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Impr
ovin
g Pa
vem
ents
With
Lo
ng-T
erm
Pav
emen
t Per
form
ance
:Pr
oduc
ts fo
r To
day
and
Tom
orro
wW
inni
ng P
aper
s Fro
m th
e 20
01–2
002
Inte
rnat
iona
l Con
test
on L
ong-
Term
Pav
emen
t Per
form
ance
Dat
a An
alys
is.
Spon
sore
d by
the F
eder
al H
ighw
ay A
dmin
istra
tion
and
the A
mer
ican
Soc
iety o
f Civi
l Eng
inee
rs.
PUBL
ICAT
ION
NO. R
D-03
-049
NOVE
MBE
R 20
05
FOR
EW
OR
D
In 1
998,
the
Fede
ral H
ighw
ay A
dmin
istra
tion
(FH
WA
), Lo
ng-T
erm
Pav
emen
t Pe
rfor
man
ce (L
TPP)
Pro
gram
and
the
Hig
hway
Div
isio
n Pa
vem
ents
Com
mitt
ee
of th
e A
mer
ican
Soc
iety
of C
ivil
Engi
neer
s (A
SCE)
initi
ated
a p
rogr
am to
or
gani
ze a
n in
tern
atio
nal c
onte
st o
n th
e us
e of
LTP
P da
ta. T
he c
ompe
titio
n w
as
desi
gned
to p
rom
ote
the
use
of L
TPP
data
and
invo
lve
the
futu
re p
avem
ent
engi
neer
s in
univ
ersi
ty in
the
anal
ysis
of d
ata
from
the
LTPP
dat
abas
e. T
he
prog
ram
has
bee
n in
ope
ratio
n fo
r 4 y
ears
with
thre
e co
ntes
ts. T
he p
aper
s co
ntai
ned
in th
is d
ocum
ent a
re th
e re
sults
of t
he 2
001–
2002
con
test
.
G
ary
L. H
ende
rson
D
irect
or, O
ffic
e of
Infr
astru
ctur
e R
esea
rch
and
Dev
elop
men
t
Not
ice
This
doc
umen
t is d
isse
min
ated
und
er th
e sp
onso
rshi
p of
the
U.S
. Dep
artm
ent o
f Tr
ansp
orta
tion
in th
e in
tere
st o
f inf
orm
atio
n ex
chan
ge. T
he U
.S. G
over
nmen
t as
sum
es n
o lia
bilit
y fo
r the
use
of t
he in
form
atio
n co
ntai
ned
in th
is d
ocum
ent.
This
repo
rt do
es n
ot c
onst
itute
a st
anda
rd, s
peci
ficat
ion,
or r
egul
atio
n.
The
U.S
. Gov
ernm
ent d
oes n
ot e
ndor
se p
rodu
cts o
r man
ufac
ture
rs. T
rade
mar
ks
or m
anuf
actu
rers
' nam
es a
ppea
r in
this
repo
rt on
ly b
ecau
se th
ey a
re c
onsi
dere
d es
sent
ial t
o th
e ob
ject
ive
of th
e do
cum
ent.
Q
ualit
y A
ssur
ance
Sta
tem
ent
The
Fede
ral H
ighw
ay A
dmin
istra
tion
(FH
WA
) pro
vide
s hig
h-qu
ality
in
form
atio
n to
serv
e G
over
nmen
t, in
dust
ry, a
nd th
e pu
blic
in a
man
ner t
hat
prom
otes
pub
lic u
nder
stan
ding
. Sta
ndar
ds a
nd p
olic
ies a
re u
sed
to e
nsur
e an
d m
axim
ize
the
qual
ity, o
bjec
tivity
, util
ity, a
nd in
tegr
ity o
f its
info
rmat
ion.
FH
WA
pe
riodi
cally
revi
ews q
ualit
y is
sues
and
adj
usts
its p
rogr
ams a
nd p
roce
sses
to
ensu
re c
ontin
uous
qua
lity
impr
ovem
ent.
T
echn
ical
Rep
ort D
ocum
enta
tion
Page
1.
Rep
ort N
o.
FHW
A-R
D-0
3-04
9 2.
Gov
ernm
ent A
cces
sion
N
o.
3. R
ecip
ient
’s
Cat
alog
No.
5. R
epor
t Dat
e N
ovem
ber 2
005
4. T
itle
and
Sub
title
Im
prov
ing
Pav
emen
ts W
ith L
ong-
Term
Pav
emen
t P
erfo
rman
ce: P
rodu
cts
for T
oday
and
Tom
orro
w
Pap
ers
From
the
2001
–200
2 In
tern
atio
nal C
onte
st
on L
ong-
Term
Pav
emen
t Per
form
ance
Dat
a An
alys
is
6. P
erfo
rmin
g O
rgan
izat
ion
Cod
e
7. A
utho
r(s)
N
. Buc
h, K
. Cha
tti, S
.A. D
ewan
, R. H
aas,
C.M
. R
aym
ond,
L. R
othe
nbur
g, H
.M. S
alem
, S.L
. Tig
he
8. P
erfo
rmin
g O
rgan
izat
ion
Rep
ort
No.
10. W
ork
Uni
t No.
9. P
erfo
rmin
g O
rgan
izat
ion
Nam
e an
d A
ddre
ss
Offi
ce o
f Inf
rast
ruct
ure
Res
earc
h an
d D
evel
opm
ent
Fede
ral H
ighw
ay A
dmin
istra
tion
6300
Geo
rget
own
Pik
e, H
RD
I-13
McL
ean,
VA
2210
1-22
96
11. C
ontra
ct o
r G
rant
No.
13.
Type
of R
epor
t an
d Pe
riod
Cov
ered
20
01–2
002
12.
Spon
sorin
g Ag
ency
Nam
e an
d Ad
dres
s A
mer
ican
Soc
iety
of C
ivil
Eng
inee
rs (A
SC
E)
Tran
spor
tatio
n an
d D
evel
opm
ent I
nstit
ute
Fede
ral H
ighw
ay A
dmin
istra
tion
Long
-Ter
m
Pav
emen
t Per
form
ance
(LTP
P) P
rogr
am
14.
Spo
nsor
ing
Agen
cy C
ode
15.
Sup
plem
enta
ry N
otes
Th
e C
ontra
ct O
ffice
r’s T
echn
ical
Rep
rese
ntat
ive
(CO
TR) w
as A
nton
io
Nie
ves—
HR
DI-1
3.
16.
Abs
tract
Th
is re
port
is a
com
pila
tion
of a
war
d-w
inni
ng te
chni
cal p
aper
s fro
m th
e Th
ird
Ann
ual I
nter
natio
nal C
onte
st o
n LT
PP
Dat
a A
naly
sis
2001
–200
2, v
ario
us
auth
ors.
17
. K
ey W
ords
LT
PP
, pav
emen
t per
form
ance
, D
ataP
ave
cont
est,
Dat
aPav
e
18.
Dis
tribu
tion
Sta
tem
ent
No
rest
rictio
ns.
This
doc
umen
t is
avai
labl
e to
the
publ
ic th
roug
h th
e N
atio
nal T
echn
ical
Info
rmat
ion
Ser
vice
, S
prin
gfie
ld, V
A 2
2161
.
19.
Sec
urity
C
lass
if. (o
f thi
s re
port)
U
ncla
ssifi
ed
20. S
ecur
ity
Cla
ssif.
(of t
his
page
) U
ncla
ssifi
ed
21. N
o of
Pag
es
151
22
. P
rice
Form
DO
T F
170
0.7
(8-7
2)
R
epro
duct
ion
of c
ompl
eted
pag
e au
thor
ized
ii
SI* (
MO
DER
N M
ETR
IC) C
ON
VER
SIO
N F
AC
TOR
S A
PPR
OXI
MAT
E C
ON
VER
SIO
NS
TO S
I UN
ITS
Sym
bol
Whe
n Yo
u K
now
M
ultip
ly B
y To
Fin
d Sy
mbo
l LE
NG
TH
in
inch
es
25.4
m
illim
eter
s m
m
ft fe
et
0.30
5 m
eter
s m
yd
ya
rds
0.91
4 m
eter
s m
m
i m
iles
1.61
ki
lom
eter
s km
A
REA
in
2sq
uare
inch
es
645.
2 sq
uare
mill
imet
ers
mm
2
ft2 sq
uare
feet
0.
093
squa
re m
eter
s m
2
yd2
squa
re y
ard
0.83
6 sq
uare
met
ers
m2
acac
res
0.40
5he
ctar
esha
mi2
squa
re m
iles
2.59
sq
uare
kilo
met
ers
km2
VOLU
ME
fl oz
flu
id o
unce
s 29
.57
mill
ilite
rs
mL
gal
gallo
ns
3.78
5 lit
ers
L ft3
cubi
c fe
et
0.02
8 cu
bic
met
ers
m3
yd3
cubi
c ya
rds
0.76
5 cu
bic
met
ers
m3
NO
TE: v
olum
es g
reat
er th
an 1
000
L sh
all b
e sh
own
in m
3
MA
SS
ozou
nces
28.3
5 gr
ams
glb
poun
ds
0.45
4ki
logr
ams
kgT
shor
t ton
s (2
000
lb)
0.90
7 m
egag
ram
s (o
r "m
etric
ton"
) M
g (o
r "t")
TE
MPE
RAT
UR
E (e
xact
deg
rees
) o F
Fahr
enhe
it 5
(F-3
2)/9
C
elsi
us
o C
or (F
-32)
/1.8
IL
LUM
INAT
ION
fc
foot
-can
dles
10.7
6lu
xlx
flfo
ot-L
ambe
rts3.
426
cand
ela/
m2
cd/m
2
FOR
CE
and
PRES
SUR
E or
STR
ESS
lbf
poun
dfor
ce
4.4
5
new
tons
N
lb
f/in2
poun
dfor
ce p
er s
quar
e in
ch
6.89
ki
lopa
scal
s kP
a
APP
RO
XIM
ATE
CO
NV
ERSI
ON
S FR
OM
SI U
NIT
S Sy
mbo
l W
hen
You
Kno
wM
ultip
ly B
yTo
Fin
d Sy
mbo
l LE
NG
THm
m
mill
imet
ers
0.03
9 in
ches
in
m
m
eter
s 3.
28
feet
ft
m
met
ers
1.09
ya
rds
yd
km
kilo
met
ers
0.62
1 m
iles
mi
AR
EA
mm
2 sq
uare
mill
imet
ers
0.00
16
squa
re in
ches
in
2
m2
squa
re m
eter
s 10
.764
sq
uare
feet
ft2
m2
squa
re m
eter
s1.
195
squa
re y
ards
yd
2
ha
hect
ares
2.
47ac
res
ackm
2 sq
uare
kilo
met
ers
0.38
6 sq
uare
mile
s m
i2
VOLU
ME
mL
mill
ilite
rs
0.03
4 flu
id o
unce
s fl
oz
L lit
ers
0.26
4 ga
llons
ga
l m
3 cu
bic
met
ers
35.3
14
cubi
c fe
et
ft3
m3
cubi
c m
eter
s 1.
307
cubi
c ya
rds
yd3
MA
SS
ggr
ams
0.03
5ou
nces
ozkg
kilo
gram
s2.
202
poun
dslb
Mg
(or "
t")
meg
agra
ms
(or "
met
ric to
n")
1.10
3 sh
ort t
ons
(200
0 lb
) T
TEM
PER
ATU
RE
(exa
ct d
egre
es)
o C
Cel
sius
1.
8C+3
2 Fa
hren
heit
o F IL
LUM
INAT
ION
lx
lu
x 0.
0929
fo
ot-c
andl
es
fc
cd/m
2ca
ndel
a/m
20.
2919
fo
ot-L
ambe
rtsfl
FOR
CE
and
PRES
SUR
E or
STR
ESS
N
new
tons
0.
225
poun
dfor
ce
lbf
kPa
kilo
pasc
als
0.14
5 po
undf
orce
per
squ
are
inch
lb
f/in2
*SI i
s th
e sy
mbo
l for
th In
tern
atio
nal S
yste
m o
f Uni
ts.
App
ropr
iate
roun
ding
sho
uld
be m
ade
to c
ompl
y w
ith S
ectio
n 4
of A
STM
E38
0.
e(R
evis
ed M
arch
200
3 )
137
the
mos
t rea
sona
ble
clus
terin
g re
sults
, but
the
diff
eren
ce b
etw
een
thes
e m
etho
ds is
not
larg
e.
The
clus
ter m
embe
rshi
p ta
bles
and
the
clim
ate
map
s dev
elop
ed in
th
is st
udy
can
help
rese
arch
ers i
ncor
pora
te o
r sep
arat
e cl
imat
e fa
ctor
s in
thei
r mod
els w
hen
are
usin
g th
e LT
PP d
ata
to p
erfo
rm
stat
istic
al tr
eatm
ent c
ompa
rison
ana
lysi
s. A
noth
er p
oten
tial u
se o
f th
is m
ap is
to h
elp
high
way
pra
ctiti
oner
s get
clim
ate
patte
rn
info
rmat
ion
for t
heir
geog
raph
ical
are
as so
that
they
can
app
ly th
e sa
me
desi
gn c
riter
ia, c
onst
ruct
ion
requ
irem
ents
, and
mai
nten
ance
st
rate
gies
to th
ose
regi
ons w
ith si
mila
r clim
ate
patte
rns.
RE
FER
EN
CE
S
Bar
nard
Che
mic
al In
form
atio
n Lt
d, 2
002.
K-m
eans
, Non
-H
iera
rchi
cal R
eloc
atio
n C
lust
erin
g Pr
ogra
m, V
ersi
on 1
.3.
Dal
las,
E., J
ohns
on, 1
998.
App
lied
Mul
tivar
iate
Met
hods
for D
ata
Anal
ysts
, Bro
oks/
Col
e Pu
blis
hing
Com
pany
, Cal
iforn
ia, p
p.
319-
327.
LAW
PC
S, 1
999.
Int
rodu
ctio
n to
LTP
P D
ata.
LA
W P
CS,
a
LAW
GIB
B G
roup
Mem
ber,
Bel
tsvi
lle, M
D.
Sarle
, W.S
., 19
83. C
ubic
Clu
ster
ing
Cri
teri
on. S
AS
Tech
nica
l R
epor
t A-1
08, C
ary,
NC
, SA
S In
stitu
te, I
nc.
SAS
Inst
itute
, 199
2. S
AS/S
TAT
Use
r’s G
uide
, Vol
ume
1,
ACEC
LUS-
FREQ
, Int
rodu
ctio
n to
Clu
ster
ing
Proc
edur
es,
Car
y, N
C, S
AS
Inst
itute
, Inc
.
SAS
Inst
itute
200
2. S
AS
Tech
nica
l Sup
port.
136
SUM
MA
RY
AN
D C
ON
CL
UST
ION
S
This
pap
er d
escr
ibes
the
proc
ess o
f dev
elop
ing
a cl
imat
e m
ap b
y pa
rtitio
ning
LTP
P te
st se
ctio
ns in
to d
iffer
ent g
roup
s usi
ng th
e an
nual
clim
ate
data
reco
rded
in th
e LT
PP d
atab
ase
sinc
e 19
80.
The
test
sect
ions
bel
ongi
ng to
the
sam
e gr
oup
(clu
ster
), w
hich
are
la
bele
d w
ith th
e sa
me
clus
ter m
embe
rshi
p on
the
map
, hav
e si
mila
r cl
imat
e ch
arac
teris
tics.
Fou
rteen
clim
ate
para
met
ers h
ave
been
us
ed fo
r com
paris
on.
To re
flect
the
annu
al c
limat
e pa
ttern
and
the
over
all c
limat
e in
form
atio
n, th
is re
sear
ch p
repr
oces
sed
clim
ate
data
into
two
sepa
rate
par
ts: T
ype
I dat
a an
d Ty
pe II
dat
a. T
he T
ype
I dat
a co
mpr
ise
annu
al w
eath
er re
cord
s whi
le th
e Ty
pe II
dat
a ar
e m
ade
up o
f the
ave
rage
of t
he re
cord
s. C
lust
er a
naly
sis w
as c
ondu
cted
on
bot
h se
ts o
f dat
a to
par
titio
n te
st se
ctio
ns.
Thre
e cl
uste
r an
alys
is a
ppro
ache
s wer
e em
ploy
ed b
y th
is re
sear
ch: t
he a
vera
ge
link,
K-m
eans
, and
the
com
bina
tion
of fi
rst t
wo
met
hods
. Th
e re
sear
ch e
xam
ined
clu
ster
ana
lysi
s out
puts
to d
eter
min
e th
e ap
prop
riate
num
ber o
f clu
ster
s. B
ased
on
the
CC
C, p
seud
o T2
, an
d ps
eudo
F st
atis
tic, t
his r
esea
rch
reco
mm
ends
61
clus
ters
for
Type
I da
ta a
nd 5
0 cl
uste
rs fo
r Typ
e II
. Th
e st
atis
tics a
lso
indi
cate
th
at m
ore
deta
iled
parti
tion
is p
ossi
ble
and
the
num
ber o
f clu
ster
s ca
n be
incr
ease
d if
requ
ired
in p
ract
ice.
Scat
ter p
lots
of p
rinci
ple
com
pone
nts w
ere
used
to v
erify
the
clus
ter r
esul
ts.
Bas
ed o
n th
e pl
ot o
f the
firs
t tw
o- a
nd th
ree-
prin
cipl
e co
mpo
nent
scor
es, t
his r
esea
rch
foun
d th
at th
e co
mbi
natio
n of
ave
rage
link
and
K-m
eans
met
hod
prod
uces
the
best
clu
ster
ing
resu
lts fo
r Typ
e I d
ata.
How
ever
, bec
ause
abo
ut 2
0 pe
rcen
t of v
aria
bilit
y in
the
clim
ate
data
is n
ot a
ccou
nted
for b
y th
e fir
st tw
o pr
inci
ple
com
pone
nts,
the
scat
ter p
lots
shou
ld b
e as
sist
ed
by a
real
clu
ster
mem
bers
hip
map
to ju
dge
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of t
he
thre
e cl
uste
r app
roac
hes.
This
rese
arch
dev
elop
ed G
IS c
limat
e m
aps f
or th
e te
st se
ctio
ns,
parts
of w
hich
are
pre
sent
ed in
this
pap
er. T
he m
aps a
lso
show
that
th
e co
mbi
natio
n of
ave
rage
link
and
K-m
eans
met
hod
gene
rate
s
iii
TAB
LE
OF
CO
NT
EN
TS
Page
IN
TR
OD
UC
TIO
N...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
1
BA
CK
GR
OU
ND
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..1
DA
TA A
NA
LYSI
S C
ON
TEST
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....1
PAPE
R 1
T
HE
USE
OF
TH
E L
ON
G-T
ER
M P
AV
EM
EN
T
PER
FOR
MA
NC
E D
AT
AB
ASE
IN T
HE
PA
VE
ME
NT
EN
GIN
EE
RIN
G
CU
RR
ICU
LU
M A
T M
ICH
IGA
N S
TA
TE
UN
IVE
RSI
TY
......
......
......
......
....3
AB
STR
AC
T...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.3
INTR
OD
UC
TIO
N...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...3
Und
ergr
adua
te P
avem
ent D
esig
n an
d Re
habi
litat
ion
Cou
rses
......
......
......
4 G
radu
ate
Pave
men
t Des
ign
Cou
rse.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....4
EX
AM
PLES
OF
DA
TAPA
VE
3.0
APP
LIC
ATI
ON
......
......
......
......
......
......
...5
CE4
32—
Pave
men
t Reh
abili
tatio
n....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....5
In
vent
ory
Dat
a....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
7 D
istre
ss E
valu
atio
n....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....8
Fu
nctio
nal E
valu
atio
n....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....1
2 St
ruct
ural
Eva
luat
ion.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..12
C
E831
—Pa
vem
ent A
naly
sis a
nd D
esig
n II
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....1
8 TA
SK 1
: Se
lect
ion
of S
ectio
ns fr
om S
PS-1
Site
s....
......
......
......
......
...19
TA
SK 2
: D
ata
for S
elec
ted
SPS-
1 Si
tes.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..21
TA
SK 3
: Pa
vem
ent P
erfo
rman
ce a
nd R
espo
nse
for S
elec
ted
SPS-
1 Si
tes.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....2
3 TA
SK 4
: En
gine
erin
g D
iscu
ssio
n an
d Su
mm
ary
of F
indi
ngs.
......
.....
29
CO
NC
LUSI
ON
S....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..30
R
EFER
ENC
ES...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.31
DIS
CLA
IMER
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....3
1
PAPE
R 2
T
RA
NSF
OR
MIN
G L
TPP
DIS
TR
ESS
INFO
RM
AT
ION
FO
R
USE
IN M
TC
-PM
S...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...33
AB
STR
AC
T...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
33
INTR
OD
UC
TIO
N...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.34
DA
TA E
XTR
AC
TIO
N F
RO
M L
TPP
DA
TAB
ASE
......
......
......
......
......
......
.35
LTPP
DIS
TRES
SES
VER
SUS
MTC
DIS
TRES
SES
......
......
......
......
......
......
36
DA
TA T
RA
NSF
OR
MA
TIO
N T
ECH
NIQ
UES
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..38
LT
PP T
rans
vers
e Pr
ofile
Dat
a to
MTC
Rut
ting
Dat
a....
......
......
......
......
..40
LT
PP B
lock
Cra
ckin
g to
MTC
Blo
ck C
rack
ing.
......
......
......
......
......
......
...41
LT
PP A
lliga
tor C
rack
ing
to M
TC A
lliga
tor C
rack
ing.
......
......
......
......
....4
2 LT
PP L
ongi
tudi
nal a
nd T
rans
vers
e C
rack
ing
to M
TC L
ongi
tudi
nal a
nd
Tran
sver
se C
rack
ing
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..43
LT
PP P
atch
ing,
Sho
ving
, and
Rav
elin
g to
MTC
Pat
chin
g, D
isto
rtio
ns,
Wea
ther
ing,
and
Rav
elin
g...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...43
TAB
LE
OF
CO
NT
EN
TS—
Con
tinue
d Pa
ge
iv
PCI A
ND
DED
UC
TS F
RO
M M
TC-P
MS
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
43
STA
TIST
ICA
L A
NA
LYSI
S A
ND
EST
AB
LISH
ING
IRI M
OD
EL...
......
....4
6 C
RIT
ICA
L R
EMA
RK
S...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
47
SUM
MA
RY
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..48
R
EFER
ENC
ES...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.50
PAPE
R 3
A
NA
LY
SIS
OF
INFL
UE
NC
ES
ON
AS-
BU
ILT
PA
VE
ME
NT
R
OU
GH
NE
SS IN
ASP
HA
LT
OV
ER
LA
YS
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..53
AB
STR
AC
T...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
53
INTR
OD
UC
TIO
N...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.54
Rela
ted
Stud
ies.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....5
5 D
ESC
RIP
TIO
N O
F D
ATA
SO
UR
CES
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..55
As
-Bui
lt Ro
ughn
ess P
avem
ent S
ectio
ns...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.57
Prio
r Rou
ghne
ss o
f Pav
emen
t Sec
tions
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....5
9 IN
VES
TIG
ATI
ON
OF
INFL
UEN
CES
ON
AS-
BU
ILT
RO
UG
HN
ESS.
......
61
Surf
ace
Prep
arat
ion
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...61
O
verl
ay T
hick
ness
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
63
Com
pari
son
of O
verl
ay M
ater
ial.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
65
Com
pari
son
of P
avem
ent R
ough
ness
Bef
ore
Resu
rfac
ing
......
......
......
.....
66
Inve
stig
atio
n of
Inte
ract
ive
Effe
cts.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....6
8 V
ALI
DA
TIO
N W
ITH
C-L
TPP
DA
TA...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
71
Valid
atio
n of
the
Effe
ct o
f Sur
face
Pre
para
tion
......
......
......
......
......
......
...71
Va
lidat
ion
of th
e Ef
fect
of O
verl
ay T
hick
ness
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
73
Pred
ictio
n Eq
uatio
ns fo
r As-
built
Rou
ghne
ss...
......
......
......
......
......
......
...74
Ba
sic
Surf
ace
Prep
arat
ion
and
Thin
Ove
rlay
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
75
Basi
c Su
rfac
e Pr
epar
atio
n an
d Th
ick
Ove
rlay
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
76
Inte
nsiv
e Su
rfac
e Pr
epar
atio
n an
d Th
in O
verl
ay...
......
......
......
......
......
....7
8 In
tens
ive
Surf
ace
Prep
arat
ion
and
Thic
k O
verl
ay...
......
......
......
......
......
..79
C
ON
CLU
SIO
NS.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
81
REC
OM
MEN
DA
TIO
NS
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
82
REF
EREN
CES
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....8
3
PAPE
R 4
E
FFE
CT
OF
SEA
SON
AL
MO
IST
UR
E V
AR
IAT
ION
ON
SU
BG
RA
DE
RE
SIL
IEN
T M
OD
UL
US
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...85
AB
STR
AC
T...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
85
INTR
OD
UC
TIO
N A
ND
BA
CK
GR
OU
ND
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..86
St
udy
Obj
ectiv
e....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.86
Moi
stur
e Ef
fect
s on
Soil
Resi
lient
Mod
ulus
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....8
6 Te
mpe
ratu
re E
ffect
s on
Soil
Resi
lient
Mod
ulus
......
......
......
......
......
......
....8
8 Se
ason
al V
aria
tion
and
Seas
onal
Adj
ustm
ent F
acto
rs...
......
......
......
......
..89
Ap
proa
ch...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
90
MO
ISTU
RE
AN
D M
OD
ULU
S D
ATA
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..90
135
Figure 9. Cluster membership map based on the K-means method
134
Figure 8. Cluster membership map based on the average link method
TAB
LE
OF
CO
NT
EN
TS—
Con
tinue
d Pa
ge
v
DA
TA A
NA
LYSI
S...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
92
Seas
onal
Var
iatio
n of
Moi
stur
e an
d M
odul
us o
f Sub
grad
e So
il...
......
.....
93
Moi
stur
e an
d M
odul
us V
aria
tion
with
Tim
e...
......
......
......
......
......
......
93
Rel
atin
g M
oist
ure
Con
tent
to A
vera
ge P
reci
pita
tion.
......
......
......
......
..95
C
orre
latin
g th
e Ba
ckca
lcul
ated
Ela
stic
Mod
ulus
to S
ubgr
ade
Soil
Moi
stur
e an
d O
ther
Soi
l Pro
pert
ies.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..97
M
odel
Dev
elop
men
t for
Pla
stic
Soi
ls...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
97
Mod
el D
evel
opm
ent f
or N
onpl
astic
Soi
ls...
......
......
......
......
......
......
..10
1 Es
timat
ing
Seas
onal
Adj
ustm
ent F
acto
rs...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..10
5 SU
MM
AR
Y A
ND
CO
NC
LUSI
ON
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
107
REF
EREN
CES
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..10
8
PAPE
R 5
D
EV
EL
OPM
EN
T O
F A
PA
VE
ME
NT
CL
IMA
TE
MA
P B
ASE
D O
N L
TPP
DA
TA
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
111
AB
STR
AC
T...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...11
1 IN
TRO
DU
CTI
ON
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..11
1 R
ESEA
RC
H A
PPR
OA
CH
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..11
3 C
LIM
ATE
DA
TA P
REP
RO
CES
SIN
G A
ND
TR
AN
SFO
RM
ATI
ON
......
..11
4 C
LUST
ER A
NA
LYSI
S...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...12
0 D
ETER
MIN
ING
TH
E N
UM
BER
OF
CLU
STER
S...
......
......
......
......
......
...12
2 N
umbe
r of C
lust
ers f
or th
e Ty
pe I
Dat
a...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....1
23
Num
ber o
f Clu
ster
s for
the
Type
II D
ata.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
125
VER
IFIC
ATI
ON
OF
THE
CLU
STER
ING
RES
ULT
S....
......
......
......
......
...12
5 C
LUST
ER M
EMB
ERSH
IPS
ON
GIS
MA
PS...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
131
SUM
MA
RY
AN
D C
ON
CLU
STIO
NS.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.136
R
EFER
ENC
ES...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
137
vi
LIS
T O
F FI
GU
RE
S Pa
ge
PAPE
R 1
Figu
re 1
. Pa
vem
ent i
nven
tory
and
cro
ss se
ctio
n in
form
atio
n fo
r SH
RP
ID 1
-408
4-1.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
. 8
Figu
re 2
. D
istre
ss p
rogr
essi
on a
s a fu
nctio
n of
tim
e....
......
......
......
9 Fi
gure
3.
Prog
ress
ion
of d
istre
ss a
s a fu
nctio
n of
tim
e....
......
......
10
Figu
re 4
. Rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n IR
I and
join
t and
cra
ck fa
ultin
g.1
1 Fi
gure
5.
Rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n IR
I and
tran
sver
se c
rack
ing
......
12
Figu
re 6
. D
efle
ctio
n pr
ofile
as f
unct
ion
of d
ista
nce
......
......
......
..13
Fi
gure
7.
LTPP
FW
D p
ositi
ons.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..13
Fi
gure
8.
Bac
kcal
cula
ted
laye
r par
amet
ers.
......
......
......
......
......
...14
Fi
gure
9.
D-r
atio
ver
sus p
oint
loca
tion
for y
ears
199
0, 1
994,
an
d 19
99...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
. 14
Figu
re 1
0. L
TE v
ersu
s poi
nt lo
catio
n (J
4)...
......
......
......
......
......
..15
Fi
gure
11.
Rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n LT
E an
d vo
id ra
tio...
......
......
...15
Fi
gure
12.
Mea
sure
d ES
AL
and
pred
icte
d ES
AL.
......
......
......
.....
16
Figu
re 1
3. E
xam
ple
of a
dis
tress
map
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
18
Figu
re 1
4. T
he p
avem
ent s
truct
ure
deta
ils fo
r Se
ctio
n 22
-011
4...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.21
Figu
re 1
5. T
ande
m a
xle
load
spec
trum
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
22
Figu
re 1
6: A
ctua
l and
pre
dict
ed E
SALs
......
......
......
......
......
......
..23
133
Figure 7. Cluster membership map based on the plus K-means method
132
due
to th
e lim
ited
pape
r siz
e, m
aps p
rese
nted
in th
is p
aper
mus
t ex
clud
e so
me
test
sect
ions
and
rem
ove
over
lapp
ing
labe
ls to
mak
e th
em le
gibl
e. T
hese
map
s are
use
ful i
n ch
ecki
ng th
e cl
uste
ring
resu
lts.
If th
e te
st se
ctio
ns a
re g
eogr
aphi
cally
ver
y cl
ose
to e
ach
othe
r, th
eir c
limat
e ch
arac
teris
tics,
in m
ost c
ases
, ten
d to
be
sim
ilar.
Map
com
paris
on sh
ows t
hat t
he a
vera
ge li
nk p
lus K
-m
eans
met
hod
base
d on
Typ
e I d
ata
prod
uces
bet
ter c
lust
er re
sults
, al
thou
gh in
gen
eral
the
diff
eren
ce b
etw
een
thes
e m
etho
ds is
not
la
rge.
LIS
T O
F FI
GU
RE
S—C
ontin
ued
Page
vii
Figu
re 1
7. T
he a
vera
ge su
rfac
e m
odul
i plo
t with
dep
th fo
r thr
ee
sele
cted
sect
ions
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....2
4 Fi
gure
18.
Exa
mpl
e of
obs
erve
d an
d pr
edic
ted
fatig
ue c
rack
ing.
27
Figu
re 1
9. E
xam
ple
of o
bser
ved
and
pred
icte
d ru
tting
......
......
....2
8 Fi
gure
20.
Pre
dict
ed ru
t dep
th fo
r sec
tion
116.
......
......
......
......
.....
29
PAPE
R 2
Figu
re 1
. A sc
hem
atic
dia
gram
for t
he m
easu
rem
ent o
f rut
ted
wid
ths a
nd ru
t dep
ths f
rom
LTP
P
trans
vers
e pr
ofile
dat
a....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...41
Fi
gure
2. A
com
paris
on b
etw
een
SHR
P an
d M
TC d
efin
ition
s fo
r blo
ck c
rack
ing
seve
ritie
s, an
d co
nver
sion
of L
TPP
quan
titie
s to
MTC
qua
ntiti
es...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
42
Figu
re 3
. Act
ual v
ersu
s pre
dict
ed v
alue
s of I
RI.
......
......
......
......
..48
PA
PER
3
Figu
re 1
. Li
mita
tion
on a
chie
ving
a sm
ooth
pav
emen
t with
a
sing
le li
ft of
asp
halt.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.... 6
4 Fi
gure
2.
As-
built
roug
hnes
s ver
sus p
rior r
ough
ness
for
SPS
-5
data
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
67
Figu
re 3
. A
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess v
ersu
s prio
r rou
ghne
ss f
or C
-LTP
P da
ta...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...72
Fi
gure
4.
As-
built
roug
hnes
s ver
sus o
verla
y th
ickn
ess f
or C
-LTP
P da
ta...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...73
LIS
T O
F FI
GU
RE
S—C
ontin
ued
Page
viii
Figu
re 5
. A
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess v
ersu
s prio
r rou
ghne
ss fo
r SPS
-5
data
with
bas
ic su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d th
in o
verla
y....
.... 7
6 Fi
gure
6.
As-
Bui
lt ro
ughn
ess v
ersu
s prio
r rou
ghne
ss fo
r SPS
-5
data
with
bas
ic su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d th
ick
over
lay.
.....
77
Figu
re 7
. A
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess v
ersu
s prio
r rou
ghne
ss fo
r SPS
-5
data
with
inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d
thin
ove
rlay
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
79
Figu
re 8
. As-
built
roug
hnes
s ver
sus p
rior r
ough
ness
for S
PS-5
dat
a w
ith in
tens
ive
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thic
k ov
erla
y...
....8
1 PA
PER
4
Figu
re 1
. M
oist
ure
cont
ent a
nd e
last
ic m
odul
us v
ersu
s sea
son
for
clay
ey so
il, si
te 4
8-11
22...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
94
Figu
re 2
. M
oist
ure
cont
ent a
nd e
last
ic m
odul
us v
ersu
s sea
son
for
silty
soil,
site
24-
1634
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.94
Figu
re 3
. Moi
stur
e co
nten
t and
ela
stic
mod
ulus
ver
sus s
easo
n fo
r cl
ayey
soil,
site
13-
1005
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...94
Fi
gure
4.
Moi
stur
e co
nten
t and
ela
stic
mod
ulus
ver
sus s
easo
n fo
r si
lty sa
nd, s
ite 2
8-10
16...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..95
Fi
gure
5.
Moi
stur
e co
nten
t and
rain
fall
vers
us se
ason
for s
ilty
sand
so
il, si
te 2
8-10
16...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
96
Figu
re 6
. Moi
stur
e co
nten
t and
rain
fall
vers
us se
ason
for s
ilty
soil,
si
te 2
4-16
34...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..96
131
CL
UST
ER
ME
MB
ER
SHIP
S O
N G
IS M
APS
Bes
ides
bei
ng a
dat
abas
e, th
e D
ataP
ave
3.0
softw
are
also
pro
vide
s ge
ogra
phic
info
rmat
ion
rela
ted
to e
ach
LTPP
test
sect
ion,
whi
ch
incl
udes
the
Stat
es o
r Pro
vinc
es in
whi
ch th
e te
st se
ctio
n is
loca
ted,
th
e m
ajor
hig
hway
syst
ems i
n th
e N
orth
Am
eric
a, th
e po
sitio
ns o
f th
e te
st se
ctio
ns in
the
map
, det
aile
d ge
ogra
phic
feat
ures
. Th
e pu
rpos
e of
usi
ng G
IS in
this
rese
arch
is to
put
the
clus
ter a
naly
sis
resu
lts o
n a
map
so th
at th
ey c
an b
e vi
sual
ly v
erifi
ed.
