WINEMAKING

WINEMAKING FROM GRAPE GROWING

TO MARKETPLACE

SECOND EDITION

Richard P. Vine, PhD Purdue Unlverslty

West Lafayette, Indiana

lilen M. Harkness, MS Purdue Unlverslty

West Lafayette, Indiana

and

SalIy J. Unton Purdue Unlverslty

West Lafayette, Indiana

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Vine, Richard P. Winemaking: from grape growing to marketplaceIRichard P. Vine, Ellen M.

Harkness, anei Sally J. Linton.-2nd ed. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references anei index. ISBN 978-1-4613-5215-0 ISBN 978-1-4615-0733-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-0733-8 1. Wine and wine making. 1. Harkness, E. M. (Ellen M). II. Linlon, Sally J. m. TItle.

TP548 .V4844 2002 663'.2-dc21

2002024122

o 2002 Springer Science+ Business Media New York Originally published by Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. New York in 2002 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 2002

AII rights reserved This work may nOI be transJated or copied in whole or in part without the written pennission ofthe publisher (Springer Science+8usiness Media, LLC), except for brief excerpts in connection with revit.-ws or scholarly analysis. Vse in connection with any fonn of infonnation storage and retrieval, electronic adaptat ioD, computer software, Of by similar or dissimiJar methodology now know or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication oftrade narnes, trademarks, service marks and similar terms, even if the are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether Of nOI they are subject to proprietary rights.

9 8 7 6 543

springer. corn

PREFACE

Over the past several decades, consumer interest in the fine vintage wines produced by small "boutique" vintners across the United States has grown to rival that of many European estates. This attention continues to intensify, especially for the truly good wines that are reasonably priced. Consumers are, however, unforgiving­especially wine enthusiasts. Second-class wines do not succeed just because a vintner is new. The methods and controls essential to vintners in the production and marketing of top-grade wines have advanced. This second edition of Winemaking has updated and, in some cases, completely revised the material associated with these disciplines.

Fine wine is much like other art forms, as it is the infinite variability of factors pertaining to the subject that renders it so complex-and able to attract buyer's attention. Hundreds of different vine varieties are cultivated around the world, and no doubt an even greater number of fruit and berry cultivars. Andwith the addition of such factors as terroir (soil and climate attributes) changing every vintage season, varied vineyard cultivation and harvesting techniques, advancing production technology, dynamic markets, and overall operational philosophy, one can easily understand the enormous breadth and depth of variation that exists. This diversity generates an unimaginable number of different wine possibilities. One need only visit a fine wine shop in a large city to see hundreds of different

v

vi Preface

wines for sale, yet these are still only a very small percentage of what the entire world vinifies every vintage. Since the first edition of Winemaking, the world of commercial wine has gotten not only better but bigger.

In larger wineries one can usually find viticulturists (grape-growing technolo­gists), food chemists, enologists (winemaking technologists), recordkeepers, mar­keting specialists, and other well-trained professionals who respond and supervise within their respective fields of expertise. For the small estate vintner, the com­prehension and responsibility of wine production, administration, and marketing usually weigh heavily, often entirely, on the owner and his or her family. The pre­face to the first edition of Winemaking stated that it was not necessary for the small winery vintner to have advanced degrees in the physical and business sciences. While this remains true, the second edition addresses the reality of a bigger and better wine industry placing greater demands upon start-up vintners. A solid aca­demic background generally helps in carrying out the increasing administrative, production, and marketing functions necessary for managing a successful new winery.

One should fully understand the integral involvement of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) in the permits and regUlations that must be complied with in operating a winery. Part 240 of Title 27 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) is a source often quoted in this book to outline the application, documen­tation, and reporting forms and procedures necessary for vintners in the start-up and operation of a sound, legal, business. Further, each state has supplemental requirements with which vintners must be in compliance.

The second edition of Winemaking remains in design a foundation text on grape growing, wine making, and wine marketing from which both would-be and established vintners can advance to more comprehensive texts. Winemaking will also continue to serve independent wine wholesalers, distributors, retailers, and restaurateurs as a reference from which to understand the rationale of methods employed by estate vintners. Advanced amateur wine makers will also find this book a handy guide in their cellars. Similarly, wine connoisseurs can find value in its promotion of a deeper understanding of wine craftsmanship. Overall, this book should bridge the ever-widening gap between the art and science in the entire world of wine.

