Manzanilla or fino sherry, or any sharpish dry

Taramasalata A rustic southern white with personality. Fino sherry works he bland supermarket version goes

inot Bl for

Aus al

vibrant with its internal sherry.

pungent dry mpigny.

gogne

Pino N

land

es,

chio, Greek, Touraine Sauv

alian botrytized Sem or Asti.

e and cheese were married in heaven is not born out by experience. eet white wines

survive.

well. Try white Rioja or a Marsanne. Twell with any delicate white or Champagne.

Thai food Ginger and lemongrass call for pungent Sauv Bl (Loire, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand) or Ries (German Spätlese or Australian).

ripe, oaked Chards; Alsace P• coconut milk Hunter Valley or otherrefreshment; Gewurz or Verdelho. And of course sparkling.

Tiramisú This Italian dessert works best with Vin Santo, but also with you ng tawny port, Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise or Sauternes and

tr ian Liqueur Muscats.

Tongue Gd for any red or white of abundant character, esp Italian. AlsoBeaujolais, Loire reds, New Zealand reds and full dry rosés.

Trifle Should be sufficiently

Tripe Red (eg Corbières, Roussillon) or rather sweet white (eg German Spätlese). Better: Western Australian Sem/Chard, or cut withwhite such as Pouilly-Fumé or fresh red such as Saumur-Cha

Trout Delicate white wine, eg Mosel (Saar or Ruwer), Alsace Pinot Bl. • smoked Sancerre, California or South African Sauv Bl. Rully or Bour

Aligoté, Chablis or Champagne. But Mosel Spätlese is best.

Tuna, grilled or seared White, red, or rosé of fairly fruity character; atop - St Véran, white Hermitage, or Côtes du Rhône would be fine.

t or a light Merlot are the best reds to try. • carpaccio Viognier, California Chard or New Zealand Sauv Bl.

e- Turbot Serve with your best rich dry white: Meursault or Chassagnalian or New ZeaMontrachet, mature Chablis or its California, Austr

equ liva ent. Condrieu. Mature Rheingau, Mosel or Nahe Spätlese or Auslese (not trocken).

Veal, roast A good neutral background dish for any fine old red which n Rimay have faded with age (eg a Rioja Reserva), a German or Austria

inot Gr. or Vouvray, or Alsace P

Venison Big-scale reds inc Mourvèdre – solo as in Bandol, or in blends – Rhône, Bordeaux or California Cab of a mature vintage; or rather rich

Semillon). whites (Pfalz Spätlese or Hunter

Vitello tonnato Full-bodied whites esp Chard; or light reds (eg young Cabernet or Valpolicella) served cool.

Whitebait Crisp dry whites: Chablis, VerdicBl, or fino sherry.

Zabaglione Light-gold marsala, Austr

Wine & cheese The notion that winFine red wines are slaughtered by strong cheeses: only sharp or sw

o Principles to remember, despite exceptions, are first:

Ind ken from the hundreds sold in goo

Fresh, noLight crisp

rdolino or Beaujolais.

heesecloth – n, Cantal,

s Gruyère, some Spanish,

t ed,

rsala,

he -Marcellin

whites.

ith

, young Australian (or Rhône) Shiraz/ Syrah

d – nster

can, southern Italian, Sicilian or Bairrada.

oso sherry. But

o the harder the cheese the more tannin the wine can have. o And second: the creamier the cheese is the more acidity is needed in the

wine. o The main exception constitutes a third principle:

o wines and cheeses of a region usually sympathise. o Cheese is classified by its texture and the nature of its rind, so its

appearance is a guide to the type of wine to match it. ividual cheeses mentioned below are only examples tad chees he s ops.

rind – cream cheese, crème fraîche, Mozzarella white – Simple Bordeaux Blanc, Bergerac, English unoaked

whites; or rosé – Anjou, Rhône; or very light, very young, very fresh red such as Bordeaux, Ba

Hard cheeses, waxed or oiled, often showing marks from cGruyère family, Manchego and other Spanish cheeses, ParmesaComté, old Gouda, Cheddar and most “traditional” English cheeseParticularly hard to generalize here; Gouda,and a few English cheeses complement fine claret or Cab Sauv and great Shiraz/Syrah wines. But strong cheeses need less refined wines, and preferably local ones. Sugary, granular old Dutch red Mimolette or Beaufort are gd for finest mature Bordeaux. Also for Tokáj Aszú.

Blue cheeses Roquefort can be wonderful with Sauternes, but don’extend the idea to other blues. It is the sweetness of Sauternes, esp agwhich complements the saltiness. Stilton and port, preferably tawny, is aclassic. Intensely flavoured old oloroso, amontillado, madeira, maand other fortified wines go with most blues. The acidity of Tokáj Aszúalso works well.