And
if th
e cl
uste
ring
resu
lt is
acc
epta
ble,
a c
limat
e m
ap is
mor
e su
itabl
e fo
r pr
actic
al u
se th
an a
clu
ster
mem
bers
hip
tabl
e. T
his r
esea
rch
uses
A
rcvi
ew so
ftwar
e to
per
form
GIS
ope
ratio
ns, w
hich
is
acco
mpl
ishe
d by
the
follo
win
g st
eps:
1.
Sele
ctin
g th
e ap
prop
riate
map
them
es (f
eatu
res)
from
the
GIS
dat
abas
e. T
his r
esea
rch
sele
cts a
ll en
tire
test
sect
ions
an
d th
e St
ates
or P
rovi
nces
in w
hich
they
are
loca
ted
as
map
them
es.
2.
Tran
sfor
min
g th
e cl
uste
r mem
bers
hip
tabl
es to
new
A
rcvi
ew-r
ecog
niza
ble
tabl
es.
3.
Join
ing
the
attri
bute
tabl
es in
the
GIS
dat
abas
e w
ith th
e ta
bles
cre
ated
in S
tep
2 by
usi
ng th
e vi
rtual
wea
ther
stat
ion
iden
tific
atio
ns a
s com
bina
tion
key
wor
ds.
Bec
ause
the
attri
bute
tabl
es d
o no
t hav
e vi
rtual
wea
ther
stat
ions
id
entif
icat
ions
, thi
s res
earc
h cr
eate
s a n
ew c
olum
n in
the
orig
inal
GIS
attr
ibut
e ta
bles
. 4.
A
ddin
g th
e m
embe
rshi
p la
bels
to th
e G
IS m
ap a
nd e
ditin
g th
e m
ap.
The
GIS
map
labe
led
with
clu
ster
mem
bers
hips
gen
erat
ed b
y th
e av
erag
e lin
k pl
us K
-mea
ns c
lust
er a
naly
sis o
n Ty
pe I
data
is
pres
ente
d in
figu
re 7
. Th
is re
sear
ch a
lso
deve
lope
d cl
uste
r m
embe
rshi
p m
aps b
ased
on
the
othe
r clu
ster
ana
lysi
s app
roac
hes
and
on th
e Ty
pe I
data
in fi
gure
s 8 a
nd 9
. Th
is p
aper
doe
s not
sh
ow th
e cl
uste
r mem
bers
hip
map
s bas
ed o
n Ty
pe II
dat
a. A
nd
130
Fi
gure
6.
Scat
ter
plot
of t
he fi
rst t
wo
PC sc
ores
labe
led
with
ave
rage
link
plu
s K-m
eans
clu
ster
ana
lysi
s res
ults
Plot
of t
he fi
rst t
wo
PC s
core
s (la
bele
d w
ith K
-mea
ns c
lust
erin
g re
sults
)(u
sing
hie
rarc
hica
l clu
ster
ing
resu
lts to
com
pute
initi
al c
lust
er c
ente
rs)
-3.0
0 -1
.00
1.00
3.00
PC S
core
2
-3.0
0
-2.0
0
-1.0
0
0.00
1.00
2.00
PC Score 1
11
11
14
11
14
11
11 11
11
11
11
14
1111
11
14
11
11
14 5360
29
61
29
56
1
15 15
52
1
15
17
15 15
15
1 1 1
1 1 1
17
17
15 15
15
17
17
1
1
15
9
15 15
15
1
15
11 11 11
11
11
11 11
11 16
11 11
11
11 11
11
11 11 11
1
40
41
1
5022
22
28
28
40
41
28
1 28
1
9
1 40
40
49
40
40
40
40
15
28
15
1
28
28
1
1
15
15
28
40
58
13
13
13
37
13
18 18
13
18
13
13
13
13
57
18
13
13
13
18
3
3 3
3 3
16
16 16
16
16 16
16 16
2525
14
2525
2525
14
25
25
2525
25
25
1414
14
25
25
2525 14
25
25
25
25
2525
14
16
11
11
11
1111
19
19
11
11
11
11
19
1414
14
1414
11
11
14
14
11
30
30
3030
21
45
26 26
6
26
6
26 26
6 37
21
21
8
8
16
8
16 16
8 8 8
16
35
8 8 8
16
16
8 8 8 35
8
16
16
35
3 8
35 3
16
3
16
3
16
8 35 35
16
8 3
8
8 8 2 2 8 8
8 8 2 2 2 8
2 2
8
12
12
12
7 16
12 12
16
18
16
8 8
16
12
16
12 12 45
16
16
16 16
16
1414
1414
10 24
10 10 24
24
10
10 10
16 16
16 16
16
16
10
3
3
35
35
35
10
10
59
35
10
10
10 35
35
10
35
35
35
5
33
2 2 2
5
2 2
2 2
5 5
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2 5 5
2
2
2 2
5 2 2 2
11 11 1111
11
14
11 1111
11
11 1111
11 1
11111
14 14
1111
11
11 11
14
1414
16
8
16 16
16
16
16
16
8 16 8
16
8 8 8
16 11
7 16
16
16
16 16
8
16
8
6
6 32
33
6 6
6
6 6
45
45
45
45
45 45
45
45
45
8 45
45
13
45 45
45 45
18
18
18
18
1
13
6
26
26
1
10
3
16
3
3
3 3
16
3 16
16
16 3
9 9 9 9
12
9
17
17
9
17 12
9
18
17
17
10
1010
10
24
10
10
16
11
11 11
1611
11
3
11 11
3
16
3
16
16 16 16
16
11 11
11
16
16 11
3
16
16
33
5 5 5
33
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 35 35
3 8
3 3
7 7 7
7 7
7 7
7
7 7
7 7
7 7 19
7 7 7 7
11
7
11
7
23
23
26
26
232323
2320
23
20
35
10 3
10
3 35
3
3
16
10
3
10
3
10
3 3 3 3
3
3 3 14
11
11
11
11 11 11
11
33
33
33
33 32
32
33
6 32
45
33
45
45
33
33
33
11
1616
1116
16
16
16
1616
161616
1616
27
27
19
27 19
12 12
9 19 19
12
27
12
19
19
19
9 9
19
27
27
27
27
19
9
19
19 19
27
27
19 19
27
19
27
4419
9 12
19
1419
19
19
7
19
19
19
19 19
14
27
27
27
9 9
19
19
27
19
12
14
141414
19
14
19
27
19
9 19
19
19
19
19
19
12
7
12
12
12
12
27
12
1427
19
19
19
31
18
13
26
13
13
13
13
13
13
26
26
13
31
26
24
35
10
10
10
16
3
16 16
3
3
16
16
3 11
11
16
16
26
20
20
26 26
20
21
26
23
38
21
20
20
23
26
38
21
21
26
3
3
3
2 2
2
2
35
35
35
2
35
2 2
2 2 35
2 2
2 2 2
35
35
2
6 6
6 6 6
34 34
37
34
37
6
6
34
454
44
47
5 5 36
5 48
36
55
3939
36 5
5 5 5 5
5 5
24 24 2
424
43
42
42
43
24
24
24
10
10 35
10
2424
24
51
24
24
24
46
24
24
24
24
24
5 5
5 5 5
5 5
LIS
T O
F FI
GU
RE
S—C
ontin
ued
Page
ix
Figu
re 7
. M
oist
ure
cont
ent a
nd ra
infa
ll ve
rsus
seas
on fo
r cla
yey
soil,
site
13-
1005
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...96
Fi
gure
8.
Moi
stur
e co
nten
t and
rain
fall
vers
us se
ason
for c
laye
y so
il, si
te 4
8-41
43...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
97
Figu
re 9
. M
oist
ure
cont
ent v
ersu
s rai
nfal
l for
cla
yey
soil,
si
te 4
8-41
43...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..97
Fi
gure
10.
Bac
kcal
cula
ted
mod
ulus
ver
sus m
oist
ure
cont
ent f
or
clay
ey so
il, si
te 4
8-41
43...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....1
00
Figu
re 1
1. B
ackc
alcu
late
d m
odul
us v
ersu
s moi
stur
e co
nten
t for
fin
e sa
ndy
clay
soil,
site
13-
1005
......
......
......
......
......
......
101
Figu
re 1
2. B
ackc
alcu
late
d m
odul
us v
ersu
s moi
stur
e co
nten
t for
co
arse
sand
y cl
ay so
il, si
te 4
8-11
22...
......
......
......
......
.....
101
Figu
re 1
3. B
ackc
alcu
late
d m
odul
us v
ersu
s moi
stur
e co
nten
t for
si
lty so
il, si
te 2
8-16
34...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..10
3 Fi
gure
14.
Bac
kcal
cula
ted
mod
ulus
ver
sus m
oist
ure
cont
ent f
or
fine
sand
y si
lt, si
te 4
8-10
77...
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
103
Figu
re 1
5. B
ackc
alcu
late
d m
odul
us v
ersu
s moi
stur
e co
nten
t for
sa
ndy
soil,
site
35-
1112
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...10
4 Fi
gure
16.
Est
imat
ed m
odul
us sh
ift fa
ctor
for d
iffer
ent
soil
type
s....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...10
6
LIS
T O
F FI
GU
RE
S—C
ontin
ued
Page
x
PAPE
R 5
Figu
re 1
. Th
e nu
mbe
r of t
ext s
ectio
ns h
avin
g cl
imat
e re
cord
s ea
ch y
ear.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
117
Figu
re 2
. Dis
tanc
e m
easu
rem
ent o
f the
ave
rage
link
age
clus
terin
g m
etho
d....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.121
Fi
gure
3. C
CC
ver
sus n
umbe
r of c
lust
ers (
Type
I da
ta).
......
......
123
Figu
re 4
. Sca
tter p
lot o
f the
firs
t tw
o PC
scor
es la
bele
d w
ith
aver
age
link
clus
ter a
naly
sis r
esul
ts...
......
......
......
......
.....
128
Figu
re 5
. Sc
atte
r plo
t of t
he fi
rst t
wo
PC sc
ores
labe
led
with
K
-mea
ns c
lust
er a
naly
sis r
esul
ts...
......
......
......
......
......
.... 1
29
Figu
re 6
. Sc
atte
r plo
t of t
he fi
rst t
wo
PC sc
ores
labe
led
with
av
erag
e lin
k pl
us K
-mea
ns c
lust
er a
naly
sis r
esul
ts...
......
130
Figu
re 7
. C
lust
er m
embe
rshi
p m
ap b
ased
on
the
aver
age
link
pl
us K
-mea
ns m
etho
d...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..13
3 Fi
gure
8.
Clu
ster
mem
bers
hip
map
bas
ed o
n th
e a
vera
ge li
nk
met
hod.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....1
34
Figu
re 9
. C
lust
er m
embe
rshi
p m
ap b
ased
on
the
K-m
eans
m
etho
ds...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
135
129
Fi
gure
5.
Scat
ter
plot
of t
he fi
rst t
wo
PC sc
ores
labe
led
with
K-m
eans
clu
ster
ana
lysi
s res
ults
Plot
of t
he fi
rst t
wo
PC s
core
s (la
bele
d w
ith K
-mea
ns c
lust
erin
g re
sults
)
-3.0
0-1
.00
1.00
3.00
PC
Sco
re 2
-3.0
0
-2.0
0
-1.0
0
0.00
1.00
2.00
PC Score 1
30
9
12
9
42
30
303030
9
30
42
3030
30
42
9
30
42 2021
24
23
24
25
8
46
46
29
8
46
47
464646
888
8
8 8
1515
46
46
46
1515
8
46
46
8
4646
46
8
46
30
3030
3030
30
3030
36
30
30
30
3030
30
3030
30
46
55
52
8
5637
37
2828
8
52
28
828
8
8
8
8 28
22
55
88 8
46
28
46
8
2828
8
8
4646
28 8
33
45 4545
44
45
15
15
45
15
45
4545
45
6
15
4545
45
15
34
34
3434
34
18181818
18
18
1818
1119
11
1919
1111
42
19
11
1111
11
11
4242
42
11
19
1919 42
11
111111
1111
11
18
9 9
12
99
1212
9
3030
9
121212
121111
30
9
1211
9
2626
3232
35
417 17
60
17
60
17
17
60
27
35 35
34
3
36
3
3636
3
33
36
353 33
3636
333
34
34
18
18 3434
34
3434
36
34
18 34
18
34
34 34
18
34
343
3 3 5353
33
33
53535
3
3
53
53
3
5736
5736
3657
5736
15
3636
36
3636
36
5757
3
18918
1818
4242
4242
13
381313 38
38
131313
1818
18 1818
18
13
34
34
35
34
35
13
13
54
35 1313
13
35
35 1335 3534
14
2
53 5353
14
532
5353
14
2
53
5353
535353 535353535353
53
253 1414
53
53
53
53
145353
53
30 30 3030
30
42
30
3030
30 30303
030
303030
42 42
3030
30
30
30
42
4242
36
3
3636
3636
36
3636
36
3
36
333
36
3030
3636
3636
36
3
36
36
41
60
7
41
4141
41
41 60
3345
33 33 3
3
33
3
45
3
3
33
1515
15
15
46
45
60
17
17
46
13
18
18
18
34
18
34
18 1818 1818
18
5757 57 5
7
57
57
47
47
57
47
57
57
15
4747
13
1313
13
43
1313
9
9
99
189
9
34
9
9
18
9
18
18
99
999
99
99
9
18
18
9
2
2 14
2
2
343434
34
3434
3434 34
343434
3434
5757
57
55
5555
55
57
57
55
3630
365555
57
57 57 57
30
36
3055
1616
1717
161616
1659
16
59
34
1334
13
3434
34
18
18
13
18
13
34
13
3434
34
18
34
34 34
12
12
9
3030
3012
9
2
41
2
27
7
53
607
41
5333
41
41
41
9 1818
99
9
18
9
18
18
999
99
50
50
5050
55
5757
8
12
12
57
50
57
55
5555
57
57
12
5050
50
50
12
57
121212
5050
5555
50
50
50
1155
8 57
55
1112
5555
57
50
1212
121242
50 5050
8 8
50
55
50
55
15
12
421142
5011
5550
55
8
55 5555
55 55
55
57
55
57
5757
57
50
57
1150
5555
55
44
15
47
4
45
4747
45
45
45
4
447
44
4
38
35
131313
9
34
9 18
34
18
99
349
9
99
17
59 59
17 17
59
417
16
51
4
5959
16
17
51
4
4
1718
34
18
5353
53
53
35
35
35 53
35 53
53
53
53
35 5353
535353
3535 53
6060
4141
60
4040
27
40
27
41
60
40
531
55
1
14 111
49
60
61
5116
60
1414
141414
1414
3858 5
838
10
39
39
58
38
43
43
13 13
13
13
5858
58
483838
38
39
3838
38
38
38
1414
14
1414
14 14
128
way
to c
ompa
re is
to e
xam
ine
the
clus
ter m
embe
rshi
ps o
f the
thre
e cl
uste
r met
hods
in se
para
te m
aps a
nd ju
dge
them
by
expe
rienc
e.
The
abov
e di
scus
sion
is b
ased
on
Type
I da
ta.
The
verif
icat
ion
proc
ess f
or th
e Ty
pe II
dat
a is
als
o pe
rfor
med
the
sam
e w
ay,
alth
ough
it is
sim
pler
bec
ause
it c
onta
ins o
nly
14 v
aria
bles
. Th
e fin
al re
sult
of th
e st
atis
tical
clu
ster
ana
lysi
s is a
tabl
e co
mpr
isin
g th
e te
st se
ctio
ns a
nd th
eir c
orre
spon
ding
clu
ster
mem
bers
hips
. Te
st se
ctio
ns w
ith th
e sa
me
clus
ter m
embe
rshi
p be
long
to o
ne
grou
p w
ith si
mila
r clim
ate
patte
rns.
Bec
ause
of t
he si
ze o
f the
ta
ble,
it is
not
show
n in
this
pap
er.
Fi
gure
4. S
catt
er p
lot o
f the
firs
t tw
o PC
scor
es la
bele
d w
ith
aver
age
link
clus
ter
anal
ysis
res
ults
Plot
of t
he fi
rst t
wo
PC s
core
s (la
bele
d w
ith a
vera
gelin
k cl
uste
ring
resu
lt)
-3.0
0 -1
.00
1.00
3.00
Prin
cipl
e C
ompo
nent
Sco
re 2
-3.0
0
-2.0
0
-1.0
0
0.00
1.00
2.00
Principle Component Score 1
11
11
14
11
14
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
14
11
11
14
53
60
29
61
29
56
1
15
15
52
1
15
17
15
15
15
1
1
1
1
1
1
17
17
15
15
15
17
17
1
1
15
1
15
15
15
1
15
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
16
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
1
40
41
1
50
22
22
28
28
1
41
28
1
1
1
9
1
1
1
49
40
1
1
1
15
28
15
1
28
28
1
1
15
15
1
1
58
13
13
13
37
13
18
18
13
18
13
13
13
13
57
18
13
13
13
18
3
3
3
3
3
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
14
25
14
25
25
14
14
14
25
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
25
25
25
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
16
11
11
14
11
11
14
14
11
11
11
11
14
14
14
14
14
14
11
11
14
14
11
30
30
30
30
21
45
26
13
6
26
6
26
26
6
37
21
21
3
2
16
2
16
16
3
3
3
16
2
3
3
3
16
16
3
3
3
3
3
16
16
3
3
3
3
3
16
3
16
3
16
3
3
3
16
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
3
2
2
3
12
12
12
16
7
12
12
16
18
16
16
16
16
12
16
12
12
8
3
16
16
3
16
14
14
14
14
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
16
16
16
16
16
16
3
3
3
2
3
2
35
2
59
3
2
2
2
3
3
2
3
2
3
5
2
2
2
2
5
2
2
2
2
5
5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
5
5
2
2
2
2
5
2
2
2
11
11
11
11
11
14
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
14
14
11
19
11
11
11
14
14
14
16
8
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
8
16
8
8
8
16
11
7
16
16
16
16
16
8
16
16
6
6
32
33
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
13
8
8
8
8
18
18
18
18
1
13
6
26
26
1
10
3
16
3
3
3
3
16
3
16
16
3
3
9
9
9
9
9
9
17
17
9
17
12
9
9
17
17
35
35
35
10
24
10
10
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
3
16
16
3
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
3
16
16
2
5
5
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
19
7
7
7
7
11
7
11
7
23
23
26
26
23
23
23
23
20
23
20
3
3
3
10
3
3
3
3
16
3
3
35
3
3
3
3
3
3
35
3
3
14
11
11
11
11
11
11
16
2
33
2
2
32
32
2
6
32
33
2
8
8
33
33
33
11
16
16
11
11
11
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
19
27
19
19
19
12
12
9
19
19
12
19
12
19
19
19
9
9
19
27
27
19
27
19
9
19
19
19
27
19
19
19
27
19
27
44
19
9
12
19
14
19
19
19
7
19
19
19
19
19
14
27
27
27
9
9
19
19
19
19
12
14
14
14
14
19
14
19
19
19
9
19
19
19
19
19
19
12
19
12
12
12
12
27
12
14
19
19
19
19
31
18
13
26
13
13
13
13
13
13
26
26
13
31
26
10
2
10
10
10
16
3
16
3
3
3
16
16
3
16
16
16
16
26
20
20
26
26
20
21
26
23
38
21
20
20
23
26
38
21
21
26
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
6
6
6
6
6
34
34
37
34
37
13
6
34
4
54
4
4
47
5
5
36
5
48
36
55
39
39
36
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
24
24
24
24
43
42
42
43
24
24
24
2
2
3
2
24
24
24
51
24
24
24
46
24
24
24
24
24
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
xi
LIS
T O
F TA
BL
ES
Page
IN
TR
OD
UC
TIO
N
Tabl
e 1.
Dat
a A
naly
sis C
onte
st w
inne
rs fo
r 200
1–20
02...
......
......
..2
PAPE
R 1
Tabl
e 1.
Oth
er d
istre
sses
foun
d in
this
sect
ion
......
......
......
......
.....
11
Tabl
e 2.
Ran
king
bas
ed o
n di
stre
ss a
nd c
ompu
ted
resp
onse
s....
..17
Ta
ble
3. T
he L
TPP
sect
ion
repo
rt...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...20
Ta
ble
4. S
umm
ary
resu
lts fo
r mat
eria
l pro
perti
es b
ased
on
back
calc
ulat
ion,
Sep
tem
ber,
1998
......
......
......
......
......
......
25
Tabl
e 5.
Sum
mar
y of
the
pave
men
t res
pons
e....
......
......
......
......
..25
PA
PER
2
Tabl
e 1.
Diff
eren
ces i
n de
finiti
ons b
etw
een
MTC
and
LTP
P fo
r M
TC d
istre
sses
-sev
eriti
es (M
TC, 1
986;
SH
RP,
199
3)...
..37
Ta
ble
2. D
istre
ss q
uant
ities
in L
TPP
syst
em u
sed
to o
btai
n
dist
ress
qua
ntiti
es in
MTC
syst
em...
......
......
......
......
......
...39
Ta
ble
3. S
ever
ity le
vels
of d
istre
ss ty
pes r
elat
ed to
cau
se o
f de
terio
ratio
n fo
r asp
halt
and
surf
ace
trea
tmen
t pa
vem
ents
(Sm
ith, 1
999)
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..44
Ta
ble
4. P
artia
l res
ults
from
MTC
-PM
S an
d co
rres
pond
ing
IRI
valu
es...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
45
LIS
T O
F TA
BL
ES—
Con
tinue
d Pa
ge
xii
PAPE
R 3
Tabl
e 1.
SPS
-5 e
xper
imen
tal t
est s
ectio
ns...
......
......
......
......
......
..57
Ta
ble
2. A
s-bu
ilt IR
I mea
sure
men
ts...
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
59
Tabl
e 3.
IR
I mea
sure
men
ts b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g....
......
......
......
......
60
Tabl
e 4.
Pai
red
data
ana
lysi
s of t
he e
ffec
t of s
urfa
ce p
repa
ratio
n
on a
s-bu
ilt IR
I....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...63
Ta
ble
5. P
aire
d da
ta a
naly
sis o
f the
eff
ect o
f des
ign
over
lay
thic
knes
s on
as-b
uilt
IRI.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..65
Ta
ble
6. P
aire
d da
ta a
naly
sis o
f the
eff
ect o
f ove
rlay
mat
eria
l on
as-
built
IRI.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
66
Tabl
e 7.
Res
ults
of a
naly
sis o
f var
ianc
e fo
r log
arith
m o
f prio
r ro
ughn
ess f
or S
PS-5
site
s....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...68
Ta
ble
8. W
ithin
-sub
ject
s eff
ects
of r
epea
ted
mea
sure
s a
naly
sis.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....7
0 Ta
ble
9. B
etw
een-
subj
ects
eff
ects
of r
epea
ted
mea
sure
s an
alys
is...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...71
Ta
ble
10.
Res
ults
of a
naly
sis o
f var
ianc
e fo
r prio
r rou
ghne
ss
with
C-L
TPP
data
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
. 73
Tabl
e 11
. R
esul
ts o
f ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
for o
verla
y th
ickn
ess
with
C-L
TPP
data
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.74
Tabl
e 12
. R
esul
ts o
f ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
for b
asic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thin
ove
rlay
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...76
127
exam
ined
in th
is re
sear
ch.
Bec
ause
of t
he p
aper
size
and
the
larg
e am
ount
of t
he d
ata,
the
thre
e-di
men
sion
al p
lot i
s ille
gibl
e. T
his
pape
r onl
y pr
esen
ts th
e sc
atte
r plo
ts o
f the
firs
t tw
o pr
inci
ple
com
pone
nt sc
ores
for T
ype
I dat
a us
ing
aver
age
link,
K-m
eans
, an
d av
erag
e lin
k pl
us K
-mea
ns a
ppro
ache
s in
figur
es 4
, 5, a
nd 6
, re
spec
tivel
y.
In th
e pl
ots,
the
num
ber l
abel
s the
clu
ster
mem
bers
hip
of a
cer
tain
ob
serv
atio
n (te
st se
ctio
n) w
hose
pos
ition
is d
ecid
ed b
y its
firs
t tw
o Ei
genv
alue
s. T
hese
plo
ts re
veal
som
e in
tere
stin
g in
form
atio
n.
Whe
n an
obs
erva
tion
is v
ery
diff
eren
t fro
m th
e ot
hers
, all
thre
e cl
uste
ring
met
hods
cor
rect
ly a
ssig
n it
a di
stin
ctiv
e cl
uste
r m
embe
rshi
p. B
ut w
hen
the
obse
rvat
ions
are
not
so d
istin
ctiv
e,
espe
cial
ly in
the
mid
dle
of th
e pl
ots,
diff
eren
t met
hods
resu
lt in
di
ffer
ent c
lust
ers.
In th
e up
per l
eft c
orne
r of t
hese
plo
ts, s
ome
obse
rvat
ions
are
ver
y cl
osel
y gr
oupe
d. B
oth
the
aver
age
link
met
hod
(fig
ure
4) a
nd th
e av
erag
e lin
k pl
us K
-mea
ns m
etho
d (f
igur
e 6)
ass
ign
them
to a
di
stin
ctiv
e cl
uste
r (la
bele
d w
ith “
15”
in th
ese
plot
s).
The
diff
eren
ce o
f the
se o
bser
vatio
ns in
clu
ster
15
with
the
othe
rs is
m
ore
evid
ent i
n a
thre
e-di
men
sion
al p
lot (
not s
how
n he
re).
But
the
K-m
eans
met
hod
assi
gns m
ore
unne
cess
ary
obse
rvat
ions
(fig
ure
5).
To c
ompa
re th
e ef
fect
iven
ess o
f the
ave
rage
link
met
hod
and
the
aver
age
link
plus
K-m
eans
met
hod,
the
auth
or e
xam
ines
thos
e ob
serv
atio
ns la
bele
d w
ith “
24”
and
“10”
in th
e rig
ht c
orne
r of
figur
e 4
and
figur
e 6.
The
plo
ts sh
ow th
at th
e av
erag
e lin
k pl
us K
-m
eans
met
hod
outp
erfo
rms t
he a
vera
ge li
nk m
etho
d by
bet
ter
delim
iting
the
obse
rvat
ions
bel
ongi
ng to
thes
e tw
o cl
uste
rs.
The
plot
s sho
w th
at th
e se
quen
ce o
f thr
ee c
lust
erin
g m
etho
ds, i
n th
e or
der o
f val
idity
by
exam
inin
g th
e fir
st tw
o pr
inci
ple
com
pone
nt sc
ores
, is t
he a
vera
ge li
nk p
lus K
-mea
ns, t
he a
vera
ge
link,
and
the
K-m
eans
met
hod.
How
ever
, bec
ause
mor
e th
an 2
0 pe
rcen
t of t
he v
aria
bilit
y is
not
acc
ount
ed fo
r by
the
first
two
prin
cipl
e co
mpo
nent
s, on
e ca
nnot
judg
e th
e ef
fect
iven
ess o
f the
se
clus
ter m
etho
ds so
lely
dep
endi
ng o
n th
ese
scat
ter p
lots
. A
noth
er
126
anal
ysis
tech
niqu
e th
at c
an re
duce
the
dim
ensi
on o
f the
dat
a by
tra
nsfo
rmin
g a
set o
f cor
rela
ted
varia
bles
into
a n
ew se
t of
unco
rrec
ted
varia
bles
cal
led
prin
cipl
e co
mpo
nent
s (Jo
hnso
n, 1
998,
p.
107)
. If
the
first
two
or th
ree
prin
cipl
e co
mpo
nent
s acc
ount
for
mos
t of t
he v
aria
bilit
y in
the
data
, the
ir va
lues
(prin
cipl
e co
mpo
nent
scor
es) c
an b
e pl
otte
d in
a tw
o- o
r thr
ee-d
imen
sion
al
spac
e to
hel
p pe
ople
exa
min
e th
e cl
uste
r ana
lysi
s res
ults
. If
the
prin
cipl
e co
mpo
nent
s of t
wo
obse
rvat
ions
are
ver
y cl
ose
to e
ach
othe
r in
a sc
atte
r plo
t, th
ey sh
ould
bel
ong
to th
e sa
me
clus
ter;
othe
rwis
e th
ey sh
ould
bel
ong
to d
iffer
ent c
lust
ers.
The
Eig
enva
lue
is a
num
ber i
ndic
atin
g th
e am
ount
of v
aria
bilit
y ac
coun
ted
for b
y th
e ne
w-f
orm
ed v
aria
bles
that
are
com
pute
d fr
om th
e co
rrel
atio
n m
atrix
of t
he tr
ansf
orm
ed c
limat
e va
riabl
es.
The
larg
er a
prin
cipl
e co
mpo
nent
’s E
igen
valu
e, th
e m
ore
varia
bilit
y is
acc
ount
ed fo
r by
it. P
rinci
ple
com
pone
nts h
avin
g la
rge
Eige
nval
ues c
an b
e us
ed to
re
pres
ent t
he w
hole
var
iabl
es.
Eige
nval
ues l
arge
r tha
n 1
are
liste
d in
tabl
e 6.
Tab
le 6
. E
igen
valu
es la
rger
than
one
Prin
cipl
e C
ompo
nent
E
igen
valu
es
% o
f Var
ianc
e C
umul
ativ
e %
1 14
2.40
1 59
.832
59
.832
2
45.
501
19.1
18
78.9
50
3 1
2.28
9 5
.163
84
.114
4
7.6
76
3.2
25
87.3
39
5 5
.801
2
.437
89
.777
6
3.3
90
1.4
24
91.2
01
7 2
.749
1
.155
92
.356
8
1.6
84
0
.707
93
.064
9
1.2
79
0
.537
93
.601
10
1
.122
0.4
72
94.0
73
The
first
two
prin
cipl
e co
mpo
nent
s acc
ount
for 7
9 pe
rcen
t of t
he
tota
l var
iabi
lity,
whi
le th
e fir
st th
ree
prin
cipl
e co
mpo
nent
s acc
ount
fo
r 84
perc
ent o
f the
tota
l var
iabi
lity.
Alth
ough
the
first
thre
e pr
inci
ple
com
pone
nt sc
ores
are
not
so o
verw
helm
ing,
they
may
st
ill g
ive
som
e in
dica
tion
of w
hich
clu
ster
ing
met
hod
is b
ette
r.
Bot
h th
e tw
o-di
men
sion
al a
nd th
ree-
dim
ensi
onal
plo
ts a
re
LIS
T O
F TA
BL
ES—
Con
tinue
d Pa
ge
xiii
Tabl
e 13
. R
esul
ts o
f ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
for b
asic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thic
k ov
erla
y....
......
......
......
......
......
......
....7
8 Ta
ble
14. R
esul
ts o
f ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
for i
nten
sive
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thin
ove
rlay
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...79
Ta
ble
15.
Res
ults
of a
naly
sis o
f var
ianc
e fo
r int
ensi
ve su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d th
ick
over
lay.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.81
PAPE
R 4
Tabl
e 1.
LTP
P si
te lo
catio
ns a
nd su
bgra
de so
il
char
acte
rizat
ion.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....9
1 Ta
ble
2. T
he re
gres
sion
pro
cedu
re u
sing
R-s
quar
e se
lect
ion
met
hod
for t
hree
site
s....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....9
8 Ta
ble
3. A
naly
sis o
f var
ianc
e ta
ble
and
estim
ated
mod
el
para
met
ers.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
99
Tabl
e 4.
Est
imat
ed m
odel
con
stan
ts fo
r non
plas
tic so
ils...
......
...10
2
LIS
T O
F TA
BL
ES—
Con
tinue
d Pa
ge
xiv
PAPE
R 5
Ta
ble
1. F
inal
clim
ate
para
met
ers i
n cl
uste
r ana
lysi
s....
......
......
.118
Ta
ble
2. T
rans
form
atio
n of
the
Type
I da
ta...
......
......
......
......
.....
119
Tabl
e 3.
Pre
proc
essi
ng o
f the
Typ
e II
dat
a....
......
......
......
......
.....
119
Tabl
e 4.
Pse
udo
T2 st
atis
tic v
ersu
s num
ber o
f clu
ster
s (T
ype
I dat
a)...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
124
Tabl
e 5.
Num
ber o
f clu
ster
s ver
sus p
seud
o F
stat
istic
(T
ype
I dat
a)...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
125
Tabl
e 6.
Eig
enva
lues
larg
er th
an o
ne...
......
......
......
......
......
......
..12
6
125
Tab
le 5
. N
umbe
r of
clu
ster
s ver
sus p
seud
o F
stat
istic
(T
ype
I dat
a)
Num
ber
of C
lust
ers
Pseu
do F
Sta
tistic
52
114.
62
53
115.
09
54
113.
44
55
111.
69
56
110.
46
57
108.
74
58
108.
68
59
107.
00
60
106.
20
61
114.
45
62
113.
71
63
113.
72
The
R sq
uare
doe
s not
pro
vide
any
mor
e in
form
atio
n in
this
re
sear
ch.
Con
side
ring
the
CC
C, p
seud
o T2
stat
istic
and
pse
udo
F st
atis
tic, t
he a
utho
r rec
omm
ends
61
clus
ter n
umbe
rs b
ased
on
Type
I d
ata.
NU
MB
ER
OF
CL
UST
ER
S FO
R T
HE
TY
PE II
DA
TA
Sim
ilar p
roce
dure
s of d
ecid
ing
the
num
ber o
f clu
ster
s are
pe
rfor
med
for T
ype
II d
ata.
The
ana
lysi
s ind
icat
es th
at h
avin
g 50
cl
uste
rs is
app
ropr
iate
for T
ype
II d
ata.
The
clu
ster
pro
cess
bas
ed
on T
ype
II d
ata
tend
s to
prod
uces
few
er c
lust
ers c
ompa
red
to T
ype
I dat
a, w
hich
is re
ason
able
bec
ause
the
data
are
the
aver
age
clim
ate
valu
es.
VE
RIF
ICA
TIO
N O
F T
HE
CL
UST
ER
ING
RE
SUL
TS
If th
e da
ta a
re tw
o di
men
sion
al, a
scat
ter p
lot i
s eno
ugh
for
valid
atin
g th
e cl
uste
r res
ults
. Fo
r exa
mpl
e, fi
gure
2 c
lear
ly
indi
cate
s tha
t tw
o cl
uste
rs a
re e
noug
h. H
owev
er, w
hen
the
dim
ensi
on o
f the
dat
a ex
ceed
s thr
ee, d
irect
gra
phic
plo
ts a
re a
lmos
t in
appl
icab
le.
Prin
cipl
e co
mpo
nent
s ana
lysi
s is a
mul
tivar
iate
dat
a
124
Whe
n us
ing
the
pseu
do T
2 st
atis
tic, o
ne n
eeds
to st
art a
t the
top
of
the
SAS
prin
ted
outp
ut a
nd lo
ok fo
r the
rela
tivel
y la
rge
valu
e, th
en
mov
e ba
ck u
p on
e cl
uste
r (SA
S In
stitu
te, 2
002)
. Pa
rt of
the
pseu
do
T2 st
atis
tics a
re re
porte
d in
tabl
e 4.
The
pse
udo
T2 st
atis
tic fo
r 60
clus
ters
in ta
ble
4 is
71.
14, w
hich
is re
lativ
ely
larg
e co
mpa
red
to
num
bers
aro
und
it. G
oing
bac
k to
61
clus
ters
, the
pse
udo
T2
stat
istic
redu
ces t
o 8.
32.
This
indi
cate
s tha
t hav
ing
61 c
lust
ers i
s m
ore
appr
opria
te.
Tab
le 4
. Ps
eudo
T2
stat
istic
ver
sus n
umbe
r of
clu
ster
s (T
ype
I dat
a)
Num
ber
of C
lust
ers
Pseu
do T
2 st
atis
tic
52
23.9
9 53
8
.85
54
3.6
0 55
6
.09
56
3.9
3 57
12
.87
58
2.1
8 59
7
.96
60
71.1
4 61
8
.32
62
14.6
4 63
3
.33
Ano
ther
use
ful s
tatis
tic is
the
pseu
do F
stat
istic
. Th
e re
lativ
ely
larg
e va
lue
(tabl
e 5)
indi
cate
s the
app
ropr
iate
num
ber o
f clu
ster
s.