Everyone having more than a casual interest in wine should own a copy of the second edition of Winemaking. Its low price can be repaid many times over by its wealth of easy-to-read, updated information for beginners trying to understand the ways that wine is made by experts.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank Purdue University for its generous support in the preparation of this book. In particular, Dr. Victor Lechtenberg, Dean of Agriculture, and Dr. Randy Woodson, Associate Dean of Agriculture, have given of their time, energies and resources to help realize this project.

Dr. Phil Nelson, Purdue Department Head of Food Science has also given us sound advice, along with comprehensive assistance, without which this work would not have been possible. Dr. Richard Linton was a tireless reader and critic in the advancement of this second edition. As with almost every book authored in an academic community, much is owed to all the enthusiastic students who contribute far more than is generally thought about. Thank goodness for their boundless energy.

We are grateful to the Indiana Wine Grape Council for its many contributions toward creating Winemaking: From Vineyard to Marketplace. Council President Bill Oliver, Jr., previous Council President Jim Butler, and all members of the Council provided both material and inspirational influences. Special gratitude goes to Indiana vintner Dave Gahimer, who redesigned the cellar record forms presented throughout this book.

Similarly, the Indiana Wine Guild, from which the initial need for this book was first identified, must be recognized. Special thanks go to Bill Oliver, Sr., and Ben

vii

viii Acknowledgments

Sparks for their leadership in the rebirth of commercial winegrowing in midwestern America. Indiana Wine Guild President David Lundstrom continues this guidance and has been an essential resource for us.

Most of all, we would like to thank our families and friends, who excused us from considerable personal quality time to create this manuscript.

To all of you, we are deeply grateful.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

1 HISTORY OF WINE IN AMERICA Eastern America Western America National Prohibition American Wine in the 20th Century and the New Millennium The American Wine Booms

2 VITICULTURE (GRAPE GROWING) Site Selection

Climate Soils

The Vine

Cultivar Selection Vitis vinifera

Major Vitis vinifera White Varieties Chardonnay Sauvignon Blanc Johannisberg Riesling

Semillon

xix

1 2 9

\3 17 19

24 26 26 27 27 30 31

31 31 31

32 33

ix

X Contents

Gewurztraminer 33 Muscat de Frontignan 33 Pinot Blanc 33 Sylvaner 33 Pinot Grigio 34

Major Vilis vinifera Red Varieties 34 Cabernet Sauvignon 34 Merlot 34 Pinot Noir 34 Gamay 35 Sangiovese 35 Nebbiolo 36 Zinfandel 36 Syrah 36 Cabernet Franc 36 Mourvedre 37 Petite Sirah 37

Vitis labrusca 37 Major Vilis labrusca White Wine Varieties 37

Catawba 37 Delaware 37 Niagara 38

Major Vilis labrusca Red Wine Varieties 38 Concord 38 Ives 39

Vilis riparia 39 Vilis rotundifolia 40 Hybrids and Grafting 40

French-American Hybrids 41 Major French-American Hybrid White Wine Cultivars 41

SeyvalBlanc 41 Vidal Blanc 42 Vignoles 43

Major French-American Hybrid Red Wine Cultivars 43 Chambourcin 43 Chancellor 43 Marechal Foch 43

Vineyard Establishment 43 Cost and Value 43 Start-Up 46

Labor Costs 46 Equipment Costs 46 Variable Costs 46 Fixed Costs 46

Budget 47 Site Preparation 57

Contents xi

Vineyard Layout 57 Planting 57 Vine Training 59 Trellising 59 Training Systems 59 Weed Control 61 Herbicide Injury 62

Vineyard Management 63 Pruning 63 Pest Control 65

Diseases 65 Insects 69

3 WINE MICROBIOLOGY 71 Fermentation 71 Yeasts 73

Native Yeasts 73 Yeast Spoilage 74 Yeast Identification 77 Commercial Yeasts 78 Optimizing Must Conditions 78 Preparation of Starter Cultures 79 Stuck Fermentations 79