Natural rind (goat’s or sheep’s cheese) with bluish-grey mould (trind is wrinkled when mature), sometimes dusted with ash – StSancerre, Valençay, light fresh Sauv Bl, Jurançon, Savoie, Soave, ItalianChard or English

Bloomy rind soft cheeses, pure white rind if pasteurized, or dotted wred: Brie, Camembert, Chaource, Bougon (goat’s milk ‘Camembert’) Full dry white burgundy or Rhône if the cheese is white and immature; powerful, fruity St-Emilionor Grenache if it’s mature.

Washed-rind pungent soft cheeses, with rather sticky orange-red rinLangres, mature Epoisses, Maroilles, Carré de l’Est, Milleens, MuLocal reds, esp for Burgundy cheeses; vigorous Languedoc, Cahors, Côtes du Frontonnais, CorsiAlso powerful whites, esp Alsace Gewurz and Muscat.

Semi-soft cheeses, grey-pink thickish rind – Livarot, Pont l’Evêque, Reblochon, Tomme de Savoie, St-Nectaire Powerful white Bordeaux, Chard, Alsace Pinot Gr, dryish Ries, southernItalian and Sicilian whites, aged white Rioja or dry olor

the strongest of these cheeses kill most wines.

Food & finest wine

With very special bottles, the wine sometimes guides the choice of wing suggestions are food rather than the usual way around. The follo

based largely on the gastronomic conventions of the wine regions producing these treasures, plus much diligent research. They should

of herbs (but not garlic); ast partridge or grouse, sweetbreads; or cheese soufflé

b

ards

e burgundy (Le Montrachet, Corton-Charlemagne) or d with truffles or

Very light pasta scented

help bring out the best in your best wines.

Red wines Red Bordeaux and other Cabernet Sauvignon-based wines (very old, light and delicate: eg pre-60) Leg or rack of young lamb, roast with a hintentrecôte; roafter the meat has been served.

x 61 66 75) Shoulder or saddle Fully mature great vintages (eg Bordeauof lamb, roast with a touch of garlic, roast ribs, or grilled rump of beef.Mature but still vigorous (eg 85 86 89) Shoulder or saddle of lam

t of beef marchand de vin(with wine(inc kidneys) with rich sauce. Filleand bone-marrow). Avoid Beef Wellington: pastry dulls the palate.

is Merlot-based Bordeaux (Pomerol, St-Emilion) Beef as above (filletrichest) or venison.

wCôte d’Or red burgundy (Consider the weight and texture, which grois lighter/more velvety with age. Also the character of the wine: Nuits

earthy, Musigny flowery, great Romanées can be exotic, Pommard r-squareness, etc.) Roast chicken, or better, capon, renowned for its fou

is a safe standard with red burgundy; guinea-fowl for slightly stronger wines, then partridge, grouse, or woodcock for those progressively

es.more rich and pungent. Hare and venison ( chevreuil) are alternativgreat old burgundy The classic Burgundian formula is cheese: Epoisses

. (unfermented). A fabulous cheese but a terrible waste of fine old winesat.vigorous younger burgundy Duck or goose roasted to minimize f

Great Syrahs: Hermitage, Côte-Rôtie, Grange; or Vega Sicilia Beef, venison, well-hung game; bone-marrow on toast; English cheese (esp best farm Cheddar) but also hard goat’s milk and ewe’s milk cheeses such as Berkswell and Ticklemore.

, Rioja Gran Reserva, Pesquera… Richly flavoured roasts: wild boarmutton, saddle of hare, or whole suckling pig.

sauceBarolo, Barbaresco Risotto with white truffles; pasta with game s; Parmesan. (eg pappardelle alle lepre); porcini mushroom

White wines Top Chablis, white burgundy, other top ChWhite fish simply grilled or meunière. Dover sole, turbot, halibut are best; brill, drenched in butter, can be excellent. Supreme whitequivalent Graves Roast veal, organic chicken stuffeherbs under the skin, or sweetbreads; richly sauced white fish or scallops as above. Or lobster or wild salmon. Condrieu, Château-Grillet or Hermitage Blanc

with herbs and tiny peas or broad beans. Grand Cru Alsace Ries Truite au bleu, smoked salmon or choucroute garni. Pinot Gris Roast or grilled veal. Gewurztraminer Cheese soufflé (Münster cheese). Vendange Tardive Foie gras or Tarte Tatin.

risp buttery biscuits (eg Langue-de-Chat), white pical fruit.

with blue cheeses. pples, or apple tart.

cuits, peaches, greengages.

erful.

itif, or with

Sauternes Simple cpeaches, nectarines, strawberries (without cream). Not troPan-seared foie-gras. Experiment Supreme Vouvray moelleux, etc Buttery biscuits, aBeerenauslese/Trockenbeerenauslese BisDesserts made from rhubarb, gooseberries, quince, or apples. Tokáj Aszú (4–6 putts) Foie gras is thoroughly recommended. Fruitdesserts, cream desserts, even chocolate can be wondGreat vintage port or madeira Walnuts or pecans. A Cox’s Orange Pippinand a digestive biscuit is a classic English accompaniment. Old vintage Champagne (not Blanc de Blancs) As an apércold partridge, grouse or woodcock.