Tabl
e 5
show
s tha
t clu
ster
num
ber 6
1 co
rres
pond
s to
a re
gion
al
peak
in th
e ps
eudo
F st
atis
tic.
1
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
BA
CK
GR
OU
ND
In 1
998,
the
Fede
ral H
ighw
ay A
dmin
istra
tion
(FH
WA
), Lo
ng-
Term
Pav
emen
t Per
form
ance
(LTP
P) P
rogr
am, a
nd th
e H
ighw
ay
Div
isio
n Pa
vem
ents
Com
mitt
ee o
f the
Am
eric
an S
ocie
ty o
f Civ
il En
gine
ers (
ASC
E) in
itiat
ed a
pro
gram
to o
rgan
ize
an in
tern
atio
nal
cont
est o
n th
e us
e of
LTP
P da
ta. T
he c
ompe
titio
n w
as d
esig
ned
to
prom
ote
the
use
of L
TPP
data
and
invo
lve
the
futu
re p
avem
ent
engi
neer
s in
univ
ersi
ty in
the
anal
ysis
of d
ata
from
the
LTPP
da
taba
se.
The
prog
ram
has
bee
n in
ope
ratio
n fo
r 4 y
ears
with
thre
e co
ntes
ts.
The
pape
rs c
onta
ined
in th
is d
ocum
ent a
re th
e re
sults
of
the
2001
–200
2 co
ntes
t.
DA
TA
AN
AL
YSI
S C
ON
TE
ST
The
cont
est h
as b
een
expa
nded
to c
over
four
cat
egor
ies:
• C
ateg
ory
1, U
nder
grad
uate
Stu
dent
s (in
divi
dual
or t
eam
en
try).
• C
ateg
ory
2, G
radu
ate
Stud
ents
(ind
ivid
ual o
r tea
m e
ntry
).
• C
ateg
ory
3, P
artn
ersh
ip.
• C
ateg
ory
4, C
urric
ulum
.
The
cont
est n
ow e
xpan
ds to
oth
er k
ey e
xper
ts, i
nclu
ding
Sta
te
depa
rtmen
ts o
f tra
nspo
rtatio
n, c
onsu
ltant
s, an
d in
dust
ry a
s wel
l as
the
univ
ersi
ties.
The
Tra
nspo
rtatio
n an
d D
evel
opm
ent I
nstit
ute
cont
inue
s to
prov
ide
over
sigh
t of t
he c
onte
st w
ith st
rong
supp
ort
from
FH
WA
.
For t
he 2
001–
2002
con
test
, a to
tal o
f 11
pape
rs w
ere
subm
itted
, an
d ex
perts
from
aca
dem
ia, i
ndus
try, a
nd h
ighw
ay a
genc
ies
revi
ewed
thes
e pa
pers
. Aw
ards
wer
e gi
ven
for t
he b
est p
aper
from
ea
ch o
f the
four
cat
egor
ies.
The
win
ners
for 2
001–
2002
are
list
ed
in ta
ble
1.
2
Tab
le 1
. Dat
a A
naly
sis C
onte
st w
inne
rs fo
r 20
01–2
002
Priz
e N
ame
Facu
lty A
dvis
or
Cat
egor
y 1—
Und
ergr
adua
te S
tude
nts:
No
entr
ies
Cat
egor
y 2—
Gra
duat
e St
uden
ts
1st
Plac
e H
assa
n M
. Aly
Sa
lem
Foua
d M
. Bay
omy,
P.E
. Pr
ofes
sor o
f Civ
il En
gine
erin
g U
nive
rsity
of I
daho
1st
Plac
e Y
uhon
g W
ang
Don
n E.
Han
cher
D
epar
tmen
t of C
ivil
Engi
neer
ing
Uni
vers
ity o
f Ken
tuck
y
2nd
Plac
e Sh
amee
m
Dew
an
Rog
er E
. Sm
ith, P
h.D
., P.
E.
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
ssor
CE/
TTI,
503G
Texa
s A&
M U
nive
rsity
2nd
Plac
e M
oham
med
Zu
lyam
inay
n
Rog
er E
. Sm
ith, P
h.D
., P.
E.
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
ssor
D
epar
tmen
t of C
ivil
Engi
neer
ing
Texa
s A&
M U
nive
rsity
3rd
Plac
e C
hris
toph
er
Ray
mon
d
Ral
ph H
aas,
Ph.D
., Su
san
L.
Tigh
e, P
h.D
., an
d Le
o R
othe
nbur
g, P
h.D
. D
epar
tmen
t of C
ivil
Engi
neer
ing
Uni
vers
ity o
f Wat
erlo
o C
ateg
ory
3—Pa
rtne
rshi
p: N
o en
trie
s C
ateg
ory
4—C
urri
culu
m
1st
Plac
e
Nee
raj B
uch
and
Kar
im
Cha
tti
For m
ore
info
rmat
ion
on th
e co
ntes
t, pl
ease
vis
it th
e LT
PP D
ata
Ana
lysi
s con
test
Web
site
at
http
://w
ww
.fhw
a.do
t.gov
/pav
emen
t/ltp
p/co
ntes
t200
2.cf
m.
123
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10010203040
1
6
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
Num
ber o
f Clu
ster
s
CCC
anal
ysis
. B
ecau
se c
lust
erin
g m
etho
ds a
ttem
pt to
max
imiz
e th
e se
para
tion
amon
g cl
uste
rs, t
he a
ssum
ptio
ns o
f the
usu
al
sign
ifica
nce
test
s, pa
ram
etric
or n
onpa
ram
etric
, are
dra
stic
ally
vi
olat
ed (S
AS
Man
ual,
1992
). H
owev
er, s
ome
asym
ptot
ic re
sults
fr
om th
e w
ithin
-clu
ster
sum
of t
he sq
uare
s can
be
used
to ro
ughl
y ju
dge
the
num
ber o
f clu
ster
s. S
arle
(198
3) in
trodu
ced
a cu
bic
clus
terin
g cr
iterio
n (C
CC
) in
1983
. If
the
CC
C v
alue
is p
lotte
d ag
ains
t the
num
ber o
f clu
ster
s, th
e pe
aks o
n th
is p
lot t
hat h
ave
CC
C>3
are
supp
osed
to c
orre
spon
d to
an
appr
opria
te n
umbe
r of
clus
ters
(Joh
nson
, 199
8).
NU
MB
ER
OF
CL
UST
ER
S FO
R T
HE
TY
PE I
DA
TA
The
SAS
outp
ut a
nd th
e pl
ot o
f the
CC
C sh
ows t
hat t
he C
CC
va
lues
con
tinue
incr
easi
ng w
ith th
e nu
mbe
r of c
lust
ers u
ntil
173
clus
ters
. Th
is im
plie
s tha
t thi
s man
y cl
uste
rs a
re re
quire
d, o
r tha
t th
e di
strib
utio
n m
ay b
e gr
ainy
, or t
hat t
he d
ata
may
hav
e be
en
exce
ssiv
ely
roun
ded
or re
cord
ed w
ith ju
st a
few
dig
its (S
arle
, 19
83).
Par
t of t
he C
CC
plo
t is s
how
n in
figu
re 3
, whi
ch sh
ows a
ju
mp
in C
CC
val
ue fr
om 1
9.87
to 2
4.27
whe
n th
e cl
uste
r num
ber
incr
ease
s fro
m 6
0 to
61.
Alth
ough
ther
e ar
e ot
her s
mal
l jum
ps
afte
rwar
ds, b
ecau
se th
is re
sear
ch ju
st in
tend
s to
indi
cate
the
gene
ral c
limat
e pa
ttern
s in
thes
e te
st se
ctio
ns, h
avin
g 61
clu
ster
s is
deem
ed a
ppro
pria
te, a
ccor
ding
to th
e C
CC
crit
eria
. H
owev
er, i
f a
very
det
aile
d cl
imat
e pa
rtitio
n is
requ
ired,
the
clus
ter n
umbe
rs c
an
be in
crea
sed.
Fi
gure
3. C
CC
ver
sus n
umbe
r of
clu
ster
s (T
ype
I dat
a)
122
• St
ep 2
: Mer
ge th
em in
to a
clu
ster
.
• St
ep 3
: Kee
p do
ing
so u
ntil
all o
bser
vatio
ns a
re
cong
lom
erat
ed in
to a
big
clu
ster
. Th
e tru
e nu
mbe
r of c
lust
ers w
ill b
e be
twee
n 1
and
the
tota
l num
ber
of o
bser
vatio
ns.
The
nonh
iera
rchi
cal m
etho
d us
ed in
this
rese
arch
is th
e K
-mea
ns
met
hod.
Usi
ng th
e K
-mea
ns m
etho
d, a
t firs
t the
num
ber o
f clu
ster
s (c
) nee
ds to
be
defin
ed.
The
rem
aini
ng e
xper
imen
tal u
nits
are
then
al
loca
ted
to th
e ne
ares
t see
d, fo
rmin
g an
initi
al se
t of c
clu
ster
s. Th
e ce
ntro
ids o
f the
se in
itial
clu
ster
s are
iden
tifie
d, a
nd th
e ex
perim
enta
l uni
ts a
re re
loca
ted
to th
e ne
ares
t clu
ster
cen
troid
, pr
ovid
ing
a re
vise
d se
t of c
lust
ers.
New
cen
troid
s are
then
id
entif
ied
for t
he re
vise
d cl
uste
rs a
nd th
e pr
oces
s is r
epea
ted
until
no
exp
erim
enta
l uni
ts c
hang
e cl
uste
rs (B
arna
rd, 2
002)
.
This
rese
arch
firs
t per
form
s a K
-mea
ns c
lust
er a
naly
sis u
sing
SPS
S by
allo
win
g th
e so
ftwar
e to
pic
k th
e in
itial
clu
ster
seed
s ran
dom
ly.
Then
, to
redu
ce th
e ra
ndom
ness
in in
itial
seed
s sel
ectio
n an
d im
prov
e cl
uste
ring
accu
racy
, thi
s res
earc
h us
es th
e pa
rtitio
ning
re
sults
from
the
aver
age
link
clus
terin
g an
alys
is to
com
pute
the
initi
al c
lust
er c
ente
rs fo
r K-m
eans
(for
con
veni
ence
, cal
led
aver
age
link
plus
K-m
eans
met
hod
in th
e la
tter p
art o
f thi
s pap
er).
DE
TE
RM
ININ
G T
HE
NU
MB
ER
OF
CL
UST
ER
S
Clu
ster
ana
lysi
s per
form
ed b
y co
mpu
ter p
rogr
ams d
oes n
ot
reco
mm
end
the
appr
opria
te n
umbe
r of c
lust
ers d
irect
ly, b
ut
prod
uces
gra
phs a
nd st
atis
tics t
hat c
an h
elp
rese
arch
ers d
eter
min
e it.
How
ever
, the
am
ount
of d
ata
in th
is re
sear
ch p
rodu
ces v
ery
mes
sy g
raph
s tha
t are
not
usa
ble.
The
follo
win
g st
atis
tics,
prod
uced
by
incl
udin
g th
e PS
EUD
O a
nd C
CC
opt
ions
in S
AS,
is
used
in d
ecid
ing
the
num
ber o
f clu
ster
s: C
CC
, pse
udo
T2 st
atis
tic,
pseu
do F
stat
istic
, and
R sq
uare
.
The
ordi
nary
sign
ifica
nce
test
for t
estin
g th
e di
ffer
ence
s am
ong
clus
ters
, suc
h as
ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
F te
sts,
are
not v
alid
in c
lust
er
3
PAPE
R 1
T
HE
USE
OF
TH
E L
ON
G-T
ER
M
PAV
EM
EN
T P
ER
FOR
MA
NC
E D
AT
AB
ASE
IN
TH
E P
AV
EM
EN
T E
NG
INE
ER
ING
CU
RR
ICU
LU
M
AT
MIC
HIG
AN
ST
AT
E U
NIV
ER
SIT
Y
Nee
raj B
uch1 a
nd K
arim
Cha
tti2
A
BST
RA
CT
The
auth
ors d
escr
ibe
the
incl
usio
n of
the
Long
-Ter
m P
avem
ent
Perf
orm
ance
(LTP
P) d
ata
in th
e pa
vem
ent e
ngin
eerin
g cu
rric
ulum
at
Mic
higa
n St
ate
Uni
vers
ity (M
SU) u
sing
two
exam
ples
: one
from
an
und
ergr
adua
te c
ours
e on
pav
emen
t reh
abili
tatio
n, a
nd o
ne fr
om
a gr
adua
te c
ours
e on
pav
emen
t ana
lysi
s and
des
ign.
The
des
ign
exam
ples
illu
stra
te th
e us
e of
LTP
P da
ta in
com
putin
g pa
vem
ent
resp
onse
s, pr
edic
ting
traff
ic, d
evel
opin
g re
habi
litat
ion
stra
tegi
es,
and
pred
ictin
g pa
vem
ent p
erfo
rman
ce fo
r bot
h rig
id a
nd fl
exib
le
pave
men
ts.
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
Pave
men
t eng
inee
ring
curr
icul
um in
the
Dep
artm
ent o
f Civ
il an
d En
viro
nmen
tal E
ngin
eerin
g (C
EE) a
t Mic
higa
n St
ate
Uni
vers
ity
(MSU
) con
sist
s of a
suite
of f
ive
cour
ses,
two
at th
e un
derg
radu
ate
leve
l (4X
X se
ries s
enio
r lev
el) a
nd th
ree
at th
e gr
adua
te le
vel
(8X
X se
ries)
. Fi
rst-y
ear g
radu
ate
stud
ents
are
allo
wed
to e
nrol
l in
the
4XX
des
ign
cour
ses i
f the
y la
ck th
e ne
cess
ary
back
grou
nd in
pa
vem
ent a
naly
sis a
nd d
esig
n. T
he tw
o un
derg
radu
ate
cour
ses a
re
title
d “C
E431
—Pa
vem
ent D
esig
n an
d A
naly
sis-
I,” a
nd “
CE4
32—
1 A
ssis
tant
Pro
fess
or, M
ichi
gan
Stat
e U
nive
rsity
, Dep
artm
ent o
f Civ
il an
d En
viro
nmen
tal E
ngin
eerin
g, E
ast L
ansi
ng, M
I 488
24 (5
17) 3
55-0
012,
Fax
: 517
-43
2-18
27, b
uch@
egr.m
su.e
du
2 Ass
ista
nt P
rofe
ssor
, Mic
higa
n St
ate
Uni
vers
ity, D
epar
tmen
t of C
ivil
and
Envi
ronm
enta
l Eng
inee
ring,
Eas
t Lan
sing
, MI 4
8824
, (51
7) 3
55-6
534,
Fax
: 517
-43
2-18
27, c
hatti
@eg
i.msu
.edu
4
Pave
men
t Reh
abili
tatio
n.”
The
thre
e gr
adua
te c
ours
es a
re ti
tled
“CE8
31—
Pave
men
t Des
ign
and
Ana
lysi
s-II
,” “
CE8
35—
Pave
men
t M
anag
emen
t,” a
nd “
CE8
37—
Infr
astru
ctur
e M
ater
ials
.” T
hree
pa
vem
ent e
ngin
eerin
g fa
culty
mem
bers
shar
e th
e lo
ad o
f tea
chin
g th
ese
five
cour
ses.
UN
DE
RG
RA
DU
AT
E P
AV
EM
EN
T D
ESI
GN
AN
D R
EH
AB
ILIT
AT
ION
C
OU
RSE
S
Cou
rse
CE4
31 is
off
ered
twic
e a
year
(fal
l and
sum
mer
sem
este
rs).
Th
e av
erag
e fa
ll en
rollm
ent i
s 30
and
15 d
urin
g th
e su
mm
er.
The
prer
equi
site
s for
this
cou
rse
are
a re
quire
d ju
nior
-leve
l cou
rse
in
cons
truct
ion
mat
eria
ls a
nd a
cou
rse
in so
il m
echa
nics
. Th
e co
urse
de
scrip
tion
read
s as f
ollo
ws:
“Th
e st
uden
ts w
ill b
e ex
pose
d to
pa
vem
ent s
truct
ural
des
ign,
eva
luat
ion
of p
erfo
rman
ce m
easu
res,
failu
re m
echa
nism
s, th
ickn
ess d
esig
n pr
oced
ures
(sta
te-o
f-th
e-pr
actic
e), a
nd d
esig
n co
nsid
erat
ions
for s
urfa
ce fr
ictio
n, p
avem
ent
join
ts, a
nd d
rain
age.
” T
he a
sses
smen
t is b
ased
on
hom
ewor
k as
sign
men
ts (2
0 pe
rcen
t of t
he g
rade
), tw
o de
sign
pro
ject
s (30
pe
rcen
t), tw
o ex
ams (
30 p
erce
nt) a
nd w
eekl
y qu
izze
s (20
per
cent
).
The
text
is P
avem
ent A
naly
sis a
nd D
esig
n, b
y Y
ang
H. H
uang
(1
993)
.
Cou
rse
CE4
32 is
off
ered
onc
e a
year
(spr
ing
sem
este
r), w
ith
aver
age
enro
llmen
t of 2
5. T
he c
ours
e de
scrip
tion
read
s as f
ollo
ws:
“T
he st
uden
ts w
ill b
e ex
pose
d to
tech
niqu
es in
pav
emen
t ev
alua
tion,
dis
tress
iden
tific
atio
n, p
avem
ent r
ehab
ilita
tion
stra
tegi
es, l
ife c
ycle
cos
t ana
lysi
s, an
d st
rate
gy se
lect
ion.
” T
he
asse
ssm
ent i
s bas
ed o
n ho
mew
ork
assi
gnm
ents
(10
perc
ent o
f the
gr
ade)
, tw
o de
sign
pro
ject
s (40
per
cent
), tw
o ex
ams (
40 p
erce
nt),
and
wee
kly
quiz
zes (
10 p
erce
nt).
The
cour
se u
ses t
he T
echn
ique
s fo
r Pav
emen
t Reh
abili
tatio
n (R
efer
ence
Man
ual),
Fed
eral
H
ighw
ay A
dmin
istra
tion,
as a
text
book
.
GR
AD
UA
TE
PA
VE
ME
NT
DE
SIG
N C
OU
RSE
Cou
rse
CE8
31 is
off
ered
onc
e a
year
dur
ing
the
sprin
g se
mes
ter
and
uses
the
Hua
ng (1
993)
text
. The
ave
rage
enr
ollm
ent i
s sev
en
121
com
puta
tiona
l eff
icie
nt a
nd fa
ster
whe
n ru
nnin
g in
a c
ompu
ter
prog
ram
. Th
e di
sadv
anta
ge o
f the
non
hier
arch
ical
met
hod
is th
at
the
num
ber o
f clu
ster
s in
the
data
mus
t be
know
n be
fore
an
anal
ysis
can
be
cond
ucte
d. A
noth
er d
isad
vant
age
is th
at it
requ
ires
initi
al c
lust
er se
eds (
initi
al c
lust
er c
ente
rs) t
hat m
ay ra
ndom
ly
influ
ence
the
resu
lts.
The
hier
arch
ical
clu
ster
ing
met
hod
does
not
ha
ve su
ch p
robl
ems.
How
ever
, it l
acks
the
“glo
bal”
vie
w o
f the
an
alyz
ed d
ata
in c
ompa
rison
with
the
nonh
iera
rchi
cal m
etho
d;
mor
eove
r, on
ce a
n ex
perim
enta
l uni
t (a
test
sect
ion)
ent
ers o
ne
grou
p, it
can
not c
hang
e la
ter.
Eac
h m
etho
d ha
s adv
anta
ges a
nd
disa
dvan
tage
s, so
som
e pe
ople
reco
mm
end
com
bini
ng th
em b
y us
ing
the
hier
arch
ical
clu
ster
ing
resu
lts a
s the
requ
ired
clus
ter
seed
s for
the
nonh
iera
rchi
cal m
etho
ds.
This
rese
arch
trie
d al
l thr
ee
clus
terin
g te
chni
ques
. B
ecau
se th
e si
ze o
f the
dat
a, a
ll ca
lcul
atio
ns
are
carr
ied
out b
y co
mpu
ter p
rogr
ams.
Ther
e ar
e se
vera
l hie
rarc
hica
l clu
ster
ing
met
hods
with
diff
eren
t cl
uste
ring
effe
cts a
nd c
ompu
tatio
nal e
ffic
ienc
ies.
Thi
s res
earc
h ch
ose
to u
se th
e av
erag
e lin
kage
clu
ster
ing
met
hod
that
wor
ks in
th
e fo
llow
ing
step
s:
• St
ep 1
: Fin
d th
e tw
o cl
oses
t obj
ects
(poi
nts o
r exi
stin
g cl
uste
rs) b
y m
easu
ring
the
aver
age
dist
ance
bet
wee
n ea
ch
com
bina
tion
pair
of o
bser
vatio
ns in
diff
eren
t obj
ects
(f
igur
e 2)
.
Fi
gure
2. D
ista
nce
mea
sure
men
t of t
he
aver
age
linka
ge c
lust
erin
g m
etho
d
120
CL
UST
ER
AN
AL
YSI
S
Clu
ster
ana
lysi
s is a
mul
tivar
iate
dat
a an
alys
is (o
r dat
a m
inin
g)
tech
niqu
e to
par
titio
n or
igin
al o
bser
vatio
ns in
to su
bgro
ups c
alle
d cl
uste
rs so
that
the
obse
rvat
ions
that
bel
ong
to th
e sa
me
subg
roup
ha
ve a
s muc
h si
mila
rity
as p
ossi
ble
with
resp
ect t
o th
e m
easu
red
varia
bles
(Joh
nson
, 199
8).
Whe
n on
e w
ants
to g
ener
ate
clus
ters
, one
bas
ic q
uest
ion
wou
ld b
e ho
w to
mea
sure
the
“sim
ilarit
y” o
r “di
ssim
ilarit
y” b
etw
een
two
poin
ts, o
r tw
o ob
serv
atio
ns.
Ther
e ar
e th
ree
met
hods
for
mea
surin
g th
e di
stan
ce o
f sim
ilarit
y: R
uler
Dis
tanc
e, S
tand
ard
Rul
er D
ista
nce,
and
Mah
alan
obis
Dis
tanc
e (J
ohns
on, 1
998)
. Su
ppos
e th
e da
ta h
ave
thre
e va
riabl
es, t
he d
ista
nce
betw
een
each
of
the
two
obse
rvat
ions
, A (x
1, y
1, z
1) a
nd B
(x2,
y2,
z2)
wou
ld b
e de
cide
d by
a E
uclid
ean
dist
ance
. The
smal
ler t
his d
ista
nce,
the
mor
e si
mila
r are
the
two
obse
rvat
ions
. So
met
imes
the
varia
bles
ha
ve d
iffer
ent s
cale
s. F
or e
xam
ple,
the
annu
al to
tal a
mou
nt o
f pr
ecip
itatio
n is
in th
ousa
nds (
mill
imet
ers)
, whi
le th
e nu
mbe
r of
inte
nse
rain
day
s is l
ess t
han
one
hund
red
(day
s).
To a
void
in
flatin
g th
e im
pact
of v
aria
bles
with
larg
er sc
ales
, the
firs
t thi
ng
that
nee
ds to
be
done
in th
e cl
uste
r ana
lysi
s is t
o st
anda
rdiz
e th
e va
riabl
es.
This
rese
arch
firs
t sta
ndar
dize
s the
clim
ate
data
by
repl
acin
g th
em
with
thei
r Z sc
ores
:
(1
)
Whe
re:X
is th
e av
erag
e of
eac
h va
riabl
e an
d S
is it
s sta
ndar
d de
viat
ion.
The
dist
ance
cal
cula
ted
by u
sing
eac
h da
ta’s
Z sc
ore
is c
alle
d th
e St
anda
rd R
uler
Dis
tanc
e.
The
clus
terin
g m
etho
ds c
an b
e ca
tego
rized
as n
onhi
erar
chic
al a
nd
hier
arch
ical
met
hods
. The
non
hier
arch
ical
met
hod
is m
ore
Z =
SX
x−
5
peop
le. T
he c
ours
e de
scrip
tion
read
s as f
ollo
ws,
“Thi
s cou
rse
deal
s w
ith a
dvan
ced
pave
men
t ana
lysi
s and
des
ign.
The
stud
ents
will
be
expo
sed
to th
eore
tical
mod
els,
num
eric
al m
odel
s, pe
rfor
man
ce
char
acte
rizat
ion
and
dam
age
mod
els f
or p
avem
ents
.” T
he m
ain
obje
ctiv
es o
f the
cou
rse
are
to e
xpos
e st
uden
ts to
adv
ance
d pa
vem
ent a
naly
sis t
echn
ique
s. A
s suc
h, th
ey le
arn
abou
t the
di
ffer
ent p
avem
ent r
espo
nse
and
perf
orm
ance
pre
dict
ion
mod
els.
The
cour
se is
div
ided
into
two
parts
dea
ling
with
flex
ible
and
rigi
d pa
vem
ents
, res
pect
ivel
y. T
he, s
tude
nts l
earn
to u
se p
avem
ent
anal
ysis
pro
gram
s suc
h as
KEN
LAY
ER (H
uang
, 199
3),
MIC
HPA
VE,
MIC
HB
AC
K, (
Buc
h, e
t al.,
199
9) a
nd S
tet 2
000
(ER
ES C
onsu
ltant
s, 20
00).
The
asse
ssm
ent i
s bas
ed o
n ho
mew
ork
assi
gnm
ents
(40
perc
ent o
f the
gra
de),
two
exam
s (50
per
cent
) and
w
eekl
y qu
izze
s (10
per
cent
). Th
e ho
mew
ork
assi
gnm
ents
wer
e di
vide
d in
to tw
o ca
tego
ries:
Typ
e I c
ompr
ises
the
conv
entio
nal
assi
gnm
ent w
here
que
stio
ns a
re d
irect
ly re
late
d to
the
lect
ures
, as
sign
ed re
adin
g, a
nd c
lass
not
es, p
urpo
se b
eing
to m
easu
re “
shor
t-te
rm tr
ansf
er”
of k
now
ledg
e. T
ype
II a
ssig
nmen
ts c
onsi
st o
f ope
n-en
ded
ques
tions
and
requ
ired
stud
ents
to a
cces
s dat
a fr
om th
e D
ataP
ave
3.0
softw
are
to c
ondu
ct th
e an
alys
is.
The
use
of D
ataP
ave
3.0
in C
E835
and
CE8
37 is
und
er
deve
lopm
ent;
henc
e, th
ese
cour
ses w
ill n
ot b
e di
scus
sed
furth
er in
th
is p
aper
.
EX
AM
PLE
S O
F D
AT
APA
VE
3.0
APP
LIC
AT
ION
CE
432—
P AV
EM
EN
T R
EH
AB
ILIT
AT
ION
Trad
ition
ally
, thi
s cou
rse
cons
ists
of t
wo
desi
gn p
roje
cts,
one
for
rigid
pav
emen
t and
one
for f
lexi
ble
pave
men
t reh
abili
tatio
n.
Dur
ing
the
first
few
off
erin
gs o
f thi
s cou
rse,
the
dist
ress
dat
a w
ere
obta
ined
from
loca
l and
cou
nty
road
s; th
e pa
vem
ent c
ross
sect
ions
an
d tra
ffic
dis
tribu
tions
wer
e as
sum
ed; a
nd li
ttle
or n
o de
flect
ion
info
rmat
ion
was
ava
ilabl
e. B
ecau
se th
e si
tes s
elec
ted
wer
e fr
om
loca
l and
cou
nty
road
s, th
e di
stre
ss ty
pes w
ere
very
rest
ricte
d. T
he
disa
dvan
tage
of t
hese
pro
ject
s was
that
man
y as
sum
ptio
ns h
ad to
be
mad
e to
com
plet
e th
e an
alys
is. M
oreo
ver,
the
abse
nce
of ti
me-
6
serie
s dat
a di
d no
t ade
quat
ely
dem
onst
rate
the
idea
of p
avem
ent
dete
riora
tion.
With
thes
e sh
ortc
omin
gs in
min
d, th
e in
stru
ctor
s de
cide
d to
exp
lore
the
use
of D
ataP
ave
2.0/
3.0
as a
sour
ce fo
r ex
tract
ing
real
-tim
e se
ries p
avem
ent d
istre
ss a
nd d
efle
ctio
n da
ta.
The
data
base
als
o pr
ovid
es in
form
atio
n on
traf
fic g
row
th (i
n te
rms
of a
vera
ge d
aily
traf
fic (A
DT)
, equ
ival
ent s
tand
ard
axle
load
s in
thou
sand
s (K
ESA
LS),
and
axle
dis
tribu
tion)
, pav
emen
t inv
ento
ry,
and
clim
ate.
It w
as e
nvis
ione
d th
at a
fter c
ompl
etin
g th
e pr
ojec
t the
stud
ents
w
ould
:
• B
e fa
mili
ar w
ith th
e LT
PP d
atab
ase.
• B
e ab
le to
ext
ract
info
rmat
ion
from
the
data
base
.
• B
e ab
le to
synt
hesi
ze tr
affic
, dis
tress
and
def
lect
ion
data
.
• B
e ab
le to
use
the
synt
hesi
zed
data
for p
avem
ent a
naly
sis
and
dete
rmin
e re
mai
ning
life
of t
he p
avem
ent.
• B
e ab
le to
dev
elop
pre
vent
ativ
e an
d re
habi
litat
ion
stra
tegi
es
for t
he re
pair
of d
istre
ssed
pav
emen
ts.
The
clas
s rec
eive
d en
tire
proj
ect s
tate
men
t with
the
task
s and
the
data
on
the
first
day
. B
ecau
se th
e cl
ass w
as la
rge
and
stud
ents
had
va
ryin
g pa
vem
ent e
xper
ienc
e ba
ckgr
ound
s, th
e in
stru
ctor
s ex
tract
ed th
e ra
w d
ata
from
the
mas
ter d
atab
ase
and
gave
it to
the
grou
ps ra
ther
than
pro
vidi
ng a
cces
s to
the
entir
e da
taba
se.
Stud
ents
wer
e in
trodu
ced
to ty
pica
l dat
a, d
efin
ition
s of t
erm
s, an
d da
ta la
yout
thro
ugh
a se
ries o
f tut
oria
l ses
sion
s hel
d af
ter r
egul
ar
clas
s hou
rs.
As p
art o
f the
pro
ject
del
iver
able
s, ea
ch g
roup
was
to
deve
lop:
• G
raph
ical
rela
tions
hips
am
ong
time,
dis
tress
, and
seve
rity
leve
l for
the
assi
gned
LTP
P se
ctio
n.
• G
raph
ical
rela
tions
hips
bet
wee
n tim
e an
d tra
ffic
(for
som
e gr
oups
this
was
tim
e ve
rsus
AD
T, fo
r som
e it
was
tim
e ve
rsus
KES
ALs
, and
for o
ther
s it w
as ti
me
vers
us a
xle
grow
th) f
or th
e as
sign
ed L
TPP
sect
ion.
119
clim
ate
para
met
er b
ecom
es 1
7 ne
w v
aria
bles
that
not
onl
y sh
ow
the
para
met
er n
ame
but a
lso
indi
cate
whi
ch y
ear i
t is r
ecor
ded.
Th
e pr
oces
s of t
rans
form
atio
n is
show
n in
tabl
e 2.
Fin
ally
, 17×
14
= 23
8 ne
w v
aria
bles
gen
erat
ed fo
r eac
h te
st se
ctio
n.
Tab
le 2
. Tra
nsfo
rmat
ion
of th
e T
ype
I dat
a
Sect
ions
Y
ear
Tot
al A
nnua
l Pre
cipi
tatio
n (m
m)
Ave
rage
T
empe
ratu
re (°
C)
Sect
ion
#1
1996
13
25.8
16
.7
Sect
ion
#1
1995
12
66.4
17
.5
Sect
ion
#1
– –
– Se
ctio
n #1
19
80
1384
.7
17.1
Se
ctio
n #2
19
96
1518
.5
14.8
T
otal
Ann
ual
Prec
ipita
tion
1996
(mm
)
Tot
al A
nnua
l Pr
ecip
itatio
n 19
95 (m
m)
T
otal
Ann
ual
Prec
ipita
tion
1980
(mm
)
Ave
rage
T
empe
ratu
re
1996
(°C
) Se
ctio
n #1
13
25.8
12
66.4
13
84.7
16
.7
Sect
ion
#2
1518
.5
– –
14.8
1 m
m =
0.0
39 in
ch
1.8
x °C
+ 3
2 =
°F
The
Type
II d
ata
are
the
annu
al a
vera
ge v
alue
of t
he c
limat
e pa
ram
eter
s rec
orde
d af
ter t
he y
ear 1
980.
Eac
h te
st se
ctio
n co
ntai
ns
only
14
calc
ulat
ed v
aria
bles
(tab
le 3
).
Tab
le 3
. Pre
proc
essi
ng o
f the
Typ
e II
dat
a
T
otal
Ann
ual
Prec
ipita
tion
Ann
ual A
vera
ge
Tem
pera
ture
Se
ctio
n #1
A
vera
ge o
f 16
year
s A
vera
ge o
f 16
year
s Se
ctio
n #2
A
vera
ge o
f 17
year
s A
vera
ge o
f 17
year
s
118
This
rese
arch
fina
lly se
lect
ed th
e 14
par
amet
ers i
n ta
ble
1 as
the
clus
ter a
naly
sis v
aria
bles
.
Tab
le 1
. Fin
al c
limat
e pa
ram
eter
s in
clus
ter
anal
ysis
Fiel
d N
ame
Exp
lana
tion
TOTA
L_A
NN
_PR
ECIP
To
tal a
nnua
l pre
cipi
tatio
n
INTE
NSE
_PR
ECIP
_DA
YS_
YR
* N
umbe
r of d
ays f
or w
hich
pre
cipi
tatio
n w
as
grea
ter t
han
12.7
mm
(0.5
inch
es)
WET
_DA
YS_
YR
N
umbe
r of d
ays f
or w
hich
pre
cipi
tatio
n w
as
grea
ter t
han
0.25
mm
(0.0
1 in
ches
)
TOTA
L_SN
OW
FALL
_YR
To
tal s
now
fall
for y
ear
SNO
W_C
OV
ERED
_DA
YS_
YR
N
umbe
r of d
ays f
or w
hich
snow
cov
ered
dat
a w
ere
avai
labl
e fo
r yea
r
MEA
N_A
NN
_TEM
P_A
VG
A
vera
ge o
f dai
ly m
ean
air t
empe
ratu
res f
or
year
MA
X_A
NN
_TEM
P_A
VG
A
vera
ge o
f dai
ly m
axim
um a
ir te
mpe
ratu
res
for y
ear
MIN
_AN
N_T
EMP_
AV
G
Ave
rage
of d
aily
min
imum
air
tem
pera
ture
s fo
r yea
r
MA
X_A
NN
_TEM
P A
bsol
ute
max
imum
air
tem
pera
ture
for y
ear
MIN
_AN
N_T
EMP
Abs
olut
e m
inim
um a
ir te
mpe
ratu
re fo
r yea
r
DA
YS_
AB
OV
E_32
_C_Y
R
Num
ber o
f day
s whe
re d
aily
max
imum
air
tem
pera
ture
is a
bove
32.
2 °C
(90
°F) f
or y
ear
DA
YS_
BEL
OW
_0_C
_YR
N
umbe
r of d
ays w
here
dai
ly m
inim
um a
ir te
mpe
ratu
re is
bel
ow 0
°C (3
2 °F
) for
yea
r
FREE
ZE_I
ND
EX_Y
R
Cal
cula
ted
free
zing
inde
x fo
r yea
r
FREE
ZE_T
HA
W_Y
R
Num
ber o
f fre
eze/
thaw
cyc
les f
or y
ear
* W
here
YR
app
ears
in th
e fie
ld, i
t mea
ns th
e un
it be
ing
mea
sure
d ov
er th
e co
urse
of o
ne y
ear.