Bacteria 80 Lactic Acid Bacteria 80

Malolactic Fermentation 83 Commercial Malolactic Fermentation Cultures 84 Encouraging Malolactic Fermentation 84 Monitoring Malolactic Fermentation 85 Preventing Malolactic Fermentation 85

Acetic Acid Bacteria 85 Monitoring Vinegar Spoilage 87 Controlling Vinegar Spoilage 87

Molds 88 The Microbiological Workplace 89 Equipment 90 Factors Affecting Microbial Growth 92 Microbial Spoilage 93

Juice and Must 93 Juice Concentrates 93 Bulk Wine 94 Bottled Wine 94

Wine Preservatives 96 Sulfur Dioxide 96 Sorbic Acid 96 Benzoic Acid 97 Fumaric Acid 97

xii Contents

Lysozyme 97 Dimethyldicarbonate 98

Winery Sanitation 98 Heat Sanitation 99 Ultraviolet Radiation 100 Sulfur Dioxide 100 Ozone 100 Chlorine-Based Compounds 100 Iodine Compounds 101 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds 101

4 ENOLOGY (WINEMAKING) 102

Grape and Wine Components 103 Pectic Enzymes 103 Sugars and Sweetness 104 Late-Harvest Grapes 106 Acids, Acidity, and pH 107 Oxygen and Oxidation 108 Sulfur Dioxide 110 Phenols, Phenolics, and Polyphenols 112 Color 113 Nitrogenous Compounds: Proteins 114

Malolactic Fermentation 115 Grape Flavors 115 Wine Blending 117

Blend Expression Rationale 118 Key ATF Blending Regulations 119

Key ATF Blending Regulations for Labeling 119 Meritage Blending 124 Proprietary Blending 125 Blending Cost Rationale 125

Fining 125 Detartration 126 Barrel Aging 126

Cost Implications 128 American Oak versus French Oak 132 Conditioning 132 New Barrels 134 Maintenance of Empty Barrels-Short Term 134 Maintenance of Empty Barrels-Long Term 135 Soda Ash Treatment 135 Chlorine Treatment 136 Citric Acid Treatment 136 Filtration 137 Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 139 Unfiltered Wines 139

Contents xiii

Packaging 139 Bottles 140 Closures 140 Capsules 142 Label Rationale 142 Label Shapes 143 Label Colors 143 Label Humor 145 Label Experiments 145 Key ATF Labeling Regulations 145

Winemaking Perils and Pitfalls lSI

5 WINE CLASSIFICATION 154 Table Wines 154 Sparkling Wines 156 Dessert Wines 157 Aperitif Wines 157 Pop Wines 158

6 WINERY DESIGN 159 Management 160 Feasibility and Finance 163

Capital Investments 163 Lending Institutions 165 Leasing 166 Insurance 167

Location 167 Scale and Size 169 Design Motif 170 Case Studies 171

Remodeled Small Barn 171 Simple Custom Design 175

7 REQUIREMENTS, RESTRICTIONS, AND REGULATIONS 176 Application for Basic Permit 177 Application to Establish and Operate Wine Premises 177 Bonds 178 Environmental Impact 179 Personnel Questionnaire 179 Signature Authority 180 Label Approvals 180 Formula Wines 180 State ABC Regulations 181

8 GETTING STARTED 184 Recordkeeping 184 Computerized Records 185 Sanitation 189

xiv Contents

Quality Control 192 Analytical Instrumentation 192

pH Meter 192 Brix and Balling 193 Residual Sugar 194 Total Acidity 195 Volatile Acidity 195 Sulfur Dioxide 195 Sensory Evaluation 196 Laboratory Refrigerator 196

Winery Equipment 196 Scales 197 Crusher-Destemmer 198 Press 199 Pumps 199 Hose 199 Tanks, Barrels, and Other Bulk Wine Vessels 201 Key ATF Tank Regulations 204

Tanks 204 Identification of Tanks 204 Measuring Devices and Testing Instruments 204

Fermentation Locks 205 Refrigeration 205 Filters 208 Fillers 209 Corkers 209 Labelers 2\0

Materials 212 Potassium Meta-Bisulfite 213 Pectic Enzymes 213 Yeast 213 Fining Agents 214 Ascorbic Acid 215 Citric Acid 215 Sorbic Acid 215 Bottles 215 Corks 217 Capsules 219 Labels 220 Cases 220