For t
he T
ype
I dat
a, b
ecau
se e
ach
test
sect
ion
cont
ains
17
year
s’
obse
rvat
ions
, com
parin
g th
e an
nual
pat
tern
requ
ired
that
the
orig
inal
var
iabl
es b
e co
mbi
ned
with
the
year
in w
hich
they
wer
e re
cord
ed to
cre
ate
new
var
iabl
es.
Afte
r thi
s tra
nsfo
rmat
ion,
eac
h
7
• G
raph
ical
rela
tion
betw
een
Inte
rnat
iona
l Rou
ghne
ss In
dex
(IR
I) a
nd d
istre
ss d
eter
iora
tion
(if a
ny).
• A
naly
sis o
f the
def
lect
ion
data
to q
uant
ify lo
ad tr
ansf
er
effic
ienc
y (L
TE) f
or ri
gid
pave
men
ts, b
ackc
alcu
late
d la
yer
para
met
ers (
for b
oth
pave
men
t typ
es),
void
pot
entia
l and
la
tera
l sup
port
(for
rigi
d pa
vem
ents
), an
d to
rela
te th
is
anal
ytic
al d
ata
to th
e ob
serv
ed p
avem
ent p
erfo
rman
ce.
• Th
e re
habi
litat
ion
stra
tegy
/stra
tegi
es to
“fix
” th
e pr
oble
ms
and
exte
nd p
avem
ent l
ife, s
elec
tion
of fi
nal s
trate
gy w
ould
be
bas
ed o
n en
gine
erin
g an
d ec
onom
ic c
onsi
dera
tions
.
• Sk
etch
of t
he p
avem
ent s
ectio
n in
dica
ting
the
dist
ress
type
, se
verit
y, a
nd lo
catio
ns.
Rep
orts
wer
e gr
aded
on
form
at, t
echn
ical
con
tent
, and
gro
up
inte
rvie
ws.
Inve
ntor
y D
ata
To il
lust
rate
the
deliv
erab
les (
for r
igid
pav
emen
ts),
the
auth
ors
have
cho
sen
exam
ples
from
Stra
tegi
c H
ighw
ay R
esea
rch
Prog
ram
(S
HR
P) ID
1-4
084-
1, G
ener
al P
avem
ent S
tudy
-4 (G
PS) J
effe
rson
C
ount
y, A
L. T
his s
ectio
n w
as a
ssig
ned
to a
gro
up o
f thr
ee
stud
ents
. Th
e or
igin
al su
rfac
e la
yer i
s 266
.7 m
illim
eter
s (m
m)
(10.
5 in
ches
) of p
ortla
nd c
emen
t con
cret
e (P
CC
) joi
nted
rein
forc
ed
conc
rete
pav
emen
t (JR
CP)
; the
bas
e la
yer i
s 142
.24
mm
(5.6
in
ches
) of g
rave
l (un
crus
hed)
; the
subb
ase
laye
r is 3
47.9
8 m
m
(13.
7 in
ches
) of s
oil a
ggre
gate
mix
ture
(pre
dom
inan
tly c
oars
e gr
aine
d); a
nd th
e su
bgra
de la
yer i
s cla
yey
sand
. The
orig
inal
co
nstru
ctio
n da
te o
f the
pav
emen
t is J
une
1, 1
970.
The
insi
de a
nd
outs
ide
shou
lder
is a
spha
lt. T
here
is n
o su
bsur
face
dra
inag
e. T
he
aver
age
join
t spa
cing
is 1
7.57
5 m
eter
s (m
) (57
.5 fe
et (f
t)). R
ound
do
wel
s wer
e us
ed fo
r loa
d tra
nsfe
r and
the
long
itudi
nal s
teel
co
nten
t is 0
.1 p
erce
nt. T
he fr
eezi
ng in
dex
is –
2.94
deg
rees
Cel
sius
(o C
) (27
.3 d
egre
es F
ahre
nhei
t (o F)
) day
s, an
d th
e cl
imat
ic re
gion
is
wet
-no
free
ze. T
his r
egio
n ex
perie
nces
375
m (1
476.
4 in
ches
) of
prec
ipita
tion,
and
63
days
abo
ve 3
6.25
o C (9
0 o F)
. Clim
atic
dat
a w
as a
vaila
ble
for 2
7 ye
ars.
In 1
995,
the
annu
al a
vera
ge d
aily
traf
fic
8
(AA
DT)
was
13,
057,
and
the
aver
age
daily
truc
k tra
ffic
(AD
TT)
was
639
. Th
e pa
vem
ent i
nven
tory
and
cro
ss se
ctio
n in
form
atio
n is
su
mm
ariz
ed in
figu
re 1
, whi
ch is
a sc
reen
cap
ture
from
Dat
aPav
e 3.
0.
Figu
re 1
. Pa
vem
ent i
nven
tory
and
cro
ss se
ctio
n in
form
atio
n fo
r SH
RP
ID 1
-408
4-1
D
istr
ess E
valu
atio
n
The
dist
ress
dat
a w
ere
extra
cted
from
Dat
aPav
e 3.
0 ta
bles
M
ON
_DIS
_JPC
C_R
EV a
nd M
ON
_DIS
_JPC
C_R
EV.
In
sum
mar
y, th
e di
stre
sses
incl
uded
med
ium
-to-h
igh-
seve
rity
faul
ting,
low
-to-m
ediu
m-s
ever
ity tr
ansv
erse
cra
cks,
low
-to-h
igh-
seve
rity
spal
ling,
seal
ant d
amag
e, p
olis
hed
aggr
egat
es, s
calin
g, a
nd
map
cra
ckin
g. F
igur
es 2
and
3 il
lust
rate
the
mag
nitu
de a
nd
seve
rity
of d
istre
sses
as a
func
tion
of ti
me
and
loca
tion
(whe
re
avai
labl
e).
117
Figu
re 1
. T
he n
umbe
r of
text
sect
ions
hav
ing
clim
ate
reco
rds
each
yea
r.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
Year
Observations
116
The
virtu
al w
eath
er st
atio
ns c
over
man
y m
ore
test
sect
ions
than
do
the
onsi
te w
eath
er st
atio
ns; t
here
fore
, thi
s res
earc
h on
ly se
lect
ed
clim
ate
data
from
this
sour
ce.
The
clim
ate
tabl
es in
clud
e bo
th
mon
thly
and
ann
ual o
bser
vatio
ns.
Bec
ause
the
size
of t
he m
onth
ly
data
reco
rds i
s too
larg
e an
d th
ey c
onta
in m
any
mis
sing
val
ues,
this
re
sear
ch o
nly
uses
the
annu
al su
mm
ary
tabl
es.
The
earli
est v
irtua
l clim
ate
data
reco
rded
in th
e da
taba
se a
re fr
om
1933
, whi
le th
e m
ost r
ecen
t are
from
199
6. T
he n
umbe
r of t
est
sect
ions
that
hav
e vi
rtual
wea
ther
reco
rds a
long
the
time
axis
is
show
n in
figu
re 1
, whi
ch sh
ows m
ost o
bser
vatio
ns c
once
ntra
ted
betw
een
1980
and
199
6. T
o m
ake
the
data
com
para
ble,
this
re
sear
ch p
repr
oces
sed
the
annu
al d
ata
in tw
o se
para
te p
arts
. Th
e fir
st p
art,
whi
ch in
clud
es 8
67 te
st se
ctio
ns w
ithou
t mis
sing
val
ues,
com
pris
es a
nnua
l wea
ther
reco
rds f
rom
198
0 to
199
6. T
his p
art o
f th
e da
ta is
cal
led
Type
I da
ta in
this
pap
er.
The
seco
nd p
art,
whi
ch
incl
udes
894
test
sect
ions
, con
sist
s of t
he o
vera
ll av
erag
e va
lues
of
clim
ate
para
met
ers f
or e
ach
test
sect
ion
sinc
e 19
80, c
alle
d Ty
pe II
da
ta in
this
pap
er.
The
reas
on fo
r usi
ng T
ype
I dat
a is
to k
eep
the
patte
rn o
f ann
ual c
limat
e co
nditi
ons.
Typ
e II
dat
a ar
e m
ore
conc
ise,
thus
mor
e w
orka
ble
in d
ata
anal
ysis
, but
the
patte
rn
info
rmat
ion
may
be
lost
. A
fter c
lust
er a
naly
sis,
a fin
al c
ompa
rison
w
as c
ondu
cted
to in
vest
igat
e w
hich
par
t of t
he d
ata
yiel
ds th
e be
st
clus
terin
g re
sults
.
9
Fi
gure
2.
Dis
tres
s pro
gres
sion
as a
func
tion
of ti
me
Aver
age E
dge f
aulti
ng
0246810121416
030
6090
120
150
Point
Loca
tion (
m)
Average Edge Faulting (mm)
9793
91
Numb
er of
Fau
lt
0510152025
9091
9293
9495
9697
98Ye
ar
Number of Fault
Crac
kJo
int
Sp
alling
in 19
93
00.20.40.60.81.0
1.21.4
020
4060
8010
012
014
0Po
int Lo
catio
n (m)
Spall length (m)
Spall
(Low
)Sp
all (M
edium
)Sp
all (H
igh)
1 m
m =
0.0
39 in
ches
1
m =
3.2
8 ft
10
Figu
re 3
. Pr
ogre
ssio
n of
dis
tres
s as a
func
tion
of ti
me
The
othe
r dis
tress
es o
bser
ved
for t
his S
HR
P ID
are
sum
mar
ized
in
tabl
e 1.
Numb
er of
Tra
nsve
rse C
rack
0510152025
9091
9293
9495
9697
98Ye
ar
Number of CrackLo
w Se
verit
yM
edium
Seve
rity
High
Seve
rity
Tra
nsve
rse C
rack
s at 1
997
00.511.522.533.5
010
2030
4050
6070
8090
100
110
120
130
140
150
Point
Loc
ation
(m)
Crack Length (m)
Seale
d crac
kNo
t sea
led cr
ack
Joint
MM
MM
MM
M=M
ediu
m S
ever
ity C
rack
s
1 m
= 3
.28
ft
115
softw
are
dire
ctly
, but
em
ploy
ed it
s und
erly
ing
data
base
. Th
e cl
imat
e da
ta st
ored
in th
e LT
PP d
atab
ase
can
be d
ivid
ed in
to tw
o ca
tego
ries a
ccor
ding
to th
e so
urce
of d
ata:
dire
ctly
from
ons
ite
wea
ther
stat
ions
, or c
alcu
late
d fr
om p
ublic
clim
ate
data
base
s. T
he
onsi
te c
limat
e m
easu
rem
ents
are
take
n fr
om a
ll Se
ason
al
Mon
itorin
g Pr
ogra
m (S
MP)
test
sect
ions
and
Spe
cific
Pav
emen
t St
udie
s (SP
S-1
and
-2),
and
8 pr
ojec
ts (L
AW
PC
S, 1
999)
, whi
ch
invo
lve
41 u
niqu
e te
st se
ctio
ns.
Dat
a fr
om th
e pu
blic
clim
ate
data
base
s, pr
ovid
ed b
y th
e N
atio
nal C
limat
ic D
ata
Cen
ter (
NC
DC
) an
d th
e C
anad
ian
Clim
atic
Cen
ter (
CC
C),
cove
rs m
ore
than
1,0
00
dist
inct
ive
test
sect
ions
. H
owev
er, t
his p
art o
f the
dat
a is
not
ob
serv
ed v
alue
s; th
ese
valu
es a
re c
ompu
ted
by u
sing
a d
ista
nce-
wei
ghte
d av
erag
e m
etho
d fr
om u
p to
five
nea
rby
publ
ic w
eath
er
stat
ions
, so
the
test
sect
ions
with
such
clim
ate
reco
rds a
re c
alle
d “v
irtua
l” w
eath
er st
atio
ns.
The
virtu
al c
limat
e da
ta c
onsi
st o
f m
onth
ly a
nd a
nnua
l clim
ate
para
met
er v
alue
s, fr
om th
e ea
rlies
t av
aila
ble
reco
rds t
o th
e m
ost r
ecen
t. C
urre
ntly
, the
re a
re 2
2 di
ffer
ent c
limat
ic o
bser
vatio
n pa
ram
eter
s and
ass
ocia
ted
desc
riptiv
e st
atis
tics,
incl
udin
g m
inim
um te
mpe
ratu
re, m
axim
um
tem
pera
ture
, mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re, p
reci
pita
tion,
snow
fall,
min
imum
re
lativ
e hu
mid
ity, m
axim
um re
lativ
e hu
mid
ity, a
vera
ge w
ind
spee
d, p
eak
gust
spee
d, p
erce
nt su
nshi
ne, a
nd p
erce
nt sk
y co
ver.
A
lso
incl
uded
are
der
ived
qua
ntiti
es c
alcu
late
d fr
om th
e m
easu
red
data
, suc
h as
air
free
zing
inde
x, a
ir fr
eeze
-thaw
cyc
les,
tota
l pr
ecip
itatio
n, to
tal s
now
fall,
etc
. A
lim
ited
set o
f ann
ual s
tatis
tics
also
is a
vaila
ble;
thes
e in
clud
e an
nual
air
free
zing
inde
x, n
umbe
r of
air
free
ze-th
aw c
ycle
s, an
d sn
ow c
over
age
data
for e
ach
of th
e m
onth
ly p
aram
eter
s (LA
W P
CS,
199
9).
Dat
a se
lect
ion
in th
is re
sear
ch is
ver
y im
porta
nt fo
r clu
ster
ana
lysi
s on
the
LTPP
dat
abas
e. I
f too
few
dat
a ar
e in
clud
ed, t
he a
naly
sis
resu
lts w
ill n
ot b
e ve
ry re
pres
enta
tive.
On
the
othe
r han
d, to
o m
any
data
are
diff
icul
t to
hand
le a
nd m
ay e
xcee
d th
e ca
paci
ty o
f st
anda
rd so
ftwar
e. B
ecau
se c
lust
er a
naly
sis c
ompa
res t
he
sim
ilarit
y am
ong
obse
rvat
ions
, the
var
iabl
es sh
ould
als
o be
re
cord
ed fr
om th
e sa
me
sour
ce (o
nsite
or v
irtua
l wea
ther
stat
ions
), an
d sp
ecia
l atte
ntio
n sh
ould
be
paid
to m
issi
ng v
alue
s.
114
• Pa
rtitio
ning
the
virtu
al w
eath
er st
atio
ns u
sing
hie
rarc
hica
l an
d no
nhie
rarc
hica
l clu
ster
ing
met
hods
.
• V
erify
ing
and
com
parin
g th
e cl
uste
ring
resu
lts u
sing
pr
inci
ple
com
pone
nts a
naly
sis.
• Pr
esen
ting
the
clus
terin
g re
sults
on
a G
IS m
ap.
At f
irst,
this
rese
arch
pic
ked
clim
ate
tabl
es fr
om th
e LT
PP
data
base
that
wer
e go
ing
to b
e us
ed fo
r ana
lysi
s and
wro
te th
e St
ruct
ured
Que
ry L
angu
age
(SQ
L) c
omm
ands
to g
et re
quire
d in
form
atio
n fr
om th
ese
tabl
es.
Thes
e da
ta w
ere
proc
esse
d in
exc
el
with
em
bedd
ed e
xcel
func
tions
, or t
he re
sear
cher
s wro
te V
isua
l B
asic
App
licat
ion
(VB
A) c
omm
ands
.
Clu
ster
ana
lysi
s was
then
con
duct
ed to
gro
up th
e te
st se
ctio
ns
base
d on
seve
ral c
limat
e va
riabl
es (p
aram
eter
s) a
fter t
he
trans
form
atio
n of
the
data
. O
f the
man
y di
ffer
ent c
lust
erin
g ap
proa
ches
, thi
s res
earc
h se
lect
ed b
oth
a hi
erar
chic
al c
lust
erin
g m
etho
d (a
vera
ge li
nk) a
nd a
non
hier
arch
ical
clu
ster
ing
met
hod
(K-
mea
ns),
and
then
com
bine
d th
ese
two
met
hods
toge
ther
. Afte
r fin
ishi
ng th
e cl
uste
r ana
lysi
s, th
is re
sear
ch e
mpl
oyed
ano
ther
m
ultiv
aria
te d
ata-
anal
ysis
tech
niqu
e, p
rinci
ple
com
pone
nts
anal
ysis
, to
verif
y an
d co
mpa
re th
e cl
uste
ring
resu
lts b
y th
e di
ffer
ent c
lust
erin
g te
chni
ques
. The
stat
istic
al so
ftwar
e pa
ckag
es
SAS
and
SPSS
wer
e us
ed fo
r clu
ster
ana
lysi
s and
prin
cipl
e co
mpo
nent
ana
lysi
s.
Fina
lly, t
his r
esea
rch
inpu
t the
clu
ster
ing
resu
lts in
to th
e G
IS
prov
ided
by
the
Dat
aPav
e 3.
0 so
ftwar
e. A
fter p
roce
ssin
g by
the
Arc
view
™ so
ftwar
e, th
e cl
uste
ring
resu
lts w
ere
pres
ente
d on
a G
IS
map
, whi
ch is
not
onl
y vi
sual
ly fr
iend
ly, b
ut c
an a
lso
verif
y th
e va
lidity
of t
he c
lust
er re
sults
.
CL
IMA
TE
DA
TA
PR
EPR
OC
ESS
ING
AN
D
TR
AN
SFO
RM
AT
ION
The
clim
ate
data
use
d in
this
rese
arch
wer
e ob
tain
ed fr
om th
e la
test
up
date
of t
he L
TPP
data
base
dis
tribu
ted
with
the
softw
are
pack
age,
D
ataP
ave
3.0.
Thi
s res
earc
h di
d no
t get
the
data
thro
ugh
the
11
Tab
le 1
. Oth
er d
istr
esse
s fou
nd in
this
sect
ion
Y
ear
Low
-Sev
erity
L
ongi
tudi
nal
Join
t Sea
l D
amag
e (m
)
Low
-Sev
erity
L
ongi
tudi
nal
Join
t Spa
lling
(m
)
Sc
alin
g (s
quar
e m
eter
(m
2))
Po
lishe
d ag
greg
ate
(m2 )
M
ap
Cra
ckin
g (m
2 )
1991
–
– 55
7.4
– –
1993
30
5 10
–
366
559.
6
1997
–
– –
305
–
Das
hes i
n ce
lls re
pres
ent “
no d
ata
avai
labl
e” o
r “ze
ro”
dist
ress
. 1
m =
3.2
8 ft
1 m
2 = 1
0.8
ft2 A
revi
ew o
f the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss a
nd
dist
ress
show
s tha
t as t
he d
istre
sses
incr
ease
in m
agni
tude
the
pave
men
t app
ears
to g
et ro
ughe
r. In
tere
stin
gly,
it c
an b
e hy
poth
esiz
ed th
at th
e ro
ughn
ess p
rece
des t
he m
anife
stat
ion
of
dist
ress
. T
hese
rela
tions
hips
are
sum
mar
ized
in fi
gure
s 4 a
nd 5
.
(
a)
(b)
1
met
er p
er k
ilom
eter
(m/k
m) =
63.
36 in
ches
per
mil
(inch
es/m
i) 1
mm
= 0
.039
inch
es
Fi
gure
4. R
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
IRI a
nd jo
int a
nd
crac
k fa
ultin
g
00.511.522.533.54 Dec
. 88
May
. 90
Sep.
91
Jan.
93
Jun.
94
Oct
. 95
Mar
. 97
Jul.
98
Yea
rs
IRI, m/km
024681012
Average wheelpath faulting at joints, mm
IRI
Ave
rage
whe
elpa
th fa
ultin
g at
join
ts
00.511.522.533.54 Dec
. 88
May
. 90 S
ep. 9
1 Jan
-. 93
Jun.
94
Oct
. 95
Mar
. 97
Jul.
98
Yea
rs
IRI, m/km
00.5
11.5
22.5
33.5
4
Average wheelpath faulting at cracks, mm
IRI
Ave
rage
whe
elpa
th fa
ultin
g at
cra
cks
12
1 m
/km
= 6
3.36
inch
es/m
i
Figu
re 5
. R
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
IRI a
nd tr
ansv
erse
cra
ckin
g
Fun
ctio
nal E
valu
atio
n
The
func
tiona
lity
of a
pav
emen
t can
be
desc
ribed
in m
any
form
s, su
ch a
s the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Rou
ghne
ss In
dex
(IR
I), (
as re
porte
d in
D
ataP
ave
3.0)
and
the
Pres
ent S
ervi
ceab
ility
Inde
x (P
SI) a
s ch
arac
teriz
ed b
y A
mer
ican
Ass
ocia
tion
of S
tate
Hig
hway
and
Tr
ansp
orta
tion
Off
icia
ls (A
ASH
TO).
Usi
ng th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n PS
I and
IRI r
epor
ted
by H
all a
nd C
orre
a (1
999)
, the
PSI
w
as c
alcu
late
d to
be
betw
een
2.0
to 2
.5.
Stru
ctur
al E
valu
atio
n
For t
he st
ruct
ural
eva
luat
ion,
the
desi
gn g
roup
s ext
ract
ed
defle
ctio
n an
d te
mpe
ratu
re g
radi
ent i
nfor
mat
ion
from
the
data
ta
bles
labe
led
MO
N_D
EFL_
DR
OP
DA
TA, M
ON
_TEM
P_D
EPTH
D
ATA
, and
MO
N_T
EMP_
VA
LUES
_ D
ATA
.
The
defle
ctio
n at
the
mid
slab
(J1)
was
use
d to
com
pute
the
mod
ulus
of e
last
icity
of c
oncr
ete
(Ec)
and
the
mod
ulus
of s
ubgr
ade
reac
tion
(k).
Mor
eove
r, th
e da
ta w
ere
used
to su
bdiv
ide
the
proj
ect
into
thre
e di
stin
ct su
bsec
tions
bas
ed o
n th
e m
agni
tude
s of t
he
0 0.
5 1 1.
5 2
2.5 3
3.5 4 D
ec. 8
8 M
ay. 9
0 Se
p. 9
1 Ja
n. 9
3 Ju
n. 9
4 O
ct. 9
5 M
ar. 9
7 Ju
l. 98
Yea
r
IRI, m/km
04812162024
# of low transverse cracks
IR#
of lo
w se
verit
y tra
nsve
rse
crac
ks
113
• D
ry n
o fr
eeze
.
A w
et re
gion
has
an
aver
age
annu
al ra
infa
ll ov
er 5
08 m
illim
eter
s (m
m) (
20 in
ches
). A
free
ze re
gion
has
an
aver
age
free
zing
inde
x of
mor
e th
an 8
3.3
degr
ee-C
elsi
us d
ays (
150
degr
ee-F
ahre
nhei
t da
ys, e
.g.,
10-d
egre
e da
ys =
10
days
with
a m
ean
air t
empe
ratu
re
of 1
deg
ree
belo
w fr
eezi
ng o
r 5 d
ays w
ith a
mea
n ai
r tem
pera
ture
of
2 d
egre
es b
elow
free
zing
).
This
cat
egor
izin
g m
etho
d ca
n be
eas
ily fo
llow
ed a
nd th
us w
idel
y us
ed in
pra
ctic
e. H
owev
er, t
he d
raw
back
of t
his m
etho
d is
that
it
may
mis
s oth
er c
limat
e pa
ram
eter
s tha
t als
o in
fluen
ce p
avem
ent
perf
orm
ance
. Fo
r exa
mpl
e, in
col
d ar
eas,
road
s with
or w
ithou
t a
lot o
f sno
w w
ill u
nlik
ely
perf
orm
the
sam
e w
ay.
Even
with
the
sam
e am
ount
of a
nnua
l rai
nfal
l, ro
ads i
n ar
eas u
nder
freq
uent
in
tens
e ra
ins s
houl
d no
t hav
e th
e sa
me
desi
gn c
riter
ia a
s roa
ds in
ar
eas w
ith fr
eque
nt d
rizzl
es, b
ecau
se th
e tw
o pr
ecip
itatio
n pa
ttern
s br
ing
diff
eren
t pre
ssur
es o
n ro
ad d
rain
age
syst
ems.
The
refo
re,
mor
e pa
ram
eter
s sho
uld
be in
clud
ed in
cat
egor
izin
g cl
imat
e re
gion
s. H
owev
er, t
he in
crea
se o
f the
num
ber o
f par
amet
ers m
akes
it
diff
icul
t to
parti
tion
data
in a
n or
dina
ry w
ay.
This
rese
arch
use
s cl
uste
r ana
lysi
s to
grou
p th
e LT
PP te
st se
ctio
ns b
ased
on
mul
tiple
cl
imat
e va
riabl
es, a
nd u
ses p
rinci
ple
com
pone
nts a
naly
sis a
nd
Geo
grap
hic
Info
rmat
ion
Syst
em (G
IS) m
aps t
o ve
rify
the
grou
ping
re
sults
.
RE
SEA
RC
H A
PPR
OA
CH
The
clim
ate
data
in th
e LT
PP d
atab
ase
are
orga
nize
d in
to se
vera
l ta
bles
, mos
t of w
hich
con
tain
larg
e am
ount
s of r
ecor
ds.
For
exam
ple,
the
mon
thly
pre
cipi
tatio
n ta
ble
alon
e ha
s 243
,237
reco
rds
with
10
field
s for
eac
h re
cord
. A
naly
sis o
f thi
s lar
ge a
mou
nt o
f da
ta w
as fu
lfille
d th
roug
h th
e fo
llow
ing
step
s:
• Se
lect
ing
tabl
es th
at c
onta
in c
limat
e in
form
atio
n fr
om th
e LT
PP d
atab
ase.
• Pr
epro
cess
ing
and
trans
form
ing
the
data
.
112
inco
rpor
ated
tem
pera
ture
as a
n in
put f
acto
r of t
he m
ix d
esig
n pr
oces
s.
If h
ighw
ay p
ract
ition
ers r
ecog
nize
the
quan
titat
ive
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
clim
ate
fact
ors a
nd ro
ad p
erfo
rman
ce, a
nd h
ave
suff
icie
nt
info
rmat
ion
on lo
cal c
limat
e co
nditi
ons,
they
can
redu
ce th
e ne
gativ
e in
fluen
ces o
f the
se fa
ctor
s thr
ough
cor
rect
pra
ctic
es.
To
get e
xten
sive
clim
ate
info
rmat
ion
from
acr
oss t
he U
nite
d St
ates
an
d so
me
area
s of C
anad
a, th
e LT
PP p
rogr
am, s
pons
ored
by
SHR
P, c
onst
ruct
ed a
clim
ate
data
base
to re
cord
clim
ate
info
rmat
ion
on m
ost L
TPP
test
sect
ions
. A
qua
lity-
cont
rol c
heck
w
as th
en c
ondu
cted
on
the
raw
dat
a; th
ese
data
som
etim
es w
ere
sum
mar
ized
. T
he d
atab
ase
dist
ribut
ed b
y th
e D
ataP
ave
3.0
softw
are
cont
ains
clim
ate
info
rmat
ion
on n
early
1,0
00 te
st se
ctio
ns
reco
rded
from
198
0 or
eve
n ea
rlier
. Th
e ai
m o
f thi
s pap
er,
how
ever
, is n
ot to
exa
min
e th
e qu
antit
ativ
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n th
e cl
imat
e fa
ctor
s and
pav
emen
t per
form
ance
, but
to d
evel
op a
cl
imat
e m
ap th
at w
ill p
artit
ion
test
sect
ions
acc
ordi
ng to
thei
r cl
imat
e pa
ttern
s. T
est s
ectio
ns th
at h
ave
a si
mila
r clim
ate
patte
rn
will
be
assi
gned
to th
e sa
me
grou
p by
usi
ng a
mul
tivar
iate
dat
a an
alys
is te
chni
que,
clu
ster
ana
lysi
s. T
his c
limat
e m
ap sh
ould
hel
p re
sear
cher
s who
are
usi
ng th
e LT
PP d
ata
to p
erfo
rm st
atis
tical
tre
atm
ent c
ompa
rison
inco
rpor
ate
or se
para
te th
e cl
imat
e fa
ctor
s in
thei
r mod
els.
With
out a
ppro
pria
tely
add
ress
ing
thes
e cl
imat
e fa
ctor
s, on
e ca
nnot
get
val
id in
fere
nces
from
com
paris
on o
f oth
er
cont
rolle
d pa
ram
eter
s. A
noth
er p
oten
tial u
se o
f thi
s map
is to
hel
p hi
ghw
ay p
ract
ition
ers g
et c
limat
e pa
ttern
info
rmat
ion
in th
eir
geog
raph
ical
are
as so
that
they
can
app
ly th
e sa
me
desi
gn c
riter
ia,
cons
truct
ion
requ
irem
ents
, and
mai
nten
ance
stra
tegi
es to
thos
e re
gion
s with
sim
ilar c
limat
e pa
ttern
s.
At p
rese
nt, t
he h
ighw
ay c
limat
e re
gion
s in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es a
nd
Can
ada
are
roug
hly
divi
ded
into
four
maj
or g
roup
s:
• W
et fr
eeze
.
• W
et n
o fr
eeze
.
• D
ry fr
eeze
.
13
defle
ctio
ns.
The
varia
tion
in d
efle
ctio
n as
a fu
nctio
n of
pro
ject
le
ngth
is su
mm
ariz
ed in
figu
re 6
. D
efle
ctio
n da
ta a
t the
cor
ner o
f th
e sl
ab (J
2) w
ere
used
for c
alcu
latin
g th
e vo
id p
oten
tial
unde
rnea
th th
e co
rner
of P
CC
slab
s; th
e de
flect
ion
from
the
slab
ed
ge (J
3) w
as u
sed
to c
ompu
te th
e la
tera
l sup
port
prov
ided
by
the
shou
lder
; and
the
data
from
pos
ition
s J4
and
J5 w
ere
used
to
com
pute
app
roac
h an
d le
ave
load
tran
sfer
eff
icie
ncie
s (LT
E)
resp
ectiv
ely.
Fig
ure
7 ill
ustra
tes t
he v
ario
us fa
lling
wei
ght
defle
ctom
eter
(FW
D) t
est l
ocat
ions
. Fi
gure
6.
Def
lect
ion
prof
ile a
s fun
ctio
n of
dis
tanc
e
1 m
= 3
.28
ft
Figu
re 7
. L
TPP
FW
D p
ositi
ons
The
back
calc
ulat
ed la
yer p
aram
eter
s for
this
exa
mpl
e se
ctio
n ar
e su
mm
ariz
ed in
figu
re 8
.
J1 J3J2
J4J5
17.5
3 m
17.5
3 m
3.7
m
7090110
130
150
170
030
6090
120
150
Poi
nt L
ocat
ion
(m)
Deflection (m)
sect
ion
1
sect
ion
2
sect
ion
3
1 m
= 3
.28
ft 1
mic
rom
eter
(µm
) =
0.00
004
inch
14
Fi
gure
8.
Bac
kcal
cula
ted
laye
r pa
ram
eter
s
The
defle
ctio
n ra
tio (D
-rat
io),
whi
ch is
a g
ood
indi
cato
r of l
ater
al
supp
ort a
long
the
edge
of t
he sl
ab, w
as c
alcu
late
d. T
he re
sults
are
su
mm
ariz
ed in
figu
re 9
. If
the
slab
has
a u
nifo
rm a
dequ
ate
supp
ort,
this
ratio
shou
ld b
e cl
ose
to 1
. The
lack
of l
ater
al su
ppor
t re
sults
in D
-rat
io v
alue
s sig
nific
antly
gre
ater
than
1.
Figu
re 9
. D
-rat
io v
ersu
s poi
nt lo
catio
n fo
r ye
ars 1
990,
199
4,
and
1999
0510152025
050
100
150
Poin
t of L
ocat
ion
(m)
k (kPa/mm)
0.0E
+00
1.0E
+07
2.0E
+07
3.0E
+07
4.0E
+07
5.0E
+07
6.0E
+07
7.0E
+07
8.0E
+07
E (kPa)
k E
0 0.
2 0.
4 0.
6 0.
8 1 1.
2 1.
4 1.
6 1.
8
0 20
40
60
80
10
0 12
0 14
0 16
0Po
int L
ocat
ion
(m)
D-ratio
9/18
/90
9/20
/94
2/22
/99
1 m
= 3
.28
ft
1 m
= 3
.28
ft
111
PAPE
R 5
D
EV
EL
OPM
EN
T O
F A
PA
VE
ME
NT
C
LIM
AT
E M
AP
BA
SED
ON
LT
PP D
AT
A
Yuh
ong
Wan
g
AB
STR
AC
T
It ha
s lon
g be
en re
cogn
ized
that
clim
ate
fact
ors h
ave
impo
rtant
in
fluen
ces o
n pa
vem
ent p
erfo
rman
ce.
To h
elp
inve
stig
ate
this
in
fluen
ce, t
he S
trate
gic
Hig
hway
Res
earc
h Pr
ogra
m (S
HR
P) L
ong-
Term
Pav
emen
t Per
form
ance
(LTP
P) re
sear
ch h
as b
een
usin
g on
site
or v
irtua
l wea
ther
stat
ions
to re
cord
clim
ate
info
rmat
ion
on
test
sect
ions
. Th
e da
ta w
ill fa
cilit
ate
the
stud
y of
the
quan
titat
ive
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
clim
ate
and
pave
men
t per
form
ance
. Th
is
pape
r dis
cuss
es h
ow to
dev
elop
a c
limat
e m
ap u
sing
clu
ster
an
alys
is o
n pe
rfor
man
ce-r
elat
ed c
limat
e da
ta fr
om th
e LT
PP
data
base
, whi
ch c
onta
ins n
early
1,0
00 v
irtua
l wea
ther
stat
ions
re
cord
ed fo
r mor
e th
an 1
7 ye
ars.
The
aim
of d
evel
opin
g th
is m
ap
is to
hel
p re
sear
cher
s, w
ho a
re p
erfo
rmin
g da
ta a
naly
sis o
n th
e LT
PP d
atab
ase,
to in
corp
orat
e or
sepa
rate
clim
ate
fact
ors i
n th
eir
mod
els.
Ano
ther
pot
entia
l use
of t
his m
ap is
to h
elp
high
way
pr
actit
ione
rs g
et c
limat
e pa
ttern
info
rmat
ion
for t
heir
geog
raph
ical
ar
eas s
o th
at th
ey c
an a
pply
the
sam
e de
sign
crit
eria
, con
stru
ctio
n re
quire
men
ts, a
nd m
aint
enan
ce st
rate
gies
to th
ose
regi
ons w
ith
sim
ilar c
limat
e pa
ttern
s.
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
It ha
s lon
g be
en re
cogn
ized
that
the
clim
ate
fact
ors h
ave
impo
rtant
in
fluen
ces o
n hi
ghw
ay p
avem
ent p
erfo
rman
ce.
They
can
not
onl
y in
fluen
ce p
avem
ent s
truct
ure
inte
grity
, but
als
o ca
use
com
mon
su
rfac
e di
stre
sses
. Fo
r exa
mpl
e, te
mpe
ratu
re is
wid
ely
know
n to
ha
ve si
gnifi
cant
influ
ence
on
pave
men
t rut
ting
and
crac
king
. To
ac
coun
t for
its i
nflu
ence
, the
Sup
erpa
ve®
mix
des
ign
appr
oach
has
110
Seed
, H.B
. Cha
n, C
.K.,
and
Lee,
C.E
. (19
62).
“R
esili
ence
C
hara
cter
istic
s of S
ubgr
ade
Soils
and
The
ir R
elat
ion
to
Fatig
ue F
ailu
res i
n A
spha
lt Pa
vem
ents
.” P
roce
edin
gs,
Inte
rnat
iona
l Con
fere
nce
on th
e St
ruct
ural
Des
ign
of
Asph
alt P
avem
ents
, Uni
vers
ity o
f Mic
higa
n, A
nn A
rbor
, M
I, pp
. 611
-636
.