9 WHITE TABLE WINES 221 Grape Varieties 221 Increasing the Fruit Flavor Intensity of White Wine 222 Harvesting 224 Late Harvest 224 Crushing-Destemming 224

Contents xv

Pectic Enzymes 225 Cold Soaking 226 Pressing 226 Brix (Sugar) Adjustment 226 Acid Additions 230 Yeast Inoculation 230 Fermentation 231 Stuck Fermentation 231 First Racking 232 Second Racking 233 Blending 233 Fining and Stabilization 234 Aging 234 Balancing and Preservation 237 Filtration 240 Bottling 241 Packaging 242 Records 246

10 RED TABLE WINES 247 Grape Varieties 247 Increasing Red Wine Fruit Flavor Intensity 248 Harvesting 249 Crushing-Destemming 249 Pectic Enzymes 249 Brix (Sugar) Adjustments 250 Acid Additions 251 Yeast Inoculation 251 Fermentation 251 Pressing 255 Maceration 255 Free-Run and Press Wine 256 Racking 257 Blending 258 Malo-lactic Fermentation 258 Fining and Stabilization 259 Barrel Aging 259 Balancing and Preservation 260 Filtration 260 Bottling and Corking 261 Bottle Aging 261 Packaging 261 Records 266

11 BLUSH TABLE WINES 267 Grape Varieties 267 Crushing-Destemming, Sugar and Acidity Adjustments, and Yeast Inoculation 268

xvi Contents

Pressing and Fermentation 269 Rackings 270 Blending 270 Clarification and Stabilization 272 Aging, Balancing, and Preservation 272 Filtration 272 Bottling, Corking, and Recording 272

12 FRUIT AND BERRY WINES 273 Apple Wine 274 Bramble Berry Wines 275 Blueberry Wine 276 Cherry Wine 277 Peach Wine 278 Strawberry Wine 279 Dried Fruit Wine 280 Mead 281

13 MARKETING 282

Getting Started 283 Image Development 283 Market Research 284 Marketing Plan 285 Marketing Budget 287

Marketing Techniques 289 Self-Promotion 290

Total Package 291 Brochures/Newsletter 292 Video/CD 294 The Winery Web Site 294 Direct Mail/Database Marketing 296

Advertising 298 Cooperative Advertising 298 Signage 299 Wine Competitions 301

Public Relations 301 Media Relations 302 Media Basics 303 Media Kit 303 News Releases 305 PhotographslVisuals 306 Interviewing 307 Wine Trails 308 Wine Clubs 308 Special Events 309 Educational Programs 312

Industry Relations/Networking 312 Wine Associations 312

Wineries Tourism Local Business/Community

Customer Service Team Members Winery Tour and Tasting Room

Sales Retail Shop Personalized Sales Wholesale Distribution Repeat Sales

Conclusion

APPENDIX A SUGGESTED RESOURCES Catalogs Buyer's Guides Viticulture Material and Equipment Laboratory Materials, Equipment, and Consultants New Equipment New Tankage Used Equipment and Tankage Grapes, Must, and Juice Computer Software Winemaking Materials Winery Tasting Room Supplies Periodicals

APPENDIX B ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES Microscopy Methylene Blue Stain Procedure

Apparatus and Reagents Procedure

Wet Mount Dry Mount

Gram Stain Procedure Apparatus and Reagents Procedure

Malolactic Fermentation Determination by Paper Chromatography

Apparatus and Reagents Procedure

Bottle Sterility Winery Sanitation

Swab Test pH Meter

Apparatus and Reagents Procedure

Brix-Balling by Hydrometer

Contents xvii

313 314 314 315 315 316 317 317 319 319 320 321

322 322 322 323 324 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331

332 332 335 335 336 336 336 336 336 337

338 338 339 339 341 341 342 342 342 344

xviii Contents

Apparatus 344 Procedure 344

Brix by Refractometer 346 Apparatus 346 Procedure 347

Alcohol by Ebulliometer 347 Apparatus and Reagents 347 Procedure 347

Extract by Nomograph 362 Total Acidity 363

Apparatus and Reagents 363 Procedure 363

Volatile Acidity by Cash Still 365 Apparatus and Reagents 365 Procedure 367

Free Sulfur Dioxide 368 Aeration Oxidation Distillation and Titration Procedure for Free Sulfur Dioxide 370