Siva
nesw
aran
, N.,
Pier
ce, L
. and
Mah
oney
, J. (
1999
). “E
VER
PAV
E 5.
11: P
avem
ent O
verla
y D
esig
n Pr
ogra
m.”
W
ashi
ngto
n St
ate
Dep
artm
ent o
f Tra
nspo
rtatio
n, O
lym
pia,
W
A.
Tim
m, D
., B
irgis
son,
B.,
and
New
com
b, D
. (20
01).
“Dev
elop
men
t of
Mec
hani
stic
-Em
piric
al P
avem
ent D
esig
n in
Min
neso
ta.”
Tr
ansp
orta
tion
Res
earc
h B
oard
, 80t
h A
nnua
l Mee
ting,
W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C.
Witc
zak,
M.W
., H
oust
on, W
.N.,
Zapa
ta, C
.E.,
Ric
hter
, C.,
Lars
on,
G.,
and
Wal
sh, K
. (20
00).
Impr
ovem
ent o
f the
Inte
grat
ed
Clim
atic
Mod
el fo
r Moi
stur
e C
onte
nt P
redi
ctio
ns. I
nter
- Te
am T
echn
ical
Rep
ort (
Seas
onal
4),
NC
HR
P 1-
37 A
, A
rizon
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity, P
hoen
ix, A
Z.
15
020406080100
120
140
050
100
150
Poi
nt lo
catio
n
LTE (%)
90 94 99
Figu
re 1
0 sh
ows t
he L
TE c
alcu
late
d fr
om J4
for t
he 3
yea
rs a
t ea
ch p
oint
loca
tion.
Figu
re 1
0. L
TE
ver
sus p
oint
loca
tion
(J4)
Th
e gr
oup
furth
er in
vest
igat
ed th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n vo
id
pote
ntia
l and
load
tran
sfer
eff
icie
ncy.
The
resu
lts fr
om th
is
inve
stig
atio
n ar
e su
mm
ariz
ed in
figu
re 1
1.
Figu
re 1
1. R
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
LT
E a
nd v
oid
ratio
0 25
50
75
100
125
150
0 10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
10
0 LT
E, p
erce
nt
Void potential (m)
good
co
nditi
on
poor
co
nditi
on
1 m
= 3
.28
ft
16
The
traff
ic d
ata
for t
his s
ectio
n w
ere
avai
labl
e as
ann
ual K
ESA
Ls
betw
een
1976
and
198
9. B
ased
on
this
info
rmat
ion
the
grou
p co
mpu
ted
the
grow
th ra
te a
nd su
bseq
uent
ly w
as a
ble
to p
redi
ct
futu
re E
SALs
for t
he y
ear 2
011.
Fig
ure
12 su
mm
ariz
es th
e ES
AL
info
rmat
ion
for t
his p
roje
ct.
Figu
re 1
2. M
easu
red
ESA
L a
nd p
redi
cted
ESA
L
Onc
e th
e in
divi
dual
pie
ces o
f the
pro
ject
wer
e an
alyz
ed, t
he n
ext
task
was
to sy
nthe
size
this
info
rmat
ion,
rank
the
dist
ress
es, a
nd
sugg
est r
ehab
ilita
tion
stra
tegi
es.
The
rank
ing
was
bas
ed o
n ba
ckca
lcul
ated
laye
r par
amet
ers,
seve
rity
leve
ls o
f dis
tress
es,
mag
nitu
de o
f voi
d po
tent
ial,
and
LTE
mag
nitu
des.
Tab
le 2
su
mm
ariz
es ra
nkin
g in
form
atio
n, a
nd fi
gure
13
illus
trate
s the
di
stre
ss m
ap.
0 50
0 10
00
1500
20
00
2500
30
00
3500
40
00
4500
1975
1978
1981
1984
1987
199
0 199
319
9619
9920
02Y
ear
K E S
Mea
sure
d ES
AL
Cal
cula
ted
ESA
L
Gro
wth
rate
: 10
.76
%
Gro
wth
fact
or fo
r 10
yrs :
16.
53
109
D, A
gree
men
t No.
89-
47, D
epar
tmen
t of C
ivil
Engi
neer
ing,
U
nive
rsity
of I
daho
, Mos
cow
, ID
, 252
pp.
Hic
ks, R
.G. a
nd M
onis
mith
C.L
.(197
1). “
Fact
ors I
nflu
enci
ng th
e R
esili
ent R
espo
nses
of G
ranu
lar M
ater
ials
.” H
ighw
ay
Rese
arch
Rec
ord
345,
Hig
hway
Res
earc
h B
oard
, Nat
iona
l R
esea
rch
Cou
ncil,
Was
hing
ton,
DC
, pp.
15-
31.
Jone
s, M
.P. a
nd W
itcza
k, M
.W. (
1977
). “S
ubgr
ade
Mod
ulus
on
the
San
Die
go T
est R
oad.
” Tr
ansp
orta
tion
Rese
arch
Rec
ord,
TR
R 6
41, T
rans
porta
tion
Res
earc
h B
oard
, Nat
iona
l R
esea
rch
Cou
ncil,
Was
hing
ton,
DC
, pp.
1-6
.
Lary
, J.A
. and
Mah
oney
, J.P
. (19
84).
“Sea
sona
l Eff
ects
on
the
Stre
ngth
of P
avem
ent S
truct
ures
.” T
rans
port
atio
n Re
sear
ch
Reco
rd, T
RR
954
, Tra
nspo
rtatio
n R
esea
rch
Boa
rd,
Nat
iona
l Res
earc
h C
ounc
il, W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C, p
p. 8
8-94
.
Rad
a, G
. and
Witc
zak,
M.W
. (19
81).
“Com
preh
ensi
ve E
valu
atio
n of
Lab
orat
ory-
Res
ilien
t Mod
uli R
esul
ts fo
r Gra
nula
r M
ater
ials
.” T
rans
port
atio
n Re
sear
ch R
ecor
d, T
RR
810
, Tr
ansp
orta
tion
Res
earc
h B
oard
, Nat
iona
l Res
earc
h C
ounc
il, W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C, p
p. 2
3-33
.
Rad
a, G
., El
kins
, G.,
Hen
ders
on, B
., V
an S
ambe
ek, R
., an
d Lo
pez,
A
(199
4). L
TPP
Seas
onal
Mon
itori
ng P
rogr
am:
Inst
rum
enta
tion
Inst
alla
tion
and
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n G
uide
lines
. Fed
eral
Hig
hway
Adm
inis
tratio
n, R
epor
t No.
FH
WA
-RD
-94-
110,
Was
hing
ton,
DC
.
Scriv
ner,
F.H
., Pe
ohl,
R.,
Moo
re, W
.M.,
and
Phill
ips,
M.B
. (19
69).
“Det
ectin
g Se
ason
al C
hang
es in
Loa
d-C
arry
ing
Cap
abili
ties o
f Fle
xibl
e Pa
vem
ents
.” N
CH
RP R
epor
t 7,
Hig
hway
Res
earc
h B
oard
, Nat
iona
l Res
earc
h C
ounc
il,
Was
hing
ton,
DC
, 37
pp.
108
RE
FER
EN
CE
S
Abo
-Has
hem
a, M
.A.,
Bay
omy,
F.M
., Sm
ith, R
., an
d Sa
lem
H.M
. (2
002)
. “En
viro
nmen
tal I
mpa
cts o
n Su
bgra
de R
esili
ent
Mod
ulus
for I
daho
Pav
emen
ts.”
The
Tra
nspo
rtatio
n R
esea
rch
Boa
rd, T
RB
81s
t Ann
ual M
eetin
g, Ja
nuar
y 13
-17,
20
02, W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C.
Ali,
H. a
nd P
arke
r, N
. (19
96).
“Usi
ng T
ime
Serie
s to
Inco
rpor
ate
Seas
onal
Var
iatio
ns in
Pav
emen
t Des
ign.
” Tr
ansp
orta
tion
Rese
arch
Rec
ord,
TR
R 1
539,
pp.
33-
43.
Al-K
anda
ri, F
. (19
94).
“Mec
hani
stic
-Bas
ed O
verla
y D
esig
n Pr
oced
ure
for I
daho
Fle
xibl
e Pa
vem
ents
.” M
.S. T
hesi
s, U
nive
rsity
of I
daho
, Mos
cow
, ID
.
Bay
omy,
F.,
Al-K
anda
ri, F
., an
d N
assa
r, W
. (19
97).
“Com
pute
r-A
ided
Ove
rlay
Des
ign
Syst
em fo
r Fle
xibl
e Pa
vem
ents
.”
Proc
eedi
ngs o
f the
8th
Inte
rnat
iona
l Con
fere
nce
on A
spha
lt Pa
vem
ents
, Sea
ttle,
WA
.
Bay
omy,
F.,
Al-K
anda
ri, F
., an
d Sm
ith, R
. (19
96).
“Mec
hani
stic
-B
ased
Ove
rlay
Des
ign
Syst
em fo
r Ida
ho.”
Tra
nspo
rtat
ion
Rese
arch
Rec
ord,
TR
R 1
543,
Tra
nspo
rtatio
n R
esea
rch
Boa
rd, W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C, p
p. 1
0-19
.
Car
mic
hael
, R.F
. III
and
Stu
art,
E. (1
985)
. “P
redi
ctin
g R
esili
ent
Mod
ulus
: A S
tudy
to D
eter
min
e th
e M
echa
nica
l Pro
perti
es
of S
ubgr
ade
Soils
.” T
rans
port
atio
n Re
sear
ch R
ecor
d TR
R
1043
, Tra
nspo
rtatio
n R
esea
rch
Boa
rd, N
atio
nal R
esea
rch
Cou
ncil,
Was
hing
ton,
DC
, pp.
145
-148
.
FHW
A (
2001
). D
ataP
ave3
.0, C
D-R
OM
. U.S
. Dep
artm
ent o
f Tr
ansp
orta
tion,
Fed
eral
Hig
hway
Adm
inis
tratio
n,
Was
hing
ton,
DC
Har
dcas
tle, J
.H. (
1992
). Su
bgra
de R
esili
ent M
odul
us fo
r Ida
ho
Pave
men
ts.
Fina
l Rep
ort o
f ITD
Res
earc
h Pr
ojec
t RP
110-
17
Tab
le 2
. R
anki
ng b
ased
on
dist
ress
and
com
pute
d re
spon
ses
At C
rack
s and
Joi
nts
At m
id S
lab
and
Edg
e Po
int
Loc
atio
n (m
)
Ave
rage
E
dge
Faul
ting
LT
E
(J5)
%L
TE
(J
4)%
V
oid
Pote
ntia
lSp
all
Poin
t L
ocat
ion
J1 (m
)
Peak
D
efle
ctio
n
Ave
rage
K
A
vera
ge
E
D
ratio
0.9
18
15
15
16
– 5.
87
5 9
11
8.2
14
9 10
11
L
15.2
13
12
11
4 20
.8
18
1 4
1 L,
M
22.9
9 19
4
3 25
.7
17
7 6
2 L
28.3
16
3 20
1
29.5
18
–
– –
L –
– –
– –
38.7
18
3
1 3
L 40
.813
13
8
7 43
.3
13
8 5
9 L
44.8
4 17
3
17
46.7
18
16
18
19
L
50.9
7 4
16
12
54.9
18
18
12
12
–
57.6
12
6 14
2
60.8
10
5
7 5
– 62
.51
15
1 16
65
.0
10
20
14
7 L
66.8
2 1
17
9 69
.5
18
– –
– L,
H
– –
– –
– 75
.8
18
14
17
6 L
76.5
4 20
2
20
78.2
18
–
– –
L –
– –
– –
81.0
16
12
13
16
L
83.2
2 2
15
5 86
.6
17
– –
– L,
M
– –
– –
– 91
.3
3 4
3 4
L,M
,H93
.06
14
5 19
96
.0
18
10
9 15
–
98.5
18
16
12
10
102.
2 6
19
19
18
L 10
7.0
20
8 19
14
11
3.5
6 6
8 13
–
115.
218
9
18
13
118.
0 3
– –
– L
– –
– –
– 12
2.1
6 –
– –
– –
– –
– –
126.
6 2
11
20
10
L 12
8.0
13
10
13
18
131.
0 12
–
– –
– –
–
– –
134.
4 1
13
16
13
L 13
6.2
10
11
6 6
139.
7 14
–
– –
L –
– –
– –
142.
6 6
17
11
– L
144.
511
7
10
8 14
8.6
3 2
2 7
– 15
0.3
17
18
7 15
1
m =
3.2
8 ft
18
1
m =
3.2
8 ft
Fi
gure
13.
Exa
mpl
e of
a d
istr
ess m
ap
Bas
ed o
n th
e ov
eral
l dis
tress
con
ditio
n an
d th
e rid
e qu
ality
of t
he
pave
men
t sec
tion,
the
grou
p re
com
men
ded
the
cons
truct
ion
of a
n un
boun
ded
conc
rete
ove
rlay,
who
se d
esig
n w
as d
one
in
acco
rdan
ce w
ith th
e A
ASH
TO 1
993
proc
edur
e. I
t was
als
o su
gges
ted
that
pre
-ove
rlay
repa
irs b
e co
nduc
ted
prio
r to
the
cons
truct
ion
of th
e ov
erla
y.
Sim
ilar d
esig
n pr
ojec
ts w
ere
done
by
othe
r stu
dent
gro
ups,
but
spac
e lim
itatio
ns p
rohi
bit p
rese
ntin
g fle
xibl
e pa
vem
ent
reha
bilit
atio
ns p
roje
cts.
The
subs
eque
nt se
ctio
ns w
ill d
escr
ibe
the
use
of D
ataP
ave
3.0
in C
E831
and
the
exam
ple(
s) d
escr
ibed
dea
l w
ith fl
exib
le p
avem
ents
.
CE
831—
P AV
EM
EN
T A
NA
LY
SIS
AN
D D
ESI
GN
II
Trad
ition
ally
, the
cou
rse
incl
udes
seve
ral a
ssig
nmen
ts d
ealin
g w
ith
pave
men
t ana
lysi
s and
a c
ompr
ehen
sive
des
ign
proj
ect u
sing
the
mec
hani
stic
-em
piric
al a
ppro
ach.
A m
ain
shor
tcom
ing
of th
e as
sign
men
ts a
nd p
roje
ct w
as th
e la
ck o
f “re
al”
perf
orm
ance
dat
a th
at c
ould
be
used
to e
valu
ate
the
accu
racy
of t
he m
echa
nist
ic
pred
ictio
ns. A
ccor
ding
ly, t
he in
stru
ctor
s dec
ided
to e
xplo
re th
e us
e
107
coar
se sa
ndy
clay
) is a
lmos
t the
sam
e an
d is
muc
h le
ss th
an th
at o
f pu
re si
lty o
r cla
yey
soils
. Equ
atio
n (6
) and
/or f
igur
e 16
cou
ld b
e us
ed to
est
imat
e th
e se
ason
al a
djus
tmen
t fac
tor f
or a
cer
tain
seas
on
by ju
st k
now
ing
soil
type
and
the
expe
cted
moi
stur
e in
crea
se in
th
at se
ason
with
resp
ect t
o th
e re
fere
nce
seas
on.
SUM
MA
RY
AN
D C
ON
CL
USI
ON
The
data
use
d in
this
stud
y w
ere
dow
nloa
ded
from
the
LTPP
-SM
P da
taba
se, D
ataP
ave
3.0
(200
1). T
hrou
gh th
e an
alys
is o
f the
se d
ata
it w
as fo
und
that
bot
h m
oist
ure
and
mod
ulus
follo
w a
lmos
t a
sinu
soid
al fu
nctio
n w
ith d
iffer
ent m
onth
s of t
he y
ear.
Whi
le th
e m
oist
ure
incr
ease
s dur
ing
a se
ason
, the
mod
ulus
dec
reas
es d
urin
g th
e sa
me
seas
on a
nd v
ice
vers
a. T
he m
inim
um se
ason
al su
bgra
de
moi
stur
e co
nten
t (hi
gher
mod
ulus
val
ues)
was
obs
erve
d du
ring
sum
mer
seas
on w
hile
the
high
est m
oist
ure
(low
est m
odul
us) w
as
obse
rved
dur
ing
win
ter.
How
ever
, in
som
e ca
ses f
or n
onco
hesi
ve
soils
, inc
reas
ing
moi
stur
e co
nten
t may
resu
lt in
incr
easi
ng it
s m
odul
us if
the
in si
tu m
oist
ure
cont
ent i
s bel
ow th
e op
timum
m
oist
ure
cont
ent.
The
data
show
ed a
lso
that
the
moi
stur
e co
nten
t pr
ofile
thro
ugh
the
mon
ths o
f the
yea
r cou
ld b
e re
late
d to
the
aver
age
mon
thly
rain
fall.
In th
is st
udy,
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
subg
rade
mod
ulus
(E) a
nd
the
grav
imet
ric m
oist
ure
cont
ent w
as d
eter
min
ed fo
r diff
eren
t soi
l ty
pes.
A g
ener
al m
odel
rela
ting
subg
rade
mod
ulus
to so
il m
oist
ure
and
othe
r soi
l pro
perti
es w
as d
evel
oped
and
app
lied
for d
iffer
ent
soil
type
s. A
lso,
a si
mpl
e m
odel
for c
alcu
latin
g th
e m
odul
us sh
ift
fact
or o
f sub
grad
e so
il w
as d
evel
oped
. The
mod
ulus
shift
fact
or
adju
sts s
ubgr
ade
mod
ulus
from
one
refe
renc
e se
ason
(usu
ally
su
mm
er) t
o an
othe
r. Th
is a
llow
s det
erm
inat
ion
of su
bgra
de
resi
lient
mod
ulus
at a
ny se
ason
by
mul
tiply
ing
the
refe
renc
e va
lue
by th
e SA
F fo
r tha
t sea
son.
The
refe
renc
e va
lue
is th
e m
odul
us
valu
e de
term
ined
by
test
ing
durin
g an
y se
lect
ed se
ason
(sum
mer
). Th
e SA
F va
ries a
ccor
ding
to su
bgra
de so
il ty
pe a
nd c
limat
ic
cond
ition
s. Th
e re
sults
show
ed a
lso
that
pur
e si
lty so
il is
mor
e se
nsiti
ve to
moi
stur
e va
riatio
n th
an a
re a
ll ot
her s
oils
.
106
Mo,
E o
= R
efer
ence
moi
stur
e an
d co
rres
pond
ing
mod
ulus
, usu
ally
take
n du
ring
sum
mer
or
at th
e se
ason
hav
ing
the
min
imum
m
oist
ure
thro
ugho
ut th
e ye
ar.
Figu
re 1
6. E
stim
ated
mod
ulus
shift
fact
or fo
r di
ffer
ent
soil
type
s
The
mod
el sh
own
in e
quat
ion
(6) i
s sim
ple
and
dim
ensi
onle
ss, a
nd
was
foun
d to
fit t
he d
ata
from
mos
t site
s with
reas
onab
le a
ccur
acy
(R2
rang
es fr
om 0
.5 to
0.7
2), a
s sho
wn
in fi
gure
16.
The
mod
el
cons
tant
(ko)
was
foun
d to
be
1.0
for a
ll so
ils, a
s sho
wn
in th
e fig
ure,
whi
le th
e co
nsta
nt (k
) cha
nges
with
soil
type
. The
mod
el
cons
tant
(k) i
ncre
ases
with
incr
easi
ng so
il se
nsiti
vity
to m
oist
ure
incr
ease
. The
figu
re in
dica
tes t
hat c
onst
ant (
k) ra
nges
from
0.3
2 fo
r co
arse
sand
y cl
ay to
1.1
for c
lay
and
1.32
for s
ilty
soils
. The
figu
re
indi
cate
s als
o th
at if
the
moi
stur
e co
nten
t is i
ncre
ased
by
20
perc
ent (
fact
or 1
.2),
the
mod
ulus
for s
ilty
soils
redu
ces t
o 0.
80 o
f its
val
ue. T
he c
orre
spon
ding
mod
ulus
redu
ctio
ns fo
r cla
y an
d sa
ndy
clay
soils
are
0.8
3 an
d 0.
96, r
espe
ctiv
ely.
The
refo
re, t
he
pure
silty
soils
are
mor
e se
nsiti
ve to
moi
stur
e in
crea
se th
an p
ure
clay
ey so
il an
d al
l oth
er so
il ty
pes.
Figu
re 1
6 al
so in
dica
tes t
hat
wat
er se
nsiti
vity
for s
andy
soils
(san
dy si
lt, fi
ne sa
ndy
clay
, and
y =
1.0x
-1.1
R2 = 0
.5
y =
0.99
x-0.2
7
R2 = 0
.58
y =
1.02
x-0.3
2
R2 = 0
.51
y =
1.01
x-1.3
2
R2 = 0
.72
y =
1.02
x-0.3
5
R2 = 0
.57
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1 1.
01.
11.
21.
31.
41.
51.
61.
71.
81.
9
Moi
stur
e In
crea
se
Modulus SF
F- S
C
C- S
C
Silt
SM Clay
Pow
er (C
lay)
Pow
er (F
- SC)
Pow
er (C
- SC)
Pow
er (S
ilt)
Pow
er (S
M)
19
of th
e LT
PP D
ataP
ave
3.0
data
as a
sour
ce fo
r ext
ract
ing
“rea
l”
pave
men
t res
pons
e an
d pe
rfor
man
ce d
ata,
whi
ch th
e st
uden
ts c
ould
us
e to
eva
luat
e ex
istin
g pe
rfor
man
ce p
redi
ctio
n m
odel
s. T
he
data
base
als
o pr
ovid
es in
form
atio
n on
traf
fic g
row
th (i
n te
rms o
f A
DT,
KES
ALS
, and
axl
e di
strib
utio
n), p
avem
ent i
nven
tory
, and
cl
imat
e.
The
repo
rts w
ere
grad
ed a
ccor
ding
to si
mila
r crit
eria
to th
ose
in th
e C
E432
cla
ss.
Thes
e cr
iteria
wer
e ha
nded
out
to th
e st
uden
ts a
long
w
ith th
e pr
oble
m st
atem
ent.
The
over
all o
bjec
tives
of t
he L
TPP-
base
d as
sign
men
t are
sim
ilar t
o th
ose
in C
E432
, with
the
spec
ific
obje
ctiv
es b
eing
:
• To
sele
ct 3
sect
ions
from
the
assi
gned
SPS
-1 si
tes.
• To
synt
hesi
ze th
e in
vent
ory,
def
lect
ion,
roug
hnes
s, di
stre
ss
and
traff
ic d
ata.
• To
inve
stig
ate
the
rela
tions
hips
bet
wee
n pa
vem
ent
perf
orm
ance
and
resp
onse
• To
pro
vide
an
engi
neer
ing
disc
ussi
on su
mm
ariz
ing
the
findi
ngs.
Each
stud
ent h
ad to
sele
ct th
ree
sect
ions
from
the
assi
gned
SPS
-1
site
, eac
h re
pres
entin
g a
dens
e-gr
aded
agg
rega
te b
ase
(DG
AB
), as
phal
t-tre
ated
bas
e (A
TB) a
nd p
erm
eabl
e-as
phal
t-tre
ated
bas
e (P
ATB
) with
ext
erna
l dra
inag
e. T
o ill
ustra
te th
e de
liver
able
s for
fle
xibl
e pa
vem
ents
, the
aut
hors
hav
e ch
osen
an
exam
ple
from
the
SPS-
1 si
te in
the
Stat
e of
Lou
isia
na (S
tate
Cod
e 22
).
The
follo
win
g ta
sks w
ere
assi
gned
as a
star
ting
poin
t to
assi
st
stud
ents
in sa
tisfy
ing
the
assi
gnm
ent o
bjec
tives
:
TASK
1:
Sele
ctio
n of
Sec
tions
from
SPS
-1 S
ites
Each
SPS
-1 si
te c
onsi
sts o
f 12
sect
ions
, with
var
ying
asp
halt
conc
rete
(AC
) thi
ckne
ss, b
ase
thic
knes
s, an
d ba
se ty
pe.
The
last
fo
ur se
ctio
ns a
re p
rovi
ded
with
som
e dr
aina
ge to
stud
y dr
aina
ge
20
impa
ct o
n pa
vem
ent p
erfo
rman
ce.
All
the
12 S
PS-1
sect
ions
for
the
Stat
e of
Lou
isia
na w
ere
exam
ined
for t
he fo
llow
ing
char
acte
ristic
s:
• Th
e pa
vem
ent c
ross
-sec
tion,
incl
udin
g th
e su
bgra
de.
• Th
e ty
pe o
f bas
e: w
heth
er g
ranu
lar,
cem
ent t
reat
ed, o
r as
phal
t tre
ated
.
• Th
e m
ost i
mpo
rtant
asp
ect o
f thi
s dat
a in
spec
tion
was
to
obse
rve
the
amou
nt a
nd q
ualit
y of
the
perf
orm
ance
dat
a av
aila
ble
in L
TPP.
Thre
e se
ctio
ns w
ere
sele
cted
for t
his e
xam
ple,
as s
how
n in
tabl
e 3.
Tab
le 3
. T
he L
TPP
sect
ion
repo
rt
Sect
ion
No.
L
ayer
Thi
ckne
sses
(inc
hes)
D
rain
age
Typ
e 22
-011
4-1
AC
Lay
ers:
1.4
+8.1
= 9
.5
Cru
shed
Gra
vel,
Gra
nula
r B
ase
(GB
): 11
.4
Gra
nula
r Sub
base
(GS)
: 12
Fine
-gra
ined
soil,
lean
in
orga
nic
clay
Non
e
22-0
116-
1 A
C L
ayer
s: 2
+2.8
+11
= 1
5.8
Gra
nula
r Sub
base
(GS)
: 18”
Fi
ne-g
rain
ed so
il, le
an
inor
gani
c cl
ay
Non
e
22-0
124-
1 A
C L
ayer
s: 1
.3+5
.9
+10.
6+3.
2 =
21
Gra
nula
r Sub
base
(GS)
: 30
Fine
-gra
ined
soil,
lean
in
orga
nic
clay
Bla
nket
w/lo
ng
drai
ns
1 in
ch =
25.
4 m
illim
eter
s A
n ex
ampl
e of
the
laye
r cro
ss se
ctio
n is
illu
stra
ted
in th
e sc
reen
cap
ture
in
figur
e 14
.
105
EST
IMA
TIN
G S
EA
SON
AL
AD
JUST
ME
NT
FA
CT
OR
S
The
SAF
is c
onsi
dere
d to
acc
ount
for t
he c
hang
es in
subg
rade
soil
mod
ulus
due
to se
ason
al c
hang
e in
subg
rade
moi
stur
e co
nten
t. Th
e SA
F re
flect
s bot
h th
e su
bgra
de so
il cl
ass a
nd th
e cl
imat
e in
whi
ch
the
pave
men
t is l
ocat
ed. F
or th
e pu
rpos
e of
dev
elop
ing
a m
odel
to
mea
sure
the
subg
rade
mod
ulus
shift
fact
or, r
egre
ssio
n an
alys
is w
as
appl
ied
to th
e m
oist
ure-
mod
ulus
dat
a of
diff
eren
t soi
l typ
es. T
he
soil
type
s tha
t wer
e in
clud
ed in
this
stud
y ar
e: si
lt (M
), cl
ay (C
), si
lty sa
nd (S
M),
fine
sand
y cl
ay (F
-SC
) and
coa
rse
sand
y cl
ay (C
-SC
). Th
e m
oist
ure-
mod
ulus
dat
a of
the
prev
ious
soil
type
s wer
e do
wnl
oade
d fr
om si
tes 2
4-16
34 (M
), 48
-414
3 (C
), 48
-107
7 (S
M),
13-1
005,
and
28-
1016
(F-S
C).
The
resu
lt of
the
regr
essi
on a
naly
sis i
s sho
wn
in fi
gure
16.
The
X-
axis
of f
igur
e 16
show
s the
moi
stur
e in
crea
se, w
hich
is th
e se
ason
al m
oist
ure
divi
ded
by th
e m
inim
um m
oist
ure
cont
ent
mea
sure
d at
this
site
thro
ugh
the
year
(usu
ally
sum
mer
moi
stur
e co
nten
t). T
he Y
-axi
s sho
ws t
he m
odul
us sh
ift fa
ctor
: the
seas
onal
ba
ckca
lcul
ated
mod
ulus
at a
ny si
te d
ivid
ed b
y th
e m
axim
um
mod
ulus
mea
sure
d th
roug
hout
the
year
(usu
ally
the
sum
mer
m
odul
us o
r the
mod
ulus
cor
resp
ondi
ng to
the
min
imum
seas
onal
m
oist
ure)
. The
ana
lysi
s of f
igur
e 16
indi
cate
s tha
t the
shift
fact
or
coul
d be
rela
ted
to m
oist
ure
incr
ease
with
the
mod
el sh
own
in
equa
tion
(6).
(6
) W
here
: SF
= M
odul
us sh
ift fa
ctor
(E Se
ason
/ Eo)
M
=
Moi
stur
e in
crea
se (M
Seas
on/ E
o)
k o, k
=
Mod
el c
onst
ants
, dep
ende
nt o
n so
il ty
pe
MSe
ason
, ESe
ason
, =
Moi
stur
e an
d m
odul
us a
t any
seas
on,
resp
ectiv
ely
SF =
ko *
M –
k
104
14
5 M
Pa =
1 p
si
Fi
gure
15.
Bac
kcal
cula
ted
mod
ulus
ver
sus m
oist
ure
cont
ent
for
sand
y so
il, si
te 3
5-11
12
In c
oncl
usio
n, a
s fig
ures
10
thro
ugh
14 sh
ow th
e ba
ckca
lcul
ated
el
astic
mod
ulus
dec
reas
es w
ith in
crea
sing
soil
moi
stur
e co
nten
t for
no
n-fr
eeze
site
s. O
nly
figur
e 15
indi
cate
d th
at th
e el
astic
mod
ulus
in
crea
ses w
ith in
crea
sing
moi
stur
e co
nten
t. Th
e re
ason
for t
he
dire
ct re
latio
nshi
p sh
own
in fi
gure
15
is th
e sa
me
as d
escr
ibed
for
figur
e 4
(e.g
., no
ncoh
esiv
e so
il). T
he so
il in
figu
re 4
is sa
nd, a
nd it
s fie
ld m
oist
ure
is m
uch
less
than
the
optim
um m
oist
ure
cont
ent f
or
this
soil,
whi
ch is
12.
0 pe
rcen
t as s
how
n in
tabl
e 1.
The
refo
re,
incr
easi
ng m
oist
ure
cont
ent i
n su
ch c
ohes
ionl
ess s
oils
by
incr
ease
s th
eir m
odul
us u
ntil
the
optim
um m
oist
ure
is re
ache
d, th
en th
e m
odul
us re
duce
s. Fo
r coh
esiv
e so
ils (c
laye
y so
ils),
incr
ease
s in
subg
rade
moi
stur
e w
ill b
e ac
com
pani
ed w
ith a
redu
ctio
n in
thei
r m
odul
i, w
hate
ver t
he so
il m
oist
ure
cond
ition
is, b
efor
e or
afte
r the
op
timum
, as d
iscu
ssed
ear
lier.
It sh
ould
be
note
d th
at th
e ge
nera
l mod
el sh
own
in e
quat
ion
(4),
coul
d be
app
lied
to a
ny so
il ty
pe. T
he m
odel
con
stan
ts (C
*, C
1,
and
C2)
cou
ld b
e es
timat
ed e
ither
from
equ
atio
n (4
) in
the
case
of
plas
tic so
ils, o
r equ
atio
n (5
) in
the
case
of n
onpl
astic
soils
.
Figu
re 1
5. B
ackc
alcula
ted
mod
ulus v
s. m
oistu
re c
onte
nt fo
r san
dy so
il,
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
Moi
stur
e C
onte
nt, %
Modulus, MPa
Colle
cted
Dat
aM
odel
21
Fi
gure
14.
The
pav
emen
t str
uctu
re d
etai
ls fo
r Se
ctio
n 22
-011
4
TA
SK 2
: D
ata
for S
elec
ted
SPS-
1 Si
tes
The
rele
vant
dat
a fo
r the
sele
cted
site
s in
the
assi
gnm
ent w
ere:
• V
ario
us p
erfo
rman
ce m
easu
res (
fatig
ue c
rack
ing,
tra
nsve
rse
crac
king
, rut
ting
and
IRI)
.
• En
viro
nmen
tal d
ata
(tem
pera
ture
s, et
c.).
• In
vent
ory
data
(lay
er th
ickn
esse
s, ba
se ty
pe, a
nd d
rain
age,
et
c.).
• Tr
affic
dat
a w
ith ti
me
(axl
e lo
ad sp
ectru
m fo
r var
ious
axl
e ty
pes,
etc.
).
Dur
ing
the
sear
ch fo
r tra
ffic
dat
a fo
r SPS
-1 si
tes i
n Lo
uisi
ana,
no
traff
ic d
ata
wer
e fo
und
for e
noug
h nu
mbe
r of y
ears
to a
scer
tain
the
grow
th ra
te a
nd c
umul
ativ
e ES
ALs
and
axl
e lo
ad re
petit
ions
. Th
eref
ore,
traf
fic d
ata
avai
labl
e fo
r the
GPS
sect
ions
in L
ouis
iana
fr
om 1
991
to 1
993
wer
e us
ed.
The
load
spec
tra fo
r sin
gle,
tand
em,
and
tride
m, a
xle
load
s for
the
sele
cted
site
s wer
e ex
tract
ed a
nd
used
in th
e an
alys
is to
cal
cula
te E
SALs
. Fi
gure
15
show
s an
exam
ple
of lo
ad sp
ectra
dis
tribu
tion
for t
ande
m a
xles
.
22
0
5000
1000
0
1500
0
2000
0
2500
0
3000
0
3500
0
4000
0
010
000
2000
030
000
4000
050
000
6000
070
000
8000
090
000
Avg.
Tand
em A
xle L
oad,
lbs
Load Repetitions
1991
1992
1993
1000
pou
nds (
lbs)
= 4
54 k
ilogr
ams (
kg)
Figu
re 1
5. T
ande
m a
xle
load
spec
trum
Bec
ause
act
ual K
ESA
L da
ta w
ere
avai
labl
e fo
r mor
e ye
ars (
1991
–19
96) i
n th
e m
onito
ring
data
for t
he sa
me
GPS
sect
ion,
thes
e da
ta
wer
e us
ed to
asc
erta
in th
e tra
ffic
gro
wth
rate
. A
gro
wth
rate
of 9
pe
rcen
t was
ass
umed
bas
ed o
n th
e pa
st tr
end
of th
e tra
ffic
dat
a.
Figu
re 1
6 sh
ows t
he a
ctua
l mon
itore
d tre
nd o
f the
KES
AL
on th
is
road
sect
ion
for t
he p
ast 6
yea
rs a
nd p
redi
cted
ESA
Ls fo
r fut
ure
year
s bas
ed o
n 9
perc
ent g
row
th ra
te.
The
deta
ils o
f ESA
Ls a
nd
grow
th ra
te c
alcu
latio
n ar
e no
t pro
vide
d in
this
pap
er. B
ecau
se th
e th
ree
sect
ions
are
adj
acen
t to
each
oth
er, t
he sa
me
traff
ic is
as
sum
ed fo
r all
of th
em.
From
the
give
n tra
ffic
dat
a, it
was
foun
d th
at th
e se
ctio
ns h
ave
sust
aine
d ab
out 3
.5 m
illio
n ES
ALs
bet
wee
n 19
91 a
nd 2
002.
103
linea
r fun
ctio
n. T
here
fore
, the
follo
win
g eq
uatio
ns w
ere
deve
lope
d th
roug
h re
gres
sion
ana
lysi
s to
estim
ate
the
mod
el p
aram
eter
s for
no
npla
stic
soils
.
(5
)
145
MPa
= 1
psi
Figu
re 1
3. B
ackc
alcu
late
d m
odul
us v
ersu
s moi
stur
e co
nten
t fo
r si
lty so
il, si
te 2
8-16
34
145
MPa
= 1
psi
Figu
re 1
4. B
ackc
alcu
late
d m
odul
us v
ersu
s moi
stur
e co
nten
t fo
r fin
e sa
ndy
silt,
site
48-
1077
140
160
180
200
220
240
260 14
.014
.515
.015
.516
.016
.517
.017
.518
.018
.5M
oist
ure
Con
tent
, %
Modulus, MPa
Colle
cted
Dat
aM
odel
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
1213
1415
1617
1819
Moi
stur
e C
onte
nt, %
Modulus, MPa
Col
lect
ed D
ata
Mod
el
C*
=
90.
63
-0.6
18 *
F
-
462.
35 *
D60
C
1 =
-304
.96
+
2.19
9 *
F +
166
1.50
* D
60
C2
= -2
0.14
+
0.13
5 *
F
+ 1
10.5
8 *
D60
102
(4
) w
here
:
C*
=
Co
+ C
3 *
F +
C4
* PI
= 8.
82 +
0.0
084
* F
- 0.1
1* P
I (f
or p
last
ic so
ils)
C1
= - 0
.673
(for
pla
stic
soils
) C
2 =
- 2.4
4
(for
pla
stic
soils
) E,
F, a
nd P
I are
as d
escr
ibed
bef
ore
for t
able
2.
Seve
ral t
rials
wer
e m
ade,
usi
ng S
olve
r in
the
Mic
roso
ft® E
xcel
®
prog
ram
, to
fit th
e m
oist
ure-
mod
ulus
dat
a of
non
plas
tic so
ils to
the
mod
el sh
own
in e
quat
ion
(4).
Dat
a fr
om si
tes 2
4-16
34, 4
8-10
77,
and
35-1
112
wer
e us
ed in
thes
e tri
als.
The
subg
rade
soils
at t
hese
si
tes a
re si
lt, fi
ne si
lty sa
nd, a
nd sa
nd so
ils, r
espe
ctiv
ely.
The
m
odel
con
stan
ts C
*, C
1, a
nd C
2 w
ere
calc
ulat
ed fo
r eac
h si
te u
sing
th
e So
lver
pro
gram
, and
are
show
n in
tabl
e 4.
The
mod
el w
as
foun
d to
fit t
he d
ata,
as s
how
n in
figu
res 1
3 th
roug
h 15
. The
es
timat
ed R
2 va
lues
for t
he p
revi
ous f
igur
es a
re 0
.72,
0.3
6, a
nd
0.32
resp
ectiv
ely.
The
hig
her R
2 va
lue
was
ach
ieve
d w
ith th
e si
lty
soil
(site
24-
1634
), w
hile
the
low
er R
2 va
lue
was
ach
ieve
d w
ith
sand
(site
35-
1112
).
Tab
le 4
. Est
imat
ed m
odel
con
stan
ts fo
r no
npla
stic
soils
Site
T
ype
C*
C1
C2
24-1
634
Silt
30.1
6 −8
9.67
0 −6
.910
48
-107
7 Fi
ne sa
ndy
silt
12.4
0 −2
4.90
0 −2
.080
35
-111
2 Sa
nd
5.74
0.
043
0.13
3
Reg
ress
ion
anal
ysis
was
app
lied
usin
g th
e SA
S pr
ogra
m to
rela
te
the
mod
el c
onst
ants
(C*,
C1,
and
C2)
, sho
wn
in ta
ble
4, to
oth
er
mat
eria
l pro
perti
es o
f non
plas
tic so
ils li
ke d
ry d
ensi
ty, D
60 a
nd
perc
enta
ge p
assi
ng si
eve
#200
. It w
as fo
und,
with
goo
d ac
cura
cy
(R2
= 1)
, tha
t the
mod
el c
onst
ants
(C*,
C1,
and
C2)
cou
ld b
e re
late
d to
the
perc
enta
ge p
assi
ng si
eve
#200
(F) a
nd D
60, w
ith a
Log
(E) =
C *
+ C
1 *
Log
(moi
stur
e) +
C2
* (1
/moi
stur
e)
23
-
100,0
00
200,0
00
300,0
00
400,0
00
500,0
00
600,0
00
700,0
00
800,0
00
900,0
00
1,000
,000
Years
ESALs/Year (Estimated)
EStim
ated E
SALs
Actua
l ESA
LsLin
ear (
EStim
ated E
SALs
)
Figu
re 1
6: A
ctua
l and
pre
dict
ed E
SAL
s
TASK
3:
Pave
men
t Per
form
ance
and
Res
pons
e fo
r Sel
ecte
d SP
S-1
Site
s
This
task
show
s the
act
ual v
ersu
s pre
dict
ed p
avem
ent p
erfo
rman
ce
for t
he th
ree
sele
cted
sect
ions
, whi
ch h
ave
diff
eren
t cha
ract
eris
tics
but a
re su
bjec
ted
to th
e sa
me
envi
ronm
enta
l and
load
ing
cond
ition
s. T
he fo
llow
ing
sect
ions
sum
mar
ize
the
anal
ysis
co
nduc
ted.
Mat
eria
l Cha
ract
eriz
atio
n In
situ
laye
r mod
uli f
or d
iffer
ent l
ayer
s wer
e ba
ckca
lcul
ated
by
usin
g th
e FW
D d
efle
ctio
n da
ta fo
r eac
h se
ctio
n. T
hree
re
pres
enta
tive
defle
ctio
n ba
sins
(one
for e
ach
sect
ion)
wer
e se
lect
ed.
The
new
ver
sion
of M
ICH
BA
CK
(MFP
DS)
softw
are
was
use
d fo
r the
bac
kcal
cula
tion.
The
stud
ents
als
o in
vest
igat
ed
the
pres
ence
of a
stiff
laye
r.
The
back
calc
ulat
ion
of th
e la
yer m
odul
i is v
ery
sens
itive
to th
e pr
esen
ce o
f a st
iff la
yer b
elow
the
road
bed.
A si
mpl
e eq
uatio
n
24
base
d on
Bou
ssin
esq’
s equ
atio
n fo
r a p
oint
load
was
use
d to
es
timat
e th
e m
odul
us fr
om th
e su
rfac
e de
flect
ions
.
)](
**
/[)21(*
rod
rP
Eπ
μ−
=
(1
)
whe
re P
is th
e ap
plie
d lo
ad a
nd
)(r
d ois
the
surf
ace
defle
ctio
n at
di
stan
ce r
from
the
cent
er o
f the
load
.
The
abov
e eq
uatio
n w
as u
sed
to c
alcu
late
the
mod
uli f
or th
e va
rious
def
lect
ions
as a
che
ck o
n th
e lin
earit
y of
the
subg
rade
. Th
e re
sults
are
show
n in
figu
re 1
7. B
ased
on
this
plo
t, it
was
co
nclu
ded
that
ther
e is
no
stiff
laye
r or g
roun
d w
ater
tabl
e cl
ose
to
the
surf
ace
of th
e pa
vem
ent.
1
inch
= 2
5.4
mill
imet
ers
1 ps
i = 1
45 M
Pa
Fi
gure
17.
The
ave
rage
surf
ace
mod
uli p
lot w
ith d
epth
for
thre
e se
lect
ed se
ctio
ns
DB
-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
020
,000
40,0
0060
,000
80,0
0010
0,00
012
0,00
0
Surf
ace
Mod
ulus
, psi
Depth (radial distance), in
DB
-2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
050
,000
100,
000
150,
000
200,
000
250,
000
Surf
ace
Mod
ulus
, psi
Depth (radial distance), in
DB
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
050
,000
100,
000
150,
000
200,
000
250,
000
300,
000
Surf
ace
Mod
ulus
, psi
Depth (radial distance), in
101
14
5 M
Pa =
1 p
si
Fi
gure
11.
Bac
kcal
cula
ted
mod
ulus
ver
sus m
oist
ure
cont
ent
for
fine
sand
y cl
ay so
il, si
te 1
3-10
05
14
5 M
Pa =
1 p
si
Figu
re 1
2. B
ackc
alcu
late
d m
odul
us v
ersu
s moi
stur
e co
nten
t fo
r co
arse
sand
y cl
ay so
il, si
te 4
8-11
22
Mod
el D
evel
opm
ent f
or N
onpl
astic
Soi
ls
As w
as d
escr
ibed
pre
viou
sly,
the
mod
el sh
own
in e
quat
ion
(3)
coul
d no
t be
appl
ied
dire
ctly
for n
on-p
last
ic so
ils (s
andy
and
/or
silty
soils
), as
ther
e is
a te
rm in
the
mod
el fo
r PI.
To g
ener
aliz
e th
e pr
evio
us m
odel
, it i
s sim
plifi
ed to
the
gene
ric fo
rm sh
own
in
equa
tion
(4).
Figu
re11
.Ba
ckca
lculat
ed m
odul
us v
s. m
oistu
re co
nten
t for
fine
sand
y cla
y soi
l, sit
e 13
- 100
5
350
370
390
410
430
450
470
78
910
1112
1314
Moi
stur
e Co
nten
t, %
Modulus, MPa
Colle
cted
Dat
aM
odel
Figu
re 1
2. B
ackc
alcula
ted
mod
ulus v
s. m
oistu
re c
onte
nt fo
r coa
rse
sand
y cla
y so
il, sit
e 48
-112
2
290
310
330
350
370
390
410
430
450
34
56
78
910
Moi
stur
e C
onte
nt, %
Modulus, MPa
Colle
cted
Dat
aM
odel
100
Figu
res 1
0 th
roug
h 12
show
the
mod
el a
pplic
atio
n on
the
data
co
llect
ed fr
om si
tes 4
8-41
43, 1
3-10
05, a
nd 4
8-11
22, r
espe
ctiv
ely.
Th
e fig
ures
indi
cate
that
the
mod
el fi
ts th
e da
ta v
ery
wel
l and
that
th
e m
odul
us d
ecre
ases
with
incr
easi
ng so
il m
oist
ure
even
if th
e fie
ld m
oist
ure
cont
ent i
s les
s tha
n th
e op
timum
moi
stur
e co
nten
t, as
show
n in
figu
res 1
1 an
d 12
for s
ites 1
3-10
05 a
nd 4
8-11
22,
resp
ectiv
ely.
The
reas
on is
that
the
subg
rade
soils
at b
oth
site
s are
co
hesi
ve so
ils (s
andy
cla
y). T
here
fore
, whe
n th
e m
oist
ure
cont
ent
decr
ease
s, th
e so
il be
com
es h
arde
r and
its m
odul
us in
crea
ses,
whi
le th
e m
odul
us d
ecea
ses w
hen
moi
stur
e in
crea
ses.
It sh
ould
be
note
d th
at th
is m
odel
cou
ld b
e ap
plie
d on
ly fo
r pla
stic
(cla
yey)
so
ils, a
s the
re is
a te
rm in
the
mod
el fo
r PI.
For n
onpl
astic
soils
, th
is m
odel
will
be
mod
ified
to a
ccou
nt fo
r soi
l pro
perti
es o
ther
th
an P
I (ex
plai
ned
late
r in
this
pap
er).
14
5 M
Pa =
1 p
si
Figu
re 1
0. B
ackc
alcu
late
d m
odul
us v
ersu
s moi
stur
e co
nten
t fo
r cl
ayey
soil,
site
48-
4143
Figu
re 1
0. B
ackc
alcula
ted
mod
ulus v
s. m
oistu
re c
onte
nt fo
r clay
ey so
il, sit
e 48
-414
3
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
2020
.521
21.5
2222
.523
23.5
Moi
stur
e C
onte
nt, %
Modulus, MPa
Colle
cted
Dat
aM
odel
25
Var
ious
AC
laye
rs (s
urfa
ce c
ours
e, b
inde
r cou
rse,
and
ATB
co
urse
) and
gra
nula
r mat
eria
ls (b
ase
and
subb
ase)
wer
e co
mbi
ned
to e
limin
ate
com
plic
atio
ns w
ith th
e ba
ckca
lcul
atio
n. T
he su
mm
ary
of th
e ba
ckca
lcul
ated
laye
r mod
uli f
or d
iffer
ent s
ectio
ns is
giv
en in
ta
ble
4 be
low
. D
etai
ls o
f the
resu
lts a
nd th
e de
flect
ion
prof
ile fo
r ea
ch se
ctio
n ar
e no
t sho
wn
in th
is p
aper
.
Tab
le 4
. Su
mm
ary
resu
lts fo
r m
ater
ial p
rope
rtie
s bas
ed o
n ba
ckca
lcul
atio
n, S
epte
mbe
r, 1
998
Bac
kcal
cula
ted
Mod
uli,
psi
Sect
ion
Num
ber
Asp
halt
Lay
ers
Gra
nula
r M
ater
ial
Lay
ers
Subg
rade
22-0
114-
1 31
5,32
1 4
6,65
8 20
,562
22
-011
6-1
841,
822
116,
570
28,1
00
22-0
124-
1 62
9,16
1 6
8,05
3 31
,880
1
psi =
145
MPa
Pave
men
t Res
pons
e Th
e la
yer t
hick
ness
dat
a al
ong
with
the
back
calc
ulat
ed m
odul
i of
the
vario
us la
yers
wer
e us
ed fo
r the
ana
lysi
s of t
he la
yere
d sy
stem
fo
r the
sele
cted
sect
ion
usin
g th
e K
ENLA
YER
com
pute
r pro
gram
. Th
e su
mm
ary
resu
lts a
re p
rese
nted
in ta
ble
5 be
low
:
Tab
le 5
. Su
mm
ary
of th
e pa
vem
ent r
espo
nse
Pave
men
t Res
pons
e
Sect
ion
Num
ber
Def
lect
ion1
(mils
)
Ten
sile
St
rain
2 (m
icro
ns)
Ver
tical
St
rain
3 (m
icro
ns)
Ver
tical
St
ress
4 (p
si)
22-0
114-
1 9.
10
113.
0 83
.0
2.21
0 22
-011
6-1
3.75
2
3.6
28.7
1.
210
22-0
124-
1 3.
50
20.
5 23
.0
0.76
4 1
= Su
rfac
e de
flect
ion.
1
mils
= .0
01 in
ch
2 =
Tens
ile st
rain
at t
he b
otto
m o
f asp
halt
laye
r.
1
psi =
145
MPa
3
= V
ertic
al st
rain
at t
he to
p of
subg
rade
. 4
= V
ertic
al st
ress
at t
he to
p of
subg
rade
.
26
The
anal
ysis
was
bas
ed o
n a
dual
whe
el lo
ad o
f 408
6 kg
(900
0 po
unds
); th
e cr
itica
l res
pons
e w
as c
alcu
late
d at
the
cent
er o
f the
tir
e, e
dge
of th
e tir
e, a
nd b
etw
een
the
whe
els.
The
max
imum
re
spon
se w
as fo
und
betw
een
the
whe
els,
whi
ch w
ere
subs
eque
ntly
us
ed in
the
perf
orm
ance
mod
els.
Giv
en th
e lo
w st
ress
leve
ls, a
lin
ear a
naly
sis w
as u
sed
to c
alcu
late
the
pave
men
t res
pons
e. T
he
seas
ons w
ere
cons
ider
ed in
the
anal
ysis
wer
e fa
ll (A
ugus
t, Se
ptem
ber,
Oct
ober
; 3 m
onth
s); w
inte
r (N
ovem
ber–
Mar
ch; 5
m
onth
s); a
nd sp
ring
and
sum
mer
(Apr
il–Ju
ly; 4
mon
ths)
.
The
seas
onal
ana
lysi
s was
car
ried
out b
y as
sum
ing
vario
us
mat
eria
l pro
perti
es a
nd a
vera
ge E
SALs
in a
par
ticul
ar se
ason
.
Pave
men
t Per
form
ance
Th
ree
perf
orm
ance
mea
sure
s wer
e an
alyz
ed:
• Fa
tigue
Cra
ckin
g. F
igur
e 18
show
s the
fatig
ue c
rack
ing
obse
rved
in th
e fie
ld si
nce
the
open
ing
of th
ese
sect
ions
(f
rom
199
1–20
00).
Sev
en m
odel
s wer
e us
ed to
cal
cula
te
the
allo
wab
le n
umbe
r of E
SALs
(Nf)
for t
he se
lect
ed
sect
ions
.
99
The
estim
ated
val
ues o
f the
mod
el c
onst
ants
and
the
anal
ysis
of
varia
nce
(AN
OV
A) f
or th
at m
odel
are
show
n in
tabl
e 3.
Tab
le 3
al
so sh
ows t
hat t
he su
m o
f squ
ared
err
ors (
SSE)
for t
hat m
odel
is
0.37
2, th
e co
effic
ient
of v
aria
tion
is 0
.859
, and
the
adju
sted
R2
is
0.98
9. T
he la
st tw
o co
lum
ns in
the
botto
m o
f tab
le 3
con
tain
resu
lts
of th
e st
atis
tical
test
that
eva
luat
es th
e si
gnifi
canc
e of
eac
h re
gres
sion
coe
ffic
ient
. The
test
resu
lts in
dica
te th
at a
t a
sign
ifica
nce
leve
l of 9
5 pe
rcen
t, al
l est
imat
ed m
odel
par
amet
ers a
re
sign
ifica
nt (p
-val
ue is
less
than
0.0
5). T
he fi
nal m
odel
with
its
estim
ated
con
stan
ts is
show
n in
equ
atio
n (3
).
(3
)
Tab
le 3
. Ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
tabl
e an
d es
timat
ed
mod
el p
aram
eter
s
(SA
S pr
ogra
m o
utpu
t, de
pend
ent v
aria
ble:
E1)
A
naly
sis o
f Var
ianc
e
Su
m o
f M
ean
Sour
ce
DF
Squa
res
Squa
re
F V
alue
M
odel
4
33.9
0986
8.
4774
7 35
28.4
6 Er
ror
155
0.37
240
0.00
240
Cor
rect
ed T
otal
15
9 34
.282
27
R
oot M
SE
0.04
902
R-S
quar
e
Dep
ende
nt M
ean
5.70
630
Adj
R-S
q
Coe
ff V
ar
0.85
899
E
stim
ated
Mod
el P
aram
eter
s
Pa
ram
eter
St
anda
rd
Var
iabl
e D
F Es
timat
e Er
ror
t Val
ue
Inte
rcep
t 1
8.81
933
0.31
794
27.7
4 X
1 1
-0.6
7276
0.
1240
5 -5
.42
X2
1 -2
.439
12
0.76
112
-3.2
0 F
1 0.
0083
8 0.
0006
6926
12
.52
PI
1 -0
.110
65
0.00
343
-32.
28
Log
(E) =
8.8
2 –
0.67
3 *
Log
(moi
stur
e) –
2.4
4 *
(1/m
oist
ure)
+ 0
.008
4 *
F –
0.11
* PI
98
E =
Bac
kcal
cula
ted
elas
tic m
odul
us, M
Pa
E1 =
Log
(E)
X1
= Lo
g (m
oist
ure
cont
ent,
perc
ent)
X2
= 1/
(moi
stur
e co
nten
t, pe
rcen
t) F
=
Perc
enta
ge p
assi
ng si
eve
# 20
0, %
PI
= P
last
icity
inde
x, p
erce
nt
T
able
2.
The
reg
ress
ion
proc
edur
e us
ing
R-s
quar
e se
lect
ion
met
hod
for
thre
e si
tes
SAS
prog
ram
out
put,
depe
nden
t var
iabl
e: E
1 N
umbe
r in
Mod
el
R-S
quar
e C
(p)
BIC
R
oot
MSE
V
aria
bles
in
Mod
el
1 1 1 1
0.97
67
0.78
40
0.69
81
0.50
68
176.
6577
29
26.7
76
4151
.479
68
80.9
04
-844
.497
5 -4
91.2
373
-437
.829
1 -3
59.4
122
0.07
112
0.21
651
0.25
593
0.32
712
PI
F x1
x2
2 2 2 2
0.97
95
0.97
68
0.97
67
0.90
22
137.
8704
17
7.28
05
178.
3979
12
41.6
71
-863
.930
4 -8
44.1
832
-843
.657
5 -6
17.3
199
0.06
683
0.07
120
0.07
132
0.14
614
F P
I x2
PI
x1 P
I x1
x2
3 3 3 3
0.98
84
0.98
71
0.97
81
0.91
61
13.2
697
32.4
110
159.
8558
10
45.3
02
-950
.065
4 -9
33.3
682
-852
.584
1 -6
41.4
009
0.05
045
0.05
329
0.06
930
0.13
579
x1 F
PI
x1 F
PI
x1 x
2 PI
x1
x2
F 4
0.98
91
5.00
00
-957
.752
3 0.
0490
2 x1
x2
F PI
Ta
ble
2 in
dica
tes t
hat t
he lo
garit
hm o
f the
bac
kcal
cula
ted
mod
ulus
(E
1) c
ould
be
rela
ted
only
to th
e lo
garit
hm o
f moi
stur
e co
nten
t (X
1) w
ith a
func
tion
havi
ng a
coe
ffic
ient
of d
eter
min
atio
n (R
2)
valu
e of
0.6
98. H
owev
er, w
hen
addi
ng o
ther
soil
prop
ertie
s, lik
e PI
an
d F
to th
e m
odel
, a b
ette
r mod
el h
avin
g R
-squ
are
valu
e of
0.9
89
coul
d be
ach
ieve
d. T
he d
evel
oped
mod
el is
show
n in
equ
atio
n (2
).
(2
) W
here
: E, F
, and
PI a
re a
s des
crib
ed b
efor
e in
tabl
e 2
and
Co,
C1,
C
2, C
3 an
d C
4 ar
e m
odel
con
stan
ts.
Log
(E) =
Co
+ C
1 *
Log
(moi
stur
e) +
C2
* (1
/moi
stur
e) +
C3
* F
+ C
4 *
PI
27
Secti
on 11
6
0.00
000.
0010
0.00
200.
0030
0.00
400.
0050
0.00
600.
0070
0.00
800.
0090
0.01
00
Years
Damage (n/Nf)
Asph
alt In
stitu
teSh
ellPD
MAP
(10%
)PD
MAP
(45%
)TR
RLBR
RCID
OT
Fi
gure
18.
Exa
mpl
e of
obs
erve
d an
d pr
edic
ted
fa
tigue
cra
ckin
g
All
mod
els p
redi
cted
a su
ffic
ient
rem
aini
ng li
fe fo
r fat
igue
(n/N
<
0.01
), ex
cept
for t
he B
elgi
an R
oad
Res
earc
h C
ente
r (B
RR
C) m
odel
fo
r sec
tion
22-0
114-
1. H
ence
, the
pre
dict
ion
by th
e m
ajor
ity o
f th
ese
mod
els w
as d
eem
ed a
s rep
rese
ntat
ive
of th
e ac
tual
fiel
d pe
rfor
man
ce d
ata.
• R
uttin
g in
the
whe
el p
ath.
Rut
ting
can
be d
efin
ed a
s the
pe
rman
ent d
efor
mat
ion
in th
e w
heel
pat
h in
tran
sver
se
plan
e al
ong
the
dire
ctio
n of
the
traff
ic.
Rut
ting
is a
load
-as
soci
ated
dis
tress
and
can
be
caus
ed in
the
subg
rade
(wid
e
(Obs
erve
d)
(Pre
dict
ed)
28
rut c
hann
el),
base
, or s
ubba
se la
yers
and
asp
halt
laye
rs o
nly
(nar
row
rut c
hann
el).
The
fiel
d pe
rfor
man
ce d
ata
for t
he
sele
cted
sect
ion
show
som
e si
gns o
f rut
, as s
how
n in
figu
re
19.
Secti
on 11
6
0.000
000
0.000
010
0.000
020
0.000
030
0.000
040
0.000
050
0.000
060
0.000
070
Years
Rut Damage (n/Nf)
Asph
alt In
stitu
teSh
ell (5
0%)
Shell
(85%
)Sh
ell (9
5%)
TRRL
BRRC
Figu
re 1
9. E
xam
ple
of o
bser
ved
and
pred
icte
d ru
ttin
g
All
the
abov
e m
odel
s pre
dict
ed a
low
rutti
ng d
amag
e (n
/N).
The
re
sults
from
the
MSU
rut m
odel
s are
show
n in
figu
re 2
0.
(Obs
erve
d)
(Pre
dict
ed)
97
Fi
gure
8.
Moi
stur
e co
nten
t and
rai
nfal
l ver
sus s
easo
n fo
r cl
ayey
soil,
site
48-
4143
Figu
re 9
. M
oist
ure
cont
ent v
ersu
s rai
nfal
l for
cla
yey
soil,
si
te 4
8-41
43
CO
RR
EL
AT
ING
TH
E B
AC
KC
AL
CU
LA
TE
D E
LA
STIC
MO
DU
LU
S T
O
SUB
GR
AD
E S
OIL
MO
IST
UR
E A
ND
OT
HE
R S
OIL
PR
OPE
RT
IES
Mod
el D
evel
opm
ent f
or P
last
ic S
oils
For t
he p
urpo
se o
f thi
s stu
dy, m
ultip
le re
gres
sion
ana
lysi
s is
appl
ied
usin
g th
e SA
S pr
ogra
m to
rela
te th
e ba
ckca
lcul
ated
ela
stic
m
odul
us to
subg
rade
moi
stur
e co
nten
t and
such
oth
er so
il pr
oper
ties a
s: A
tterb
erge
lim
its, p
erce
ntag
e pa
ssin
g si
eve
# 20
0,
D60
. Dat
a fr
om th
ree
diffe
rent
LTP
P si
tes (
48-4
143,
13-1
005
and
48-1
122)
are
use
d in
this
ana
lysi
s. Th
e su
bgra
de so
ils a
t the
se th
ree
site
s are
: cla
y, fi
ne sa
ndy
clay
, and
coa
rse
sand
y cl
ay, r
espe
ctiv
ely.
Th
ese
site
s wer
e ch
osen
bec
ause
thei
r soi
ls h
ave
valu
es fo
r pl
astic
ity in
dex
(PI;
plas
tic so
il), w
hile
mos
t of t
he o
ther
site
s hav
e no
npla
stic
soils
. The
SA
S pr
ogra
m o
utpu
t of t
he re
gres
sion
an
alys
is is
show
n in
tabl
e 2,
in w
hich
:
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
23.5
24.0 Fe
b-94
Apr-9
4Ju
n-94
Aug-
94O
ct-9
4D
ec-9
4Fe
b-95
Apr-9
5Ju
n-95
Mon
th
Moisture Content, %
6080100
120
140
160
180
Rainfall, mm
Moi
stur
eRa
infa
ll
y =
0.01
45x
+ 19
.678
R2 = 0
.48
20.0
20.4
20.8
21.2
21.6
22.0
22.4
22.8
7080
9010
011
012
013
014
015
016
017
0
Rain
fall,
mm
Moisture Content, %
96
Figu
re 5
. M
oist
ure
cont
ent a
nd r
ainf
all v
ersu
s sea
son
for
silty
sa
nd so
il, si
te 2
8-10
16
Figu
re 6
. Moi
stur
e co
nten
t and
rai
nfal
l ver
sus s
easo
n fo
r si
lty
soil,
site
24-
1634
Fi
gure
7.
Moi
stur
e co
nten
t and
rai
nfal
l ver
sus s
easo
n fo
r cl
ayey
soil,
site
13-
1005
11.4
11.6
11.8
12.0
12.2
12.4
12.6
12.8
13.0
13.2 Aug
. 95
Oct
. 95
Dec.
95
Feb.
96
Apr
. 96
Jun.
96
Aug
. 96
Mon
th
Moisture content, %
406080100
120
140
160
180
Rainfall, mm
Moi
stur
eRa
infa
ll
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0 A
pr. 9
5Ju
n. 9
5A
ug. 9
5O
ct. 9
5D
ec. 9
5Fe
b. 9
6A
pr. 9
6Ju
n. 9
6A
ug. 9
6
Mon
th
Moisture content, %
5060708090100
110
120
Rainfall, mm
Moi
stur
eRa
infa
ll
8910111213 Sep
-95
Nov
-95
Jan-
96M
ar-9
6M
ay-9
6Ju
l-96
Sep
-96
Nov
-96
Mon
th
Moisture content, %
507090110
130
150
Rainfall, mm
Moi
stur
eRa
infa
ll
29
0.10
0
1.000
Yea
rs
Rut Depth (in)
MS
UA
ctua
l Fie
ld R
uttin
g
1 in
ch =
25.
4 m
illim
eter
s
Figu
re 2
0. P
redi
cted
rut
dep
th fo
r se
ctio
n 11
6
• Tr
ansv
erse
cra
ckin
g. N
o tra
nsve
rse
crac
king
was
obs
erve
d.
TASK
4:
Eng
inee
ring
Dis
cuss
ion
and
Sum
mar
y of
Fin
ding
s
Mos
t of t
he a
naly
sis a
nd e
valu
atio
n pr
esen
ted
in ta
sks 1
to 3
can
be
sum
mar
ized
as f
ollo
ws:
• Th
ree
sect
ions
from
LTP
P SP
S-1
site
s for
Lou
isia
na w
ere
sele
cted
bas
ed o
n th
e va
rious
bas
e ty
pes a
nd d
rain
age
char
acte
ristic
s.
• V
ario
us c
ritic
al d
istre
sses
for t
hese
sele
cted
sect
ions
alo
ng
with
the
inve
ntor
y, m
ater
ial,
traff
ic, a
nd e
nviro
nmen
tal d
ata
wer
e ex
tract
ed fr
om th
e LT
PP D
ataP
ave
3.0.
• If
any
mis
sing
or i
nsuf
ficie
nt d
ata
wer
e fo
und
in S
PS-1
si
tes,
then
reas
onab
le d
ata
wer
e ex
tract
ed fo
r GPS
site
s w
ithin
the
sam
e st
ate
in th
e cl
ose
vici
nity
of t
hese
SPS
-1
site
s. In
the
wor
st c
ase,
i.e.
, no
requ
ired
data
ava
ilabl
e,
reas
onab
le d
ata
wer
e as
sum
ed.
• Th
e ac
tual
crit
ical
dis
tress
es e
xtra
cted
wer
e pl
otte
d ag
ains
t th
e pr
edic
ted
dist
ress
es.
It w
as fo
und
that
the
pred
icte
d di
stre
ss le
vels
agr
eed
reas
onab
ly w
ith th
e ac
tual
leve
ls.
How
ever
, the
re w
ere
som
e di
scre
panc
ies;
thes
e ca
n be
30
attri
bute
d to
the
empi
rical
nat
ure
of th
ese
mod
els a
nd d
ata
assu
mpt
ions
.
• Fr
om th
e tra
ffic
ana
lysi
s (lo
ad sp
ectru
m),
it w
as fo
und
that
si
ngle
and
tand
em a
xles
load
repe
titio
ns o
ccup
y ab
out 4
0 pe
rcen
t and
59
perc
ent s
hare
s, w
here
as tr
idem
axl
es o
nly
have
1–2
per
cent
of t
he sh
are.
Thi
s tre
nd is
con
sist
ent o
ver
time.
• Th
e fa
tigue
ana
lysi
s for
all
sect
ions
show
s tha
t the
re sh
ould
be
no
sign
of t
his d
istre
ss fo
r the
nex
t 5–1
0 ye
ars.
• Th
e fa
tigue
life
for t
he se
ctio
n w
ith A
TB a
nd d
rain
age
was
fo
und
to b
e in
finite
.
• Th
e on
ly lo
ad-a
ssoc
iate
d di
stre
ss o
bser
ved
in th
e se
lect
ed
pave
men
t sec
tions
was
rutti
ng; t
he M
SU ru
t mod
el se
ems
to p
redi
ct th
is d
istre
ss w
ith re
ason
able
acc
urac
y co
nsid
erin
g ov
eral
l rut
ting
in a
ll pa
vem
ent l
ayer
s.
• A
ll su
bgra
de-s
train
bas
ed m
odel
s wer
e pr
edic
ting
a hi
gh
num
ber o
f rep
etiti
ons t
o ru
t fai
lure
; the
refo
re, i
t can
be
assu
med
that
the
rutti
ng in
thes
e pa
vem
ent s
ectio
ns p
erta
ins
to p
erm
anen
t def
orm
atio
ns w
ithin
the
pave
men
t stru
ctur
e.
• Th
e an
alys
is sh
owed
that
a si
mpl
e an
alys
is w
ith a
ppro
pria
te
mat
eria
l pro
perti
es a
nd tr
affic
est
imat
es c
ould
be
used
to
give
reas
onab
le p
redi
ctio
ns o
f the
per
form
ance
of n
ew
flexi
ble
pave
men
t stru
ctur
es.
CO
NC
LU
SIO
NS
In th
e au
thor
’s o
pini
on, t
he u
se o
f Dat
aPav
e 3.
0 as
a so
urce
of
“rea
l” p
avem
ent d
ata
has c
onsi
dera
bly
enha
nced
the
qual
ity o
f the
pa
vem
ent r
ehab
ilita
tion,
des
ign,
and
ana
lysi
s cou
rses
. Th
e in
itial
of
ferin
gs p
rove
d to
be
a ch
alle
nge
both
for t
he in
stru
ctor
s and
for
the
stud
ents
, bec
ause
the
lear
ning
cur
ve is
rath
er st
eep.
As
inst
ruct
ors,
the
auth
ors h
ad to
com
mit
cons
ider
able
tim
e to
pre
pare
th
e pr
ojec
t sta
tem
ents
, hol
d tu
toria
ls, a
nd re
spon
d to
que
stio
ns o
n th
e us
e of
the
data
base
. Th
e ho
pe is
that
the
time
com
mitm
ent w
ill
dim
inis
h af
ter m
ultip
le o
ffer
ings
as t
he in
stru
ctor
s bec
ome
mor
e
95
Figu
re 4
. M
oist
ure
cont
ent a
nd e
last
ic m
odul
us v
ersu
s sea
son
for
silty
sand
, site
28-
1016
Rel
atin
g M
oist
ure
Con
tent
to A
vera
ge P
reci
pita
tion
The
aver
age
mon
thly
pre
cipi
tatio
n an
d th
e m
easu
red
moi
stur
e co
nten
t at s
ites 2
8-10
16, 2
4-16
34, 1
3-10
05 a
nd 4
8-41
43 a
re sh
own
in fi
gure
s 5 th
roug
h 8,
resp
ectiv
ely.
The
figu
res i
ndic
ate
that
the
moi
stur
e in
crea
ses w
hen
the
aver
age
prec
ipita
tion
incr
ease
s and
de
crea
ses w
ith d
ecre
asin
g pr
ecip
itatio
n. T
here
fore
, the
moi
stur
e co
nten
t cou
ld b
e hi
ghly
rela
ted
to th
e av
erag
e pr
ecip
itatio
n. F
igur
e 9,
for s
ite 4
8-41
43, s
how
s tha
t moi
stur
e co
nten
t cou
ld b
e re
late
d to
th
e av
erag
e pr
ecip
itatio
n w
ith a
line
r fun
ctio
n ha
ving
R2
valu
e of
0.
48. S
imila
r rel
atio
nshi
ps c
ould
be
deve
lope
d fo
r the
oth
er si
tes.
It sh
ould
be
note
d th
at th
e av
erag
e pr
ecip
itatio
n is
not
the
only
fact
or
that
aff
ects
subg
rade
moi
stur
e co
nten
t. Th
ere
are
man
y ot
her
clim
atic
and
phy
sica
l fac
tors
such
as:
soil
type
, tem
pera
ture
, pr
ecip
itatio
n, v
eget
atio
n, a
nd o
ther
s. W
itcza
k et
al.,
(200
0), a
re
exte
nsiv
ely
stud
ying
the
use
of p
reci
pita
tion
in m
oist
ure
cont
ent
pred
ictio
ns th
roug
h th
e in
terg
rade
d cl
imat
ic m
odel
(EIC
M 2
.6),
for
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f the
AA
SHTO
200
2 G
uide
for t
he D
esig
n O
f N
ew A
nd R
ehab
ilita
ted
Pave
men
t Str
uctu
res.
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5 Ju
l. 95
Sep
. 95
Nov
. 95
Jan.