Apparatus and Reagents 370 Procedure 372

Free Sulfur Dioxide by Ripper Method 373 Apparatus and Reagents 373 Procedure 373

Aeration Oxidation Distillation and Titration Procedure for Total Sulfur Dioxide 374

Apparatus and Reagents 375 Procedure 375

Total Sulfur Dioxide by Ripper Method 376 Apparatus and Reagents 376 Procedure 376

Sensory Evaluation 376 Apparatus and Conditions 376 Procedure 377

Visual Mode 377 Olfactory Mode 380 Gustatory Mode 383 Overall Impression 388

APPENDIX C CHARTS AND TABLES 389

APPENDIX D GLOSSARY 441

BIBLIOGRAPHY 452

INDEX 455

INTRODUCTION

Man made wine long before the dawn of civilization. Paleontologists infer that crude fruit wines were familiar to early human beings more than 100,000 years ago.

According to the Bible (Genesis 9:20-21), Noah landed his ark on Mount Ararat across the northern border of Turkey and grew grapes for wine. Documents affirm that pre-Islamic Arabs drank wine in early Mesopotamia. Hammurabi wrote strict laws for wine commerce in the 18th century B.C. The great Egyptian pharaohs en­joyed a variety of wines grown from irrigated vineyards along the Nile, and Homer wrote of fine wines made in ancient Greece. In July 1996, the Associated Press reported that King Herod's 2,000-year old wine jug was discovered near Jerusalem.

Several centuries later, during the rise of the Roman Empire, wine was intro­duced to Europe, but it was Christianity that developed the wine industry as we know it today. When Christ offered the cup at the Last Supper, He willed that wine be the everlasting symbol of His blood-an event that was the motivation for monks to establish vineyards wherever they settled in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It continued in the New World: the development of the first wines in New York and California, among other states, was influenced by the Church.

Wine continues to replace fouled water supplies, as it has throughout the his­tory of western civilization. For thousands of years wine was our most important medicine and our only anesthetic. The "magic" of wine fascinated the ancients:

xix

xx Introduction

that if one simply crushed grapes, wine would literally make itself. It wasn't until Pasteur's discoveries in 1860 that the phenomenon of fermentation, whereby mi­croscopic one-celled plants, called yeasts, convert simple sugars into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide gas, could be explained.

In many foreign countries the attitude toward winemaking is much the same as that toward preserving fruits and vegetables from the garden. There is little concern about alcohol content, since alcohol serves as a natural wine preservative, enhances digestion, and adds to carbohydrates in the diet.

The wine industry is vast: British wine expert, Hugh Johnson, states that one person in every 100 around the world is employed in a vineyard, in a winery, or in the marketing of wine. Wine is, however, far from global. Some nations find difficulty in cultivating the vine because of harsh environmental conditions, and other countries are populated with cultural groups that restrict wine drinking or are prohibitionist.

Grapevines grow abundantly in the United States. In nearly every state one type of vine or another can be grown. Of the 50-odd species and thousands of varieties known, a greater selection of vine types can be grown in America than in any other country.

According to the Wine Institute, Wine consumption in France and Italy sur­passes 16 gallons per person per year, which far outpaces the average of just 2 gallons annually per capita across the United States. Winegrowing in the United States is regulated nationally by the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) and by individual state Alcohol Beverage Control (ABC) commissions.

Consistent winemaking success requires a systematic approach, and the de­sign here is to help organize thoughts and materials into an efficient step-by-step methodology. The methodology is fundamental but still offers plenty of room for variations that may better suit individual tastes. While one should expect good results from following the recommendations made in this book, it cannot be con­sidered as any form of assurance or guarantee that resulting products will be acceptable or superior.

The text is written in the "language" ofthe wine industry so that, as one becomes proficient, the commercial wine literature will serve to expand upon the same fundamental precepts.

Richard P. Vine, PhD Ellen M. Harkness, MS Sally 1. Linton, BS