96
Mar
. 96
May
. 96
Jul.
96S
ep. 9
6M
onth
Moisture content, %
50100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Modulus, MPa
Moi
stur
eM
odul
us
94
Figu
re 1
. M
oist
ure
cont
ent a
nd e
last
ic m
odul
us v
ersu
s sea
son
for
clay
ey so
il, si
te 4
8-11
22
Figu
re 2
. M
oist
ure
cont
ent a
nd e
last
ic m
odul
us v
ersu
s sea
son
for
silty
soil,
site
24-
1634
Figu
re 3
. Moi
stur
e co
nten
t and
ela
stic
mod
ulus
ver
sus s
easo
n fo
r cl
ayey
soil,
site
13-
1005
45678910 Apr
. 94
Jun.
94
Aug
. 94
Oct
. 94
Dec
. 94
Feb.
95
Apr
. 95
Jun.
95
Aug
. 95
Mon
th
Moisture Content, %
350
370
390
410
430
450
Modulus, MPa
Moi
stur
eM
odul
us
13141516171819 Apr
. 95
Jun.
95
Aug
. 95
Oct
. 95
Dec
. 95
Feb.
96
Apr
. 96
Jun.
96
Aug
. 96
Mon
th
Moisture content, %
150
180
210
240
270
300
Modulus, MPa
Moi
stur
e M
odu
lus
8 9 10
11
12
13
Sep -
95
Nov
- 95
Jan -
96
Mar
- 96
May
- 96
Jul - 9
6Se
p- 9
6N
ov- 9
6M
onth
350
370
390
410
430
450
Modulus, MPa
Moi
stur
eM
odul
us
Moisture content, %
31
com
forta
ble
with
the
data
base
. It
is h
oped
that
the
LTPP
dat
abas
e,
and
mor
e sp
ecifi
cally
the
Dat
aPav
e 3.
0 (a
nd su
bseq
uent
futu
re
vers
ions
), w
ill b
e in
corp
orat
ed in
to th
e ot
her p
avem
ent
man
agem
ent a
nd m
ater
ial c
ours
es a
t Mic
higa
n St
ate
Uni
vers
ity.
RE
FER
EN
CE
S
Buc
h, N
., B
alad
i, G
.Y.,
Har
icha
ndra
n, R
.S.,
Park
D.Y
., an
d K
im,
H.
(199
9).
Cal
ibra
tion
of M
ICH
PAVE
'S R
ut a
nd F
atig
ue
Dis
tres
s M
odel
s an
d D
evel
opm
ent
of a
n O
verl
ay D
esig
n Pr
oced
ure
in
MIC
HBA
CK
, Fi
nal
Repo
rt.
Mic
higa
n D
epar
tmen
t of T
rans
porta
tion,
Pro
ject
No.
61-
9445
.
ERES
Con
sulta
nts (
2002
) ISL
AB
200
0®, F
inite
Ele
men
t Ana
lysi
s Pr
ogra
m fo
r Rig
id a
nd C
ompo
site
Pav
emen
ts, C
ham
paig
n,
IL.
Hal
l, K
., an
d C
orre
a, M
. (19
99).
“Es
timat
ion
of P
rese
nt
Serv
icea
bilit
y In
dex
from
Inte
rnat
iona
l Rou
ghne
ss In
dex,
” Pa
per N
o. 9
9150
8 pr
esen
ted
at th
e 78
th A
nnua
l Mee
ting
of
the
Tran
spor
tatio
n R
esea
rch
Boa
rd, W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C.
Hua
ng, Y
.H. (
1993
). P
avem
ent A
naly
sis a
nd D
esig
n. P
rent
ice
Hal
l, En
glew
ood
Clif
fs, N
J.
Tech
niqu
es fo
r Pav
emen
t Reh
abili
tatio
n (R
efer
ence
Man
ual).
(1
998)
, (FH
WA
-HI-
98-0
33),
U.S
. Dep
artm
ent o
f Tr
ansp
orta
tion,
Fed
eral
Hig
hway
Adm
inis
tratio
n,
Was
hing
ton,
DC
.
DIS
CL
AIM
ER
The
pape
r pre
sent
s re
sults
obt
aine
d by
stu
dent
gro
ups
and
does
not
re
pres
ent t
he o
pini
ons
of th
e au
thor
s or
Mic
higa
n St
ate
Uni
vers
ity.
The
sole
pur
pose
of
this
pap
er i
s to
dem
onst
rate
the
use
of
Dat
aPav
e 3.
0; it
doe
s not
con
stitu
te a
stan
dard
or s
peci
ficat
ion.
93
SEA
SON
AL
VA
RIA
TIO
N O
F M
OIS
TU
RE
AN
D M
OD
UL
US
OF
SUB
GR
AD
E S
OIL
Moi
stur
e co
nten
t of s
oils
nea
r the
gro
und
surf
ace
depe
nds o
n a
varie
ty o
f clim
atic
and
phy
sica
l fac
tors
, inc
ludi
ng so
il ty
pe,
tem
pera
ture
, pre
cipi
tatio
n, v
eget
atio
n, a
nd o
ther
s. It
is w
idel
y kn
own
that
pav
emen
t sub
grad
e so
ils n
ot o
nly
expe
rienc
e te
mpo
rary
(sea
sona
l) ch
ange
s in
moi
stur
e co
nten
t but
als
o un
derg
o ch
ange
s in
thei
r lon
g-te
rm a
vera
ge a
nnua
l moi
stur
e co
nten
t. Th
is
sect
ion
disc
usse
s the
seas
onal
var
iatio
n in
bot
h m
oist
ure
and
mod
ulus
of s
ubgr
ade
soil.
Moi
stur
e an
d M
odul
us V
aria
tion
with
Tim
e
Figu
res 1
thro
ugh
4 sh
ow th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n bo
th
grav
imet
ric m
oist
ure
cont
ent a
nd su
bgra
de b
ackc
alcu
late
d m
odul
us
with
tim
e fo
r diff
eren
t site
s fro
m th
e no
n-fr
eeze
zon
es. T
he fi
gure
s in
dica
te th
at b
oth
moi
stur
e co
nten
t and
bac
kcal
cula
ted
elas
tic
mod
uli h
ave
alm
ost a
sinu
soid
al fu
nctio
n w
ith ti
me.
The
figu
res
also
indi
cate
that
the
back
calc
ulat
ed e
last
ic m
odul
us c
ould
be
rela
ted
to m
oist
ure
cont
ent w
ith a
n op
posi
te fi
tnes
s fun
ctio
n, a
s the
el
astic
mod
ulus
incr
ease
s whe
n th
e m
oist
ure
decr
ease
s and
vic
e ve
rsa.
Thi
s beh
avio
r cou
ld b
e ob
serv
ed a
t all
site
s exc
ept s
ite 2
8-10
16, s
how
n in
figu
re 4
, and
als
o si
te 3
5-11
12. T
he m
ain
reas
on
for t
he d
iffer
ent b
ehav
ior o
f site
s 28-
1016
and
35-
1112
rega
rdin
g th
e di
rect
pro
porti
onal
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
thei
r mod
uli a
nd
moi
stur
e co
nten
t is t
hat t
he su
bgra
de so
ils a
t bot
h si
tes a
re
nonc
ohes
ive
(silt
y sa
nd a
nd sa
nd, r
espe
ctiv
ely)
, and
the
field
m
oist
ure
cont
ent a
t bot
h si
tes i
s bel
ow th
e op
timum
moi
stur
e co
nten
t mea
sure
d at
the
lab
from
a c
ompa
ctio
n te
st, a
s sho
wn
in
tabl
e 1.
In th
is c
ase,
incr
easi
ng so
il m
oist
ure
resu
lts in
incr
easi
ng
its m
odul
us u
ntil
the
optim
um m
oist
ure
cont
ent i
s rea
ched
, the
n th
e m
odul
us w
ill re
duce
with
furth
er in
crea
se in
moi
stur
e co
nten
t. Fi
gure
s 2 a
nd 3
als
o in
dica
te th
at b
oth
the
max
imum
mod
ulus
va
lues
and
min
imum
moi
stur
e va
lues
are
mea
sure
d th
roug
h th
e su
mm
er se
ason
(Jul
y an
d A
ugus
t), w
hile
the
min
imum
mod
ulus
va
lues
and
max
imum
moi
stur
e va
lues
are
mea
sure
d th
roug
h th
e w
inte
r (Ja
nuar
y an
d Fe
brua
ry).
92
Tab
le 1
. LT
PP si
te lo
catio
ns a
nd su
bgra
de so
il ch
arac
teri
zatio
n—C
ontin
ued
Site
s ID
35
-111
2 28
-101
6 48
-112
2 48
-107
713
-100
5 48
-41
43
24-
1634
U
nifie
d So
il C
lass
ifica
tion
SP
SM
SC
SM
SC
CL
ML
AA
SHTO
So
il C
lass
ifica
tion
A-3
A
-2-4
A
-2-6
A
-4
A-6
A
-7-6
A
-4
% P
assi
ng #
4
100.
00
92.0
0 99
.00
94.0
0 –
– 99
.00
% P
assi
ng #
10
99
.00
91.0
0 97
.00
93.0
0 –
– 98
.00
% P
assi
ng #
40
94
.00
85.0
0 75
.00
87.0
0 –
– 98
.00
% P
assi
ng #
20
0 2.
70
25.7
0 6.
50
51.8
0 38
.40
90.0
0 97
.90
D60
, mm
0.
18
0.23
0.
30
0.10
–
– –
Liqu
id L
imit,
%
–
18.0
0 26
.00
– 27
.00
41.0
0 –
Plas
ticity
In
dex,
%
NP
3.00
12
.00
NP
12.0
0 23
.00
NP
Dry
Den
sity
, gm
/cm
3 1.
698
1.90
6 1.
858
1.90
62.
05
1.73
01.
746
Opt
imum
M
oist
ure,
%
12.0
0 13
.00
8.00
10
.00
10.0
0 15
.00
12.0
0
DA
TA
AN
AL
YSI
S
To st
udy
the
effe
ct o
f sea
sona
l moi
stur
e va
riatio
n on
pav
emen
t pe
rfor
man
ce, s
even
diff
eren
t LTP
P si
tes w
ere
cons
ider
ed; t
hey
repr
esen
t diff
eren
t soi
l typ
es, a
s exp
lain
ed a
bove
. Th
e pr
imar
y da
ta c
olle
cted
at t
hese
site
s are
the
grav
imet
ric m
oist
ure
cont
ent
(con
side
red
to b
e th
e m
ain
fact
or a
ffec
ting
subg
rade
soil
stre
ngth
) an
d th
e ba
ckca
lcul
ated
ela
stic
mod
uli f
or d
iffer
ent s
ubgr
ade
soils
at
diff
eren
t sea
sons
. Res
ults
are
dis
cuss
ed a
nd a
naly
zed
in th
e fo
llow
ing
subs
ectio
ns.
33
PAPE
R 2
T
RA
NSF
OR
MIN
G L
TPP
DIS
TR
ESS
IN
FOR
MA
TIO
N F
OR
USE
IN M
TC
-PM
S
By
Sham
eem
A. D
ewan
1
AB
STR
AC
T
The
seve
ritie
s, ty
pes,
and
defin
ition
s of s
urfa
ce d
istre
sses
use
d in
th
e St
rate
gic
Hig
hway
Res
earc
h Pr
ogra
m (S
HR
P) d
atab
ase
for
Long
-Ter
m P
avem
ent P
erfo
rman
ce (L
TPP)
site
s are
not
the
sam
e as
thos
e us
ed in
the
Met
ropo
litan
Tra
nspo
rtatio
n C
omm
issi
on
Pave
men
t Man
agem
ent S
yste
m (M
TC-P
MS)
syst
em. T
here
fore
, to
use
the
LTPP
dis
tress
dat
a as
inpu
ts in
the
MTC
-PM
S so
ftwar
e, th
e LT
PP d
ata
mus
t be
trans
form
ed to
mat
ch th
e M
TC-P
MS
dist
ress
de
finiti
ons.
The
obje
ctiv
e of
this
pap
er is
to d
escr
ibe
a m
etho
d to
co
mpl
ete
such
tran
sfor
mat
ions
. Dat
a co
nver
sion
and
use
of
conv
erte
d da
ta a
s inp
uts i
n th
e M
TC-P
MS
wer
e pe
rfor
med
to
deve
lop
a m
odel
for I
nter
natio
nal R
ough
ness
Inde
x (I
RI)
as a
fu
nctio
n of
pav
emen
t con
ditio
n in
form
atio
n (th
e IR
I mod
el is
in
tend
ed fo
r use
in e
stim
atin
g us
er c
osts
/ben
efits
in th
e pa
vem
ent
man
agem
ent s
yste
m).
The
cond
ition
info
rmat
ion
incl
udes
all
MTC
di
stre
ss-s
ever
ity c
ombi
natio
ns tr
ansf
orm
ed fr
om L
TPP
data
, and
co
rres
pond
ing
dedu
cts,
perc
ent l
oad
rela
ted
dedu
cts,
perc
ent
nonl
oad
rela
ted
dedu
cts,
and
pave
men
t con
ditio
n in
dex
(PC
I)
valu
es c
alcu
late
d us
ing
MTC
-PM
S so
ftwar
e. T
he p
aper
firs
t pr
esen
ts th
e di
ffer
ence
s in
defin
ition
s of d
istre
sses
and
seve
ritie
s in
the
two
syst
ems.
It de
scrib
es th
e se
lect
ion
of a
ppro
pria
te L
TPP
dist
ress
type
s to
be tr
ansf
orm
ed to
gen
erat
e re
quire
d M
TC d
istre
ss
data
. The
n th
e da
ta tr
ansf
orm
atio
n te
chni
ques
for d
iffer
ent d
istre
ss
type
s and
seve
ritie
s fro
m th
e LT
PP sy
stem
to th
e M
TC sy
stem
are
ex
plai
ned.
It w
as fo
und
that
seve
ral t
ypes
of m
anip
ulat
ions
wer
e re
quire
d to
con
duct
the
trans
form
atio
n of
diff
eren
t dis
tress
es.
Thes
e m
anip
ulat
ions
wer
e pe
rfor
med
bas
ed o
n th
e di
ffer
ence
s in
defin
ition
for d
istre
sses
and
seve
ritie
s in
the
two
syst
ems.
An
IRI
1 G
radu
ate
Res
earc
h St
uden
t, Te
xas A
&M
Uni
vers
ity, C
olle
ge S
tatio
n, T
X
7784
3 P
hone
: 979
–845
–598
2, F
ax: 9
79–8
45–0
278,
s-de
wan
@tti
mai
l.tam
u.ed
u
34
mod
el w
as e
vent
ually
dev
elop
ed u
sing
the
trans
form
ed d
istre
ss
data
and
the
outp
ut fr
om M
TC-P
MS
softw
are.
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
The
MTC
-PM
S of
Oak
land
, CA
, doe
s not
con
side
r roa
d us
er c
osts
in
pro
duci
ng d
ecis
ion
supp
ort r
ecom
men
datio
ns (M
TC, 1
999)
. M
anag
emen
t sys
tem
cap
abili
ties c
an b
e im
prov
ed b
y in
corp
orat
ing
mod
els t
hat e
stim
ate
road
use
r cos
ts a
nd/o
r use
r ben
efits
at
tribu
tabl
e to
diff
eren
t man
agem
ent s
trate
gies
. Bec
ause
the
road
us
er c
ost i
s a fu
nctio
n of
pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss (G
illes
pie,
198
1), i
t w
ill b
e he
lpfu
l to
estim
ate
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss to
inco
rpor
ate
user
co
st m
odel
s in
the
pave
men
t man
agem
ent s
yste
m. H
owev
er, t
he
MTC
-PM
S sy
stem
use
s onl
y di
stre
ss in
form
atio
n to
est
imat
e an
d pr
edic
t pav
emen
t con
ditio
ns, s
o it
was
nec
essa
ry to
est
ablis
h a
corr
elat
ion
betw
een
IRI a
nd p
avem
ent d
istre
sses
. The
obj
ectiv
e w
as to
est
imat
e ro
ad u
ser c
osts
for t
he st
reet
s in
the
citie
s and
co
untie
s of t
he S
an F
ranc
isco
Bay
are
a di
rect
ly fr
om M
TC
pave
men
t dis
tress
info
rmat
ion
and
inco
rpor
atin
g ad
ditio
nal m
odel
s fo
r use
r cos
ts re
latin
g IR
I. Th
e di
stre
ss in
form
atio
n us
ed a
ll M
TC
dist
ress
-sev
erity
com
bina
tions
, ded
uct v
alue
s, an
d PC
I val
ues
calc
ulat
ed fr
om a
ll di
stre
ss-s
ever
ity c
ombi
natio
ns u
sing
MTC
-PM
S.
The
dist
ress
es ty
pes,
alon
g w
ith th
eir s
ever
ities
, use
d in
MTC
-PM
S so
ftwar
e, a
re d
efin
ed in
MTC
’s d
istre
ss id
entif
icat
ion
man
ual
(MTC
, 198
6). T
he c
ities
and
cou
ntie
s of t
he S
an F
ranc
isco
Bay
ar
ea d
o no
t gen
eral
ly h
ave
IRI d
ata
avai
labl
e fo
r the
ir ci
ty a
nd
loca
l stre
ets,
but t
he d
istre
ss a
nd IR
I dat
a fo
r Sta
te h
ighw
ays a
nd
free
way
s of C
alifo
rnia
’s L
TPP
site
s are
ava
ilabl
e in
the
SHR
P da
taba
se. I
n th
e fu
ture
, it w
ould
be
mor
e ap
prop
riate
to u
se d
ata
for
the
mod
el fr
om th
e ci
ty st
reet
s ins
tead
of u
sing
LTP
P si
te’s
dat
a.
How
ever
, the
cur
rent
eff
ort t
o de
velo
p an
IRI m
odel
usi
ng th
e LT
PP d
istre
ss d
ata
can
be c
onsi
dere
d as
a st
artin
g po
int,
and
the
inte
nded
mod
el w
ill n
eed
refin
emen
ts in
futu
re u
sing
dat
a fr
om
city
stre
ets.
91
35-1
112,
28-
1016
, 48-
1122
, 48-
1077
, 13-
1005
, 48-
4143
and
24-
1634
). Th
e su
bgra
de so
ils o
f the
site
s are
sand
, coa
rse
silty
sand
, co
arse
cla
yey
sand
, fin
e sa
ndy
silt,
fine
sand
y cl
ay, c
lay,
and
silt,
re
spec
tivel
y. A
ll se
lect
ed si
tes a
re fr
om th
e no
n-fr
eezi
ng z
ones
ex
cept
the
last
site
, 24-
1034
, whi
ch is
con
side
red
as a
wet
-fre
eze
zone
, whe
re th
e m
inim
um a
vera
ge m
onth
ly a
ir te
mpe
ratu
re is
1.
7 °C
(35
°F),
as sh
own
in ta
ble
1. S
ite 2
4-10
34 th
us a
lso
coul
d be
co
nsid
ered
to b
e fr
om th
e no
n-fr
eezi
ng z
ones
.
Det
aile
d ex
plan
atio
ns fo
r the
sele
cted
site
s are
show
n in
tabl
e 1,
w
hich
show
s the
site
loca
tion,
min
imum
ave
rage
mon
thly
air
tem
pera
ture
, sub
grad
e so
il ty
pe, s
oil c
lass
ifica
tion,
soil
siev
e an
alys
is, A
tterb
erge
lim
its, d
ry d
ensi
ty, a
nd o
ptim
um m
oist
ure
cont
ent f
or e
ach
soil
type
in th
e se
lect
ed si
tes.
Dow
nloa
ded
data
fo
r eac
h si
te in
clud
ed th
e ba
ckca
lcul
ated
ela
stic
mod
uli f
or
subg
rade
soil
and
AC
surf
aces
, the
AC
laye
r tem
pera
ture
, and
bot
h vo
lum
etric
and
gra
vim
etric
moi
stur
e co
nten
t of s
ubgr
ade
soil
at
diff
eren
t tim
e in
terv
als.
For t
he p
urpo
se o
f thi
s stu
dy, o
nly
the
anal
yses
of t
he c
hang
e in
subg
rade
soil
mod
uli w
ith se
ason
al
moi
stur
e va
riatio
n w
ere
cons
ider
ed.
Tab
le 1
. LT
PP si
te lo
catio
ns a
nd su
bgra
de so
il ch
arac
teri
zatio
n
Site
s ID
35
-111
2 28
-101
648
-112
2 48
-107
713
-100
5 48
-41
43
24-
1634
St
ate
NM
M
S TX
TX
G
A
TX
MD
Surf
ace
Type
Fl
exib
le
Flex
ible
Flex
ible
Fl
exib
leFl
exib
le
Rig
id
Flex
- ib
le
Min
imum
M
onth
ly A
ir Te
mpe
ratu
re,
Co
5.80
5.
00
9.70
3.
60
8.70
9.
70
1.70
Soil
Type
C
oars
e,
poor
ly
grad
ed
sand
Coa
rse,
si
lty
sand
Coa
rse,
cl
ayey
sa
nd
Fine
, sa
ndy
silt
Fine
, cl
ayey
sa
nd
Fine
, cl
ay
Fine
, si
lt
Soil
Sym
bol
S SM
-C
SC-C
SM
-F
SC-F
C
M
90
The
Was
hing
ton
Stat
e D
epar
tmen
t of T
rans
porta
tion
(WSD
OT)
us
es a
mec
hani
stic
-em
piric
al (M
-E) s
yste
m d
evel
oped
at t
he
Uni
vers
ity o
f Was
hing
ton
and
impl
emen
ted
in th
e co
mpu
ter
prog
ram
EV
ERPA
VE
5.0
(199
9). T
his p
rogr
am u
ses S
AFs
as k
ey
inpu
ts b
y us
ers a
nd d
oes n
ot c
ompu
te th
e SA
F. T
he M
inne
sota
D
epar
tmen
t of T
rans
porta
tion
(MN
DO
T) u
ses a
n M
-E fl
exib
le
pave
men
t thi
ckne
ss d
esig
n th
at is
impl
emen
ted
in th
e co
mpu
ter
prog
ram
RO
AD
ENT
4.0
by T
imm
, Birg
isso
n, a
nd N
ewco
mb
(200
1). B
ecau
se R
OA
DEN
T do
es n
ot h
ave
the
SAF
to a
djus
t the
re
silie
nt m
odul
us fr
om o
ne se
ason
to a
noth
er, t
he u
ser m
ust
calc
ulat
e an
d en
ter t
he re
silie
nt m
odul
us v
alue
s for
eac
h se
ason
.
APP
RO
AC
H
The
elas
tic m
odul
us o
f a p
avem
ent l
ayer
repr
esen
ts th
e m
ain
para
met
er th
at re
flect
s the
mat
eria
ls’ s
truct
ural
ade
quac
y; th
e st
udy
thus
is fo
cuse
d on
the
dete
rmin
atio
n of
the
seas
onal
impa
cts o
n th
e la
yer m
odul
i, bu
t is l
imite
d to
the
subg
rade
laye
r. Th
e el
astic
m
odul
us o
f a p
avem
ent l
ayer
cha
nges
in re
spon
se to
env
ironm
enta
l ch
ange
s suc
h as
var
iatio
ns in
tem
pera
ture
for a
spha
lt la
yers
, and
m
oist
ure
varia
tion
for u
ntre
ated
laye
rs su
ch a
s bas
e an
d su
bgra
de.
To a
ccou
nt fo
r the
cha
nges
in su
bgra
de e
last
ic m
odul
us, a
m
ultip
lier c
an b
e us
ed fo
r adj
ustin
g su
bgra
de re
silie
nt m
odul
us
from
one
seas
on (r
efer
ence
) to
anot
her.
This
mul
tiplie
r, Se
ason
al
Adj
ustm
ent F
acto
r (SA
F), i
s bas
ed o
n so
il ty
pe a
nd e
nviro
nmen
tal
cond
ition
s. Th
is st
udy
aim
s at d
evel
opin
g a
conc
ept f
or c
alcu
latin
g th
e SA
F fo
r sub
grad
e so
il la
yer a
s wel
l as a
mod
el re
latin
g th
e su
bgra
de b
ackc
alcu
late
d m
odul
us to
its m
oist
ure
cont
ent.
MO
IST
UR
E A
ND
MO
DU
LU
S D
AT
A
To a
ddre
ss th
e is
sue
of e
nviro
nmen
tal i
mpa
cts o
n pa
vem
ent a
t a
natio
nal l
evel
, the
Fed
eral
Hig
hway
Adm
inis
tratio
n (F
HW
A)
laun
ched
the
SMP
as a
maj
or c
ompo
nent
of t
he L
TPP
prog
ram
(R
ada
et a
l., 1
994)
. The
dat
a us
ed in
this
stud
y w
ere
dow
nloa
ded
from
the
Dat
aPav
e 3.
0 (2
001)
, a so
ftwar
e pa
ckag
e th
at c
onta
ins
mos
t dat
a fr
om th
e LT
PP e
xper
imen
ts. S
even
diff
eren
t LTP
P si
tes
wer
e co
nsid
ered
in th
is st
udy
to re
pres
ent d
iffer
ent s
oil t
ypes
(site
s
35
This
stud
y re
quire
s the
MTC
-PM
S sy
stem
to u
se S
HR
P’s L
TPP
dist
ress
es a
s inp
uts t
o ca
lcul
ate
PCI v
alue
s and
ded
ucts
prio
r to
the
use
of th
ese
data
in th
e st
atis
tical
ana
lysi
s to
deve
lop
the
inte
nded
IR
I mod
el. B
ut th
e se
verit
ies,
type
s, an
d de
finiti
ons o
f sur
face
di
stre
sses
use
d in
the
SHR
P da
taba
se fo
r LTP
P si
tes a
re n
ot th
e sa
me
as th
ose
used
in th
e M
TC-P
MS.
The
def
initi
ons o
f dis
tress
ty
pes a
nd e
xten
ts o
f sev
eriti
es in
the
two
syst
ems d
iffer
in se
vera
l re
spec
ts. F
or a
spha
lt co
ncre
te su
rfac
es, t
he L
TPP
data
base
use
s 15
type
s of d
istre
sses
(SH
RP,
199
3), w
hile
MTC
-PM
S us
es o
nly
7 di
stre
ss ty
pes t
o de
fine
road
con
ditio
ns. B
ecau
se o
f the
diff
eren
ces
in th
e tw
o sy
stem
s for
dis
tress
type
s, se
verit
ies,
and
defin
ition
s, th
e LT
PP d
istre
ss in
form
atio
n ha
d to
be
trans
form
ed to
MTC
dis
tress
in
form
atio
n be
fore
bei
ng u
sed
as in
puts
in th
e M
TC-P
MS
softw
are.
To a
chie
ve th
e in
tend
ed IR
I mod
el u
sing
LTP
P di
stre
ss d
ata,
the
follo
win
g m
ajor
act
iviti
es w
ere
requ
ired:
• Ex
tract
ion
of S
HR
P di
stre
ss d
ata
and
IRI d
ata
from
the
SHR
P da
taba
se fo
r Cal
iforn
ia L
TPP
site
s.
• Tr
ansf
orm
atio
n of
the
SHR
P di
stre
ss d
ata
into
MTC
di
stre
ss d
ata
base
d on
the
diff
eren
ces i
n di
stre
ss d
efin
ition
s an
d se
verit
ies i
n th
e tw
o sy
stem
s.
• C
alcu
latio
n of
PC
I val
ues a
nd d
educ
ts fo
r all
dist
ress
type
-se
verit
y co
mbi
natio
ns u
sing
MTC
-PM
S so
ftwar
e.
• St
atis
tical
ana
lysi
s on
the
conv
erte
d di
stre
ss d
ata,
PC
I va
lues
, and
ded
ucts
alo
ng w
ith c
orre
spon
ding
IRI v
alue
s.
DA
TA
EX
TR
AC
TIO
N F
RO
M L
TPP
DA
TA
BA
SE
The
extra
cted
dat
a fo
r dis
tress
, tra
nsve
rse
prof
ile, a
nd IR
I val
ues
from
the
LTPP
dat
abas
e w
ere
foun
d in
IMS
Mod
ules
: Mon
itorin
g an
d Ta
bles
: MO
N_D
IS_A
C_R
EV, M
ON
_T_P
RO
F_PR
OFI
LE,
and
MO
N_P
RO
FILE
_MA
STER
, res
pect
ivel
y (F
HW
A, 2
001)
. The
da
ta w
ere
extra
cted
to M
icro
soft®
Exc
el®
spre
adsh
eets
for f
urth
er
eval
uatio
n, c
onve
rsio
n, a
nd a
naly
sis.
36
The
desi
red
IRI m
odel
was
a p
roof
-of-
conc
ept m
odel
for t
he c
ities
an
d co
untie
s of t
he S
an F
ranc
isco
Bay
are
a. B
ecau
se o
f the
lack
of
IRI d
ata
for B
ay a
rea
city
and
cou
nty
stre
ets,
SHR
P da
ta fo
r C
alifo
rnia
LTP
P si
tes w
ere
used
in th
is p
ilot s
tudy
. The
LTP
P da
ta
for p
avem
ents
with
asp
halt
conc
rete
on
gran
ular
bas
e (g
ener
al
pave
men
t stu
dy G
PS-1
) and
asp
halt
conc
rete
on
boun
d ba
se (G
PS-
2) w
ere
extra
cted
form
LTP
P D
ataP
ave
3.0
rele
ased
in S
epte
mbe
r 20
01 (F
eder
al H
ighw
ay A
dmin
istra
tion
(FH
WA
), 20
01).
Onl
y 39
se
ts o
f dat
a w
ere
avai
labl
e in
the
data
base
Sep
tem
ber 2
001
in th
e sp
ecifi
c ca
tego
ries G
PS-1
and
GPS
-2 in
Cal
iforn
ia a
nd fo
r whi
ch
the
prof
ile d
ates
of I
RI d
ata
mat
ch su
rvey
dat
es o
f dis
tress
and
tra
nsve
rse
prof
ile d
ata.
The
pro
file
date
s of I
RI w
ere
not e
xact
ly
the
sam
e as
the
surv
ey d
ates
of d
istre
sses
bec
ause
the
roug
hnes
s m
easu
rem
ents
and
the
dist
ress
mea
sure
men
ts w
ere
mad
e on
di
ffer
ent d
ates
. Rea
sona
bly
clos
e da
tes w
ere
cons
ider
ed in
se
lect
ing
thes
e 39
dat
a se
ts fo
r con
duct
ing
furth
er a
naly
sis.
LT
PP D
IST
RE
SSE
S V
ER
SUS
MT
C D
IST
RE
SSE
S
MTC
use
s sev
en ty
pes o
f dis
tress
es w
ith th
ree
seve
rity
leve
ls th
at
are
slig
ht m
odifi
catio
ns o
f the
PA
VER
dis
tress
def
initi
ons (
Shah
in
and
Wal
ters
, 199
0). T
he M
TC d
istre
ss ty
pes a
re (M
TC, 1
986)
:
• A
lliga
tor c
rack
ing.
• B
lock
cra
ckin
g.
• D
isto
rtion
s.
• Lo
ngitu
dina
l and
tran
sver
se c
rack
ing.
• R
uttin
g an
d de
pres
sion
.
• Pa
tchi
ng a
nd u
tility
cut
pat
ch.
• W
eath
erin
g an
d ra
velin
g.
The
thre
e se
verit
y le
vels
of t
he d
istre
sses
are
“Lo
w,”
“M
ediu
m,”
an
d “H
igh.
” C
onsi
derin
g th
e si
mila
ritie
s bet
wee
n th
e M
TC d
istre
ss
type
s and
the
LTPP
dis
tress
type
s, th
e se
t of L
TPP
dist
ress
es u
sed
in th
is st
udy
incl
udes
:
89
incr
ease
for a
ll of
the
pave
men
ts. T
he a
utho
rs a
lso
foun
d th
at
pave
men
t def
lect
ion
chan
ges c
ould
occ
ur d
ue to
free
zing
of t
he
stru
ctur
al la
yers
alo
ne, w
hile
the
larg
est t
haw
-indu
ced
defle
ctio
n in
crea
ses t
ake
plac
e w
hen
ther
e is
dee
p fr
ost p
enet
ratio
n in
to th
e fin
e-gr
aine
d su
bgra
de so
ils. I
ncre
ases
in d
efle
ctio
n du
e to
dee
p fr
ost p
enet
ratio
n an
d th
awin
g of
the
coar
se-g
rain
ed su
bgra
de so
il ar
e sm
alle
r tha
n th
ose
for f
ine-
grai
ned
soils
. Bec
ause
the
site
s in
clud
ed in
this
stud
y ar
e fr
om th
e no
n-fr
eeze
zon
es, t
he e
ffec
t of
free
ze/th
aw is
not
con
side
red
in o
ur st
udy.
SEA
SON
AL
VA
RIA
TIO
N A
ND
SE
ASO
NA
L A
DJU
STM
EN
T F
AC
TO
RS
In a
stud
y on
the
LTPP
dat
a fr
om si
te 4
8SA
of a
non
-fre
eze
zone
, A
li an
d Pa
rker
, (19
96) f
ound
that
the
back
calc
ulat
ed re
silie
nt
mod
uli o
f bot
h su
bgra
de a
nd a
spha
lt co
ncre
te (A
C) s
urfa
ce c
ould
be
cor
rela
ted
to th
e m
onth
of t
he y
ear i
n a
sinu
soid
al fu
nctio
n w
ith
reas
onab
le a
ccur
acy.
Seve
ral r
esea
rch
proj
ects
wer
e co
nduc
ted
at th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Idah
o to
stud
y th
e ef
fect
of s
easo
nal v
aria
tions
on
pave
men
t pe
rfor
man
ce (H
ardc
astle
, 199
2; A
l-Kan
dari,
199
4; B
ayom
y et
al.,
19
96, 1
997;
and
Abo
-Has
hem
a et
al.,
200
2). T
hese
pro
ject
s re
com
men
ded
the
use
of th
e Fa
lling
Wei
ght D
efle
ctom
eter
(FW
D)
to e
valu
ate
the
pave
men
t stru
ctur
e co
nditi
ons,
and
prov
ided
initi
al
valu
es o
f sub
grad
e so
il re
silie
nt m
odul
us fo
r var
ious
clim
atic
re
gion
s and
soil
type
s acr
oss t
he S
tate
of I
daho
. Bas
ed o
n th
e st
udy
by H
ardc
astle
(199
2), A
l-Kan
dari
(199
4) in
corp
orat
ed th
e SA
F fo
r su
bgra
de so
ils in
an
envi
ronm
enta
l dat
abas
e de
rived
from
var
ious
cl
imat
ic z
ones
in Id
aho.
Abo
-Has
hem
a et
al.
(200
2) su
gges
ted
a ge
nera
l pro
cedu
re fo
r cal
cula
ting
the
seas
onal
adj
ustm
ent f
acto
r for
su
bgra
de so
ils, b
ut th
ey d
id n
ot c
onsi
der t
he e
ffec
t of s
oil t
ype
(fin
e, c
oars
e, p
last
ic, a
nd/o
r non
plas
tic).
The
prev
ious
pro
ject
s de
mon
stra
ted
the
need
to e
stab
lish
a re
alis
tic S
AF
to b
e ap
plic
able
to
diff
eren
t soi
l typ
es a
nd e
nviro
nmen
tal c
ondi
tions
. The
SA
F is
a
ratio
nale
ado
pted
that
inco
rpor
ates
the
envi
ronm
enta
l eff
ects
in th
e de
sign
syst
em to
adj
ust s
ubgr
ade
mod
ulus
from
one
seas
on to
an
othe
r.
88
of C
arm
icha
el a
nd S
tew
art (
1985
), st
ated
pre
viou
sly
as e
quat
ion
(1),
cont
ains
a w
ater
con
tent
term
that
resu
lts in
an
11.6
MPa
(1
682.
45 p
si) d
ecre
ase
in re
silie
nt m
odul
us fo
r eac
h 1
perc
ent
incr
ease
in w
ater
con
tent
. Lar
y an
d M
ahon
ey (1
984)
foun
d re
gres
sion
rela
tions
hips
for r
esili
ent m
odul
i of s
peci
fic n
orth
wes
t ag
greg
ate
base
mat
eria
ls a
nd p
redo
min
antly
coa
rse
subg
rade
soils
. Th
e re
gres
sion
equ
atio
ns fo
r the
mat
eria
ls sh
owed
that
if th
e in
itial
m
odul
us is
on
the
orde
r of 1
40 M
Pa (2
0,30
5.3
psi),
a 1
per
cent
in
crea
se in
moi
stur
e co
nten
t typ
ical
ly re
sults
in a
resi
lient
mod
ulus
de
crea
se fr
om a
bout
4 to
11
MPa
(580
.15
psi t
o 15
95.4
2 ps
i). A
re
ason
able
est
imat
e fo
r the
influ
ence
of w
ater
con
tent
on
refe
renc
e re
silie
nt m
odul
us o
f coa
rse
soils
wou
ld b
e ab
out a
3.4
MPa
(493
.13
psi)
decr
ease
for e
ach
1 pe
rcen
t moi
stur
e co
nten
t inc
reas
e fo
r un
iform
or w
ell-g
rade
d co
arse
mat
eria
ls c
onta
inin
g lit
tle o
r no
nonp
last
ic fi
nes (
GW
, GP,
SW
, SP)
. Tha
t val
ue w
ould
incr
ease
to
abou
t 3.8
MPa
(551
.14
psi)
per 1
per
cent
moi
stur
e co
nten
t inc
reas
e fo
r san
ds a
nd g
rave
ls c
onta
inin
g su
bsta
ntia
l am
ount
s of p
last
ic
fines
silt
y gr
avel
s (G
M),
clay
ey g
rave
ls (G
C),
cour
se g
rain
ed
sand
s (SM
), cl
ayey
sand
s (SC
).
TE
MPE
RA
TU
RE
EFF
EC
TS
ON
SO
IL R
ESI
LIE
NT
MO
DU
LU
S
Tem
pera
ture
has
sign
ifica
nt e
ffec
ts o
n so
il re
silie
nt m
odul
us. T
he
pene
tratio
n of
free
zing
tem
pera
ture
s int
o m
oist
pav
emen
t sub
grad
e so
ils c
an c
ause
mor
e se
vere
eff
ects
than
the
effe
cts o
f any
of t
he
wat
er c
onte
nt c
hang
es li
kely
to o
ccur
as a
resu
lt of
seas
onal
va
riatio
ns in
pre
cipi
tatio
n. F
reez
ing
of so
il m
oist
ure
can
trans
form
a
soft
subg
rade
into
a m
ater
ial t
hat,
at th
e st
ress
leve
ls e
xist
ing
in
pave
men
ts, i
s ess
entia
lly ri
gid.
Tha
win
g of
the
sam
e m
ater
ial c
an
prod
uce
a so
fteni
ng e
ffec
t suc
h th
at th
e m
ater
ial h
as a
resi
lient
m
odul
us th
at is
onl
y a
frac
tion
of it
s pre
-fre
ezin
g va
lue
for s
ome
time
afte
r tha
win
g, (H
ardc
astle
, 199
2).
The
effe
cts o
f an
annu
al c
ycle
of f
reez
ing
and
thaw
ing
on th
e de
flect
ions
of p
avem
ents
hav
ing
coar
se a
nd fi
ne-g
rain
ed su
bgra
des
in Il
linoi
s and
Min
neso
ta w
ere
stud
ied
by S
criv
ner e
t al.,
(196
9).
The
stud
y sh
owed
that
free
zing
resu
lts in
shar
p re
duct
ions
in
surf
ace
defle
ctio
ns w
hile
thaw
ing
prod
uces
imm
edia
te d
efle
ctio
n
37
• Fa
tigue
cra
ckin
g.
• B
lock
cra
ckin
g.
• Lo
ngitu
dina
l cra
ckin
g (w
heel
pat
h an
d no
n-w
heel
pat
h).
• Tr
ansv
erse
cra
ckin
g.
• Pa
tch/
patc
h de
terio
ratio
n.
• Sh
ovin
g.
• R
avel
ing.
• Tr
ansv
erse
pro
file
data
(use
d to
est
imat
e ru
tting
).
The
MTC
def
initi
ons o
f dis
tress
type
s and
seve
ritie
s are
diff
eren
t, in
seve
ral c
ases
, fro
m th
e LT
PP d
efin
ition
s of d
istre
ss ty
pes a
nd
seve
ritie
s. Ta
ble
1 br
iefly
des
crib
es th
e di
ffer
ence
s in
defin
ition
s fo
r sev
eriti
es b
etw
een
the
two
syst
ems f
or th
e M
TC d
istre
ss ty
pes
(MTC
, 198
6; F
HW
A, 2
001)
. O
ne d
iffer
ence
bet
wee
n th
e LT
PP
syst
em a
nd M
TC sy
stem
not
incl
uded
in ta
ble
1 is
that
LTP
P lo
ngitu
dina
l cra
ckin
g in
the
whe
el p
ath
of a
ny se
verit
y le
vel i
s co
nsid
ered
as a
par
t of t
he lo
w se
verit
y al
ligat
or c
rack
ing
in th
e M
TC sy
stem
.
Tab
le 1
. Diff
eren
ces i
n de
finiti
ons b
etw
een
MT
C a
nd L
TPP
for
MT
C d
istr
esse
s-se
veri
ties (
MT
C, 1
986;
SH
RP,
199
3)
MT
C
Dis
tres
s T
ype
Dis
tres
s Se
veri
ty
LT
PP D
efin
ition
M
TC
Def
initi
on
Low
M
ediu
m
Alli
gato
r C
rack
ing
Hig
h
Bot
h de
finiti
ons a
re si
mila
r for
all
seve
rity
leve
ls.
Low
C
rack
wid
th <
6
mill
imet
er (m
m)
Cra
ck w
idth
< 1
0 m
m
Med
ium
6m
m ≤
Cra
ck w
idth
≤
19 m
m
10m
m ≤
Cra
ck w
idth
≤
76 m
m
Blo
ck
Cra
ckin
g
Hig
h C
rack
wid
th >
19
mm
C
rack
wid
th >
76
mm
Lo
w
Med
ium
D
isto
rtion
s
Hig
h
Bot
h de
finiti
ons a
re si
mila
r for
all
seve
rity
leve
ls.
38
Tab
le 1
. Diff
eren
ces i
n de
finiti
ons b
etw
een
MT
C a
nd L
TPP
fo
r M
TC
dis
tres
ses-
seve
ritie
s (M
TC
, 198
6;
SHR
P, 1
993)
—C
ontin
ued
M
TC
D
istr
ess
Typ
e
Dis
tres
s Se
veri
ty
LT
PP D
efin
ition
M
TC
Def
initi
on
Low
C
rack
wid
th <
6
mm
C
rack
wid
th <
10
mm
Med
ium
6m
m ≤
Cra
ck w
idth
<
19 m
m
Cra
ck w
idth
10
mm
to 7
6 m
m
Long
itudi
nal
and
Tran
sver
se
Cra
ckin
g H
igh
Cra
ck w
idth
> 1
9 m
m
Cra
ck w
idth
> 7
6 m
m
Low
M
ediu
m
Patc
hing
and
U
tility
Cut
Pa
tch
Hig
h
Bot
h de
finiti
ons c
an b
e co
nsid
ered
sim
ilar f
or a
ll se
verit
y le
vels
.
Low
13
mm
≤ R
ut d
epth
< 2
5 m
m
Med
ium
25
mm
≤ R
ut d
epth
< 5
0 m
m
Rut
ting
and
Dep
ress
ion
Hig
h
Rut
ting
data
are
not
av
aila
ble.
Tr
ansv
erse
pro
file
data
are
ava
ilabl
e in
LT
PP d
atab
ase.
R
ut d
epth
≥ 5
0 m
m
Low
M
ediu
m
Wea
ther
ing
and
Rav
elin
g H
igh
Bot
h de
finiti
ons a
re si
mila
r for
all
seve
rity
leve
ls.
1 m
m =
0.0
39 in
ches
DA
TA
TR
AN
SFO
RM
AT
ION
TE
CH
NIQ
UE
S
It w
as n
eces
sary
to tr
ansf
orm
seve
ral o
f the
LTP
P di
stre
ss d
ata
type
s and
seve
ritie
s to
equi
vale
nt M
TC d
istre
ss ty
pes a
nd
seve
ritie
s. Ta
ble
2 sh
ows w
hich
dis
tress
es in
LTP
P sy
stem
wer
e us
ed to
cal
cula
te w
hich
dis
tress
es in
MTC
syst
em. F
irst,
the
data
in
the
LTPP
dat
abas
e ar
e st
ored
in m
etric
uni
ts (m
m, e
tc.)
wer
e co
nver
ted
to E
nglis
h un
its (i
nch,
etc
.) to
mat
ch th
e un
its sy
stem
us
ed in
the
MTC
PM
S so
ftwar
e. M
oreo
ver,
seve
ral m
anip
ulat
ions
w
ere
requ
ired
to c
alcu
late
MTC
dis
tress
qua
ntiti
es in
thre
e se
verit
y le
vels
from
LTP
P di
stre
ss ty
pes a
nd se
verit
ies.
87
alm
ost 2
75 M
Pa (3
988.
5 ps
i) to
a lo
w o
f abo
ut 5
2 M
Pa (7
541.
96
psi).
Car
mic
hael
and
Stu
art (
1985
) pre
sent
ed c
orre
latio
ns re
latin
g re
silie
nt m
odul
us to
fine
-gra
ined
soil
com
posi
tion
para
met
ers.
Usi
ng a
dat
abas
e re
pres
entin
g m
ore
than
250
soils
(fin
e an
d co
arse
) and
330
0 m
odul
us te
st d
ata
poin
ts, t
hey
deve
lope
d th
e fo
llow
ing
rela
tions
hip:
(1
)
Whe
re M
R is
resi
lient
mod
ulus
in k
ilopo
unds
per
squa
re in
ch (k
si),
PI is
pla
stic
ity in
dex
in p
erce
nt, w
is w
ater
con
tent
in p
erce
nt, F
is
perc
ent p
assi
ng si
eve
num
ber 2
00, C
S is
the
conf
inin
g st
ress
in p
si,
and σd
is d
evia
tor s
tress
in p
si. T
he (C
H) t
erm
is a
mat
eria
l fac
tor
that
is e
qual
to o
ne fo
r soi
ls c
lass
ified
as C
H a
nd is
equ
al to
zer
o fo
r soi
ls c
lass
ified
as i
norg
anic
silts
(ML)
, ela
stic
silts
(MH
), or
cl
ay (C
L). M
H is
a m
ater
ial f
acto
r equ
al to
1 fo
r soi
ls c
lass
ified
as
MH
and
equ
al to
zer
o fo
r soi
ls c
lass
ified
as M
L, C
L, o
r CH
.
The
moi
stur
e se
nsiti
vity
of c
oars
e-gr
aine
d m
ater
ials
dep
ends
on
the
amou
nt a
nd n
atur
e of
thei
r fin
e fr
actio
n. C
lean
gra
vels
and
sa
nds c
lass
ified
as w
ell g
rade
d gr
avel
(GW
), po
orly
gra
ded
grav
el
(GP)
, wel
l-gra
ded
sand
(SW
), an
d po
orly
gra
ded
sand
(SP)
are
not
lik
ely
to e
xhib
it m
oist
ure
sens
itivi
ty b
ecau
se th
ey la
ck a
suff
icie
nt
num
ber o
f the
smal
l por
es n
eces
sary
to c
reat
e si
gnifi
cant
suct
ion-
indu
ced
effe
ctiv
e st
ress
es, e
ven
at lo
w w
ater
con
tent
s (H
icks
and
M
onis
mith
, 197
1). S
tudi
es o
f coa
rse
mat
eria
ls c
onta
inin
g la
rger
am
ount
s of f
ines
hav
e sh
own
that
incr
easi
ng d
egre
es o
f sat
urat
ion
abov
e ab
out 8
0 to
85
perc
ent c
an h
ave
a pr
onou
nced
eff
ect o
n re
silie
nt m
odul
us. R
ada
and
Witc
zak
(198
1) c
oncl
uded
that
ch
ange
s in
wat
er c
onte
nt o
f com
pact
ed a
ggre
gate
s and
coa
rse
soils
co
uld
caus
e m
odul
us d
ecre
ases
of u
p to
207
MPa
(30,
022.
8 ps
i).
Seve
ral r
esea
rche
rs h
ave
deve
lope
d re
gres
sion
rela
tions
hips
be
twee
n th
e re
silie
nt m
odul
us o
f gra
nula
r mat
eria
ls a
nd w
ater
co
nten
t. Th
e ge
nera
l reg
ress
ion
rela
tions
hip
for g
ranu
lar m
ater
ials
MR
= 3
7.43
1 - 0
.456
6 PI
- 0.
6179
w -
0.14
24F
+
0.17
91C
S - 0
.324
8 σ d
+ 3
6.42
2CH
+ 1
7.09
7MH
86
rela
tes t
he c
hang
e in
the
moi
stur
e co
nten
t to
the
chan
ge in
the
mod
ulus
val
ue.
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
AN
D B
AC
KG
RO
UN
D
It is
wel
l kno
wn
that
hig
h su
bgra
de m
oist
ure
cont
ent,
with
re
sulti
ng d
ecre
ase
in su
bgra
de st
reng
th a
nd st
iffne
ss, i
s det
rimen
tal
to ro
adw
ay p
avem
ent p
erfo
rman
ce. E
stab
lishi
ng re
latio
nshi
ps
betw
een
the
high
way
pav
emen
t res
pons
e an
d su
bgra
de m
oist
ure
varia
tion
is n
eces
sary
for e
ffic
ient
pav
emen
t des
ign.
The
ba
ckca
lcul
ated
mod
ulus
, or t
he re
silie
nt m
odul
us, o
f sub
grad
e so
il is
the
key
para
met
er th
at is
con
side
red
to re
pres
ent p
avem
ent
resp
onse
. A b
rief s
umm
ery
of p
revi
ous w
ork
disc
ussi
ng th
e ef
fect
of
seas
onal
var
iatio
ns o
n so
il re
silie
nt m
odul
us is
pre
sent
ed in
the
follo
win
g su
bsec
tions
.
STU
DY
OB
JEC
TIV
E
The
prim
ary
obje
ctiv
e of
this
stud
y is
to e
xam
ine
the
impa
cts o
f se
ason
al m
oist
ure
varia
tion
on th
e su
bgra
de re
silie
nt m
odul
us.
MO
IST
UR
E E
FFE
CT
S O
N S
OIL
RE
SIL
IEN
T M
OD
UL
US
Man
y re
sear
cher
s hav
e in
vest
igat
ed th
e in
fluen
ce o
f wat
er c
onte
nt
on th
e re
silie
nt m
odul
us o
f fin
e-gr
aine
d so
ils. S
eed,
Cha
n, a
nd L
ee
(196
2) st
udie
d th
e in
fluen
ce o
f “na
tura
l” w
ater
con
tent
on
the
resi
lient
mod
ulus
of u
ndis
turb
ed sa
mpl
es o
f the
silty
cla
y (C
L)
Am
eric
an A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Sta
te H
ighw
ay a
nd T
rans
porta
tion
Off
icia
ls (A
ASH
TO) R
oad
Test
subg
rade
s soi
l. T
he p
ositi
ons o
f th
e te
st p
oint
s sho
wed
that
for t
his s
oil a
dec
reas
e in
wat
er c
onte
nt
of o
nly
3 pe
rcen
t bel
ow th
e T9
9 op
timum
dou
bled
the
decr
ease
of
the
resi
lient
mod
ulus
(fro
m a
bout
34
meg
apas
cal (
MPa
) (49
31.2
8 po
undf
orce
per
squa
re in
ch (p
si))
to a
bout
69
MPa
(100
07.6
psi
)).
Test
s con
duct
ed o
n C
L su
bgra
de so
il at
the
San
Die
go C
ount
y Ex
perim
enta
l Bas
e Pr
ojec
t by
Jone
s and
Witc
zak
(197
7) sh
owed
th
at a
s its
com
pact
ion
wat
er c
onte
nt w
as in
crea
sed
from
abo
ut 1
1 pe
rcen
t to
abou
t 20
perc
ent,
the
resi
lient
mod
ulus
var
ied
from
39
Tab
le 2
. Dis
tres
s qua
ntiti
es in
LT
PP sy
stem
use
d to
obt
ain
dist
ress
qua
ntiti
es in
MT
C sy
stem
MT
C
Dis
tres
ses
Low
Sev
erity
M
ediu
m S
ever
ity
Hig
h Se
veri
ty
Alli
gato
r C
rack
ing
Add
LTP
P lo
w
seve
rity
allig
ator
cr
acki
ng a
nd th
e po
rtion
con
verte
d fr
om L
TPP
long
itudi
nal
crac
king
in w
heel
pa
th
Use
LTP
P m
ediu
m se
verit
y al
ligat
or c
rack
ing
Use
LTP
P hi
gh
seve
rity
allig
ator
cr
acki
ng
Blo
ck
Cra
ckin
g U
se th
e di
strib
utio
n of
LT
PP b
lock
cr
acki
ng q
uant
ities
gi
ven
in e
quat
ion
(1)
Use
the
dist
ribut
ion
of
LTPP
blo
ck
crac
king
qu
antit
ies g
iven
in
equa
tion
(1)
Use
the
dist
ribut
ion
of
LTPP
blo
ck
crac
king
qu
antit
ies g
iven
in
equa
tion
(1)
Dis
torti
ons
Use
LTP
P sh
ovin
g U
se L
TPP
shov
ing
Use
LTP
P sh
ovin
g Lo
ngitu
dina
l an
d Tr
ansv
erse
C
rack
ing
Add
LTP
P lo
w
seve
rity
long
itudi
nal
crac
king
in n
on-
whe
el p
ath
and
LTPP
low
seve
rity
trans
vers
e cr
acki
ng
Add
LTP
P m
ediu
m se
verit
y lo
ngitu
dina
l cr
acki
ng in
non
-w
heel
pat
h an
d LT
PP m
ediu
m
seve
rity
trans
vers
e cr
acki
ng
Add
LTP
P hi
gh
seve
rity
long
itudi
nal
crac
king
in n
on-
whe
el p
ath
and
LTPP
hig
h se
verit
y tra
nsve
rse
crac
king
R
uttin
g an
d D
epre
ssio
n M
ultip
ly lo
w
seve
rity
rutte
d w
idth
in L
TPP
syst
em b
y di
stan
ce
betw
een
two
prof
ile
mea
sure
men
ts
Mul
tiply
med
ium
se
verit
y ru
tted
wid
th in
LTP
P sy
stem
by
dist
ance
bet
wee
n tw
o pr
ofile
m
easu
rem
ents
Mul
tiply
hig
h se
verit
y ru
tted
wid
th in
LTP
P sy
stem
by
dist
ance
bet
wee
n tw
o pr
ofile
m
easu
rem
ents
Pa
tchi
ng a
nd
Util
ity C
ut
Patc
h
Use
LTP
P lo
w
seve
rity
patc
h/pa
tch
dete
riora
tion
Use
LTP
P m
ediu
m se
verit
y pa
tch/
patc
h de
terio
ratio
n
Use
LTP
P hi
gh
seve
rity
patc
h/pa
tch
dete
riora
tion
Wea
ther
ing
and
Rav
elin
g U
se L
TPP
low
se
verit
y ra
velin
g U
se L
TPP
med
ium
seve
rity
rave
ling
Use
LTP
P hi
gh
seve
rity
rave
ling
40
LT
PP T
RA
NSV
ER
SE P
RO
FIL
E D
AT
A T
O M
TC
RU
TT
ING
DA
TA
Tran
sver
se p
rofil
e da
ta fr
om th
e LT
PP d
atab
ase
wer
e us
ed to
ca
lcul
ate
MTC
rutti
ng q
uant
ities
. MTC
mea
sure
s rut
dep
ths a
nd
quan
titie
s by
layi
ng a
3-m
eter
(m) (
10-f
eet (
ft)) s
traig
hted
ge a
cros
s th
e ru
t. R
ut d
epth
s are
the
max
imum
dep
ths f
ound
in th
e w
heel
pa
ths a
nd ru
tted
wid
ths a
re th
e pa
rts o
f the
wid
ths i
n th
e w
heel
pa
ths r
utte
d m
ore
than
13
mm
(0.5
inch
es).
The
rutte
d w
idth
s wer
e di
vide
d in
to th
ree
seve
rity
leve
ls a
ccor
ding
to th
e de
finiti
ons g
iven
in
tabl
e 1.
A ru
tting
qua
ntity
(are
a) in
a sp
ecifi
c se
verit
y le
vel w
as
calc
ulat
ed m
ultip
lyin
g th
e ru
tted
wid
th p
ortio
n in
that
seve
rity
leve
l by
the
leng
th o
f the
test
sect
ion
betw
een
the
trans
vers
e pr
ofile
m
easu
rem
ents
.
In th
e LT
PP d
atab
ase,
tran
sver
se p
rofil
e da
ta a
re st
ored
for 1
52.4
m
(500
ft) l
ong
by 3
.66
m (1
2 ft)
wid
e; se
ctio
ns a
re c
olle
cted
at a
n in
terv
al o
f 15.
2 m
(50
ft). F
or th
e cu
rren
t stu
dy, a
ll tra
nsve
rse
prof
ile d
ata
sets
that
wer
e se
lect
ed fo
r the
stud
y w
ere
plot
ted.
Rut
de
pths
and
rutte
d w
idth
s in
diff
eren
t sev
erity
leve
ls fo
r bot
h w
heel
pa
ths w
ere
reco
rded
from
the
plot
s. A
n Ex
cel-V
isua
l Bas
ic®
m
acro
was
writ
ten
and
used
to fa
cilit
ate
this
. Fig
ure
1 sh
ows a
ty
pica
l tra
nsve
rse
prof
ile p
lotte
d w
ith L
TPP
trans
vers
e pr
ofile
dat
a an
d th
e m
easu
rem
ent o
f rut
ted
wid
ths a
nd ru
t dep
ths f
or
calc
ulat
ing
MTC
rutti
ng q
uant
ities
and
seve
ritie
s.
85
PAPE
R 4
E
FFE
CT
OF
SEA
SON
AL
MO
IST
UR
E
VA
RIA
TIO
N O
N S
UB
GR
AD
E R
ESI
LIE
NT
M
OD
UL
US
Has
san
M. S
alem
1
AB
STR
AC
T
It is
wel
l kno
wn
that
env
ironm
enta
l cha
nges
hav
e se
vere
eff
ects
on
pave
men
t per
form
ance
. Whi
le a
n as
phal
t lay
er m
ay b
e m
ore
sens
itive
to te
mpe
ratu
re, a
soil
or u
ntre
ated
pav
emen
t lay
er m
ight
be
mor
e af
fect
ed b
y th
e ch
ange
in m
oist
ure.
Thi
s res
earc
h ai
ms a
t qu
antif
ying
the
effe
ct o
f sub
grad
e m
oist
ure
varia
tion,
cau
sed
by
envi
ronm
enta
l cha
nges
, on
subg
rade
’s re
silie
nt m
odul
us a
nd
incl
udin
g its
eff
ects
in th
e de
sign
pro
cess
for n
ew a
nd re
habi
litat
ed
pave
men
ts. T
o ac
hiev
e th
is o
bjec
tive,
dat
a re
pres
entin
g di
ffer
ent
soil
type
s in
non-
free
ze z
ones
at v
ario
us L
ong-
Term
Pav
emen
t Pe
rfor
man
ce S
easo
nal M
onito
ring
Prog
ram
(LTP
P-SM
P) si
tes
wer
e do
wnl
oade
d fr
om th
e D
ataP
ave
3.0
softw
are.
The
do
wnl
oade
d da
ta w
ere
anal
yzed
to e
stab
lish
the
effe
ct o
f sub
grad
e m
oist
ure
varia
tion
on su
bgra
de’s
resi
lient
stre
ngth
repr
esen
ted
by
the
back
calc
ulat
ed e
last
ic m
odul
us. T
he a
naly
sis i
ndic
ated
that
m
oist
ure
in th
e su
bgra
de la
yer i
s rel
ated
to th
e pr
ecip
itatio
n in
tens
ity. T
he st
udy
also
reve
aled
that
a S
easo
nal A
djus
tmen
t Fa
ctor
(SA
F) c
ould
be
used
to sh
ift th
e su
bgra
de m
odul
us fr
om a
no
rmal
seas
on to
ano
ther
. The
SA
F is
con
side
red
a ke
y in
put i
n th
e m
echa
nist
ic-b
ased
pav
emen
t des
ign
syst
em. I
t allo
ws t
he in
clus
ion
of th
e se
ason
al e
ffec
ts o
n th
e la
yer m
odul
i for
diff
eren
t sea
sons
. In
this
pap
er, a
met
hod
is p
rese
nted
for c
alcu
latin
g th
e SA
F fo
r the
su
bgra
de so
ils. U
sing
the
colle
cted
dat
a, re
gres
sion
ana
lysi
s was
pe
rfor
med
and
cor
rela
tion
equa
tions
wer
e de
velo
ped.
The
se
equa
tions
rela
te th
e ba
ckca
lcul
ated
subg
rade
mod
ulus
to th
e su
bgra
de m
oist
ure
cont
ent a
nd to
oth
er so
il pr
oper
ties.
The
SAF
1 G
radu
ate
Exch
ange
Stu
dent
, Dep
artm
ent o
f Civ
il En
gine
erin
g, U
nive
rsity
of
Idah
o, M
osco
w, I
D 8
3844
-102
2 P
hone
: 20
8–88
5–68
18, F
ax: 2
08–8
85–6
618,
ha
ssan
@ui
daho
.edu
84
Tran
spor
tatio
n Re
sear
ch R
ecor
d 16
32, T
RB
, Was
hing
ton,
D
C, N
atio
nal R
esea
rch
Cou
ncil,
pp.
22-
31.
Smith
, K.L
., K
.D. S
mith
, L. E
vans
, T. H
oern
er, M
. Dar
ter,
and
J. W
oods
trom
, 199
7. N
CH
RP
Web
Doc
1 S
moo
thne
ss
Spec
ifica
tions
for P
avem
ents
: Fin
al R
epor
t, w
ww
.nap
.edu
/boo
ks/n
ch00
1/ht
ml/,
TR
B, W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C,
Nat
iona
l Res
earc
h C
ounc
il.
Tran
spor
tatio
n A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Can
ada,
199
9. S
umm
ary
of
Pave
men
t Sm
ooth
ness
Spe
cific
atio
ns in
Can
ada
and
Arou
nd th
e W
orld
. Can
adia
n St
rate
gic
Hig
hway
Res
earc
h Pr
ogra
m T
echn
ical
Brie
f #16
, ww
w.c
shrp
.org
, C-S
HR
P,
Otta
wa,
Can
ada,
C-S
HR
P.
TAC
, Tra
nspo
rtatio
n A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Can
ada,
200
2. T
he E
ffect
of
As-B
uilt
Pave
men
t Sm
ooth
ness
on
Long
-Ter
m R
ough
ness
Pr
ogre
ssio
n: S
ome
Find
ings
from
C-L
TPP
and
US-
LTPP
St
udie
s. C
anad
ian
Stra
tegi
c H
ighw
ay R
esea
rch
Prog
ram
Te
chni
cal B
rief #
23,
C-S
HR
P, O
ttaw
a, C
anad
a, C
-SH
RP.
Uni
ted
Stat
es A
rmy
Cor
ps o
f Eng
inee
rs, 1
991.
Hot
Mix
Pav
ing
Han
dboo
k, L
anha
m, M
D, N
atio
nal A
spha
lt Pa
ving
A
ssoc
iatio
n.
41
1
mm
= 0
.039
inch
es
Figu
re 1
. A sc
hem
atic
dia
gram
for
the
mea
sure
men
t of r
utte
d w
idth
s and
rut
dep
ths f
rom
LT
PP tr
ansv
erse
pro
file
data
LT
PP B
LO
CK
CR
AC
KIN
G T
O M
TC
BL
OC
K C
RA
CK
ING
Acc
ordi
ng to
the
defin
ition
s of s
ever
ities
for b
lock
cra
ckin
g, th
e ra
nges
def
inin
g th
e bo
unda
ries o
f sev
erity
leve
ls in
the
LTPP
sy
stem
are
diff
eren
t fro
m th
ose
in M
TC sy
stem
(see
tabl
e 1)
. Fi
gure
2 p
rovi
des a
gra
phic
com
paris
on o
f the
def
initi
ons i
n tw
o sy
stem
s. Th
is fi
gure
was
use
d to
dev
elop
ratio
s of q
uant
ities
bas
ed
on th
e w
idth
of t
he c
rack
s to
conv
ert L
TPP
bloc
k cr
acki
ng
quan
titie
s in
diff
eren
t sev
erity
leve
ls to
MTC
blo
ck c
rack
ing
quan
titie
s. Th
e fo
llow
ing
equa
tions
wer
e de
velo
ped
base
d on
thes
e re
latio
nshi
ps a
nd u
sed
for t
he c
onve
rsio
ns.
(1)
Whe
re:
L MTC
, MM
TC, H
MTC
= L
ow, m
ediu
m, a
nd h
igh
seve
rity
bloc
k cr
acki
ng q
uant
ities
resp
ectiv
ely
in th
e M
TC sy
stem
L L
TPP,
MLT
PP, H
LTPP
= L
ow, m
ediu
m, a
nd h
igh
seve
rity
bloc
k cr
acki
ng q
uant
ities
resp
ectiv
ely
in th
e LT
PP sy
stem
Wid
th
13m
m13
mm
Rut
Dep
th
Wid
th
13m
m13
mm
Rut
Dep
thTr
ansv
erse
Prof
ile
Initi
alR
oad
Surf
ace
L MTC
= L
LTPP
+ (4
/ 13
) MLT
PP
M
MTC
= (9
/13)
MLT
PP +
(0.7
) HLT
PP
H
MTC
= (
0.3)
HLT
PP
42
The
high
seve
rity
dist
ress
qua
ntity
in L
TPP
syst
em w
as d
istri
bute
d in
to 7
0 pe
rcen
t and
30
perc
ent o
f the
med
ium
and
hig
h se
verit
y,
resp
ectiv
ely,
in M
TC sy
stem
. Thi
s dis
tribu
tion
was
sele
cted
be
caus
e of
the
high
cov
erag
e of
MTC
med
ium
seve
rity
(57
mm
in
figur
e 2)
on
the
LTPP
hig
h se
verit
y re
gion
.
1
mm
= 0
.039
inch
es
Figu
re 2
. A c
ompa
riso
n be
twee
n SH
RP
and
MT
C d
efin
ition
s fo
r bl
ock
crac
king
seve
ritie
s, an
d co
nver
sion
of L
TPP
qu
antit
ies t
o M
TC
qua
ntiti
es
LT
PP A
LL
IGA
TO
R C
RA
CK
ING
TO
MT
C A
LL
IGA
TO
R C
RA
CK
ING
The
LTPP
syst
em re
cord
s the
por
tions
for w
heel
pat
h an
d no
n-w
heel
pat
h of
the
long
itudi
nal c
rack
ing
in th
ree
seve
rity
leve
ls in
tw
o se
para
te c
olum
ns. S
ince
LTP
P lo
ngitu
dina
l cra
ckin
g in
the
whe
el p
ath
at a
ny se
verit
y le
vel i
s con
side
red
as a
par
t of t
he lo
w
seve
rity
allig
ator
cra
ckin
g in
the
MTC
syst
em, M
TC lo
w se
verit
y al
ligat
or c
rack
ing
inco
rpor
ates
bot
h LT
PP lo
w se
verit
y al
ligat
or
crac
king
and
LTP
P lo
ngitu
dina
l cra
ckin
g in
the
whe
el p
ath
of a
ny
seve
rity.
LTP
P lo
ngitu
dina
l cra
ckin
g qu
antit
y (in
leng
th) i
n th
e w
heel
pat
h w
as c
onve
rted
to M
TC lo
w se
verit
y al
ligat
or c
rack
ing
quan
tity
(in a
rea)
by
mul
tiply
ing
the
crac
k le
ngth
by
a un
it w
idth
of
1 fo
ot (0
.305
m).
The
med
ium
and
hig
h se
verit
y al
ligat
or
crac
king
figu
res i
n th
e M
TC sy
stem
wer
e ob
tain
ed fr
om th
e m
ediu
m a
nd h
igh
seve
rity
allig
ator
cra
ckin
g, re
spec
tivel
y, in
the
LTPP
syst
em.
ML
H
ML
H
LT
PP
MT
C
6 m
m19
mm
10 m
m76
mm
9 m
m4
mm
57 m
m
83
1.
Tran
spor
tatio
n ag
enci
es a
nd c
ontra
ctor
s sho
uld
cons
ider
the
effe
cts o
f sur
face
pre
para
tion,
ove
rlay
thic
knes
s, an
d pa
vem
ent r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
whe
n te
nder
ing
or
bidd
ing
asph
alt o
verla
y co
ntra
cts w
ith sm
ooth
ness
sp
ecifi
catio
ns.
2.
Pave
men
t des
igne
rs sh
ould
con
side
r the
low
er a
s-bu
ilt
roug
hnes
s tha
t is a
chie
ved
by in
corp
orat
ing
a th
icke
r pa
vem
ent o
verla
y an
d/or
inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n.
RE
FER
EN
CE
S
Asp
halt
Inst
itute
, 198
9. T
he A
spha
lt H
andb
ook
Man
ual S
erie
s No.
4
(MS-
4), 1
989
Editi
on, L
exin
gton
, KY
.
Fede
ral H
ighw
ay A
dmin
istra
tion,
199
6. L
ong-
Term
Pav
emen
t Pe
rfor
man
ce P
rogr
am R
efer
ence
Gui
de, M
cLea
n, V
A.
McG
hee,
K.K
., 20
00. “
Fact
ors A
ffec
ting
Ove
rlay
Rid
e Q
ualit
y.”
Tran
spor
tatio
n Re
sear
ch R
ecor
d 17
12, T
RB
, Was
hing
ton,
D
C, N
atio
nal R
esea
rch
Cou
ncil
pp. 5
8-65
.
Pere
ra, R
.W.,
C. B
yrum
, and
S.D
. Koh
n, 1
998.
Inve
stig
atio
n of
D
evel
opm
ent o
f Pav
emen
t Rou
ghne
ss. F
HW
A R
epor
t FH
WA
-RD
-97-
147,
Was
hing
ton,
DC
, Fed
eral
Hig
hway
A
dmin
istra
tion.
Pere
ra, R
.W. a
nd S
.D. K
ohn,
199
9. “
IRI o
f Asp
halt
Con
cret
e O
verla
ys: A
naly
sis o
f Dat
a fr
om L
TPP
SPS-
5 Pr
ojec
ts.”
Tr
ansp
orta
tion
Rese
arch
Rec
ord
1655
, TR
B, W
ashi
ngto
n,
DC
, Nat
iona
l Res
earc
h C
ounc
il, p
p. 1
00-1
09.
Ray
mon
d, C
.M.,
2001
. An
Inve
stig
atio
n of
Rou
ghne
ss T
rend
s in
Asph
alt P
avem
ent O
verl
ays.
Doc
tora
l The
sis,
Wat
erlo
o,
Ont
ario
, Can
ada,
Uni
vers
ity o
f Wat
erlo
o.
Schm
itt, R
.L.,
J.S. R
usse
ll, A
.S. H
anna
, H.U
. Bah
ia, a
nd G
.A.
Jung
, 199
8. “
Sum
mar
y of
Cur
rent
Qua
lity
Con
trol/Q
ualit
y A
ssur
ance
Pra
ctic
es fo
r Hot
-Mix
Asp
halt
Con
stru
ctio
n.”
82
a pa
vem
ent.
The
follo
win
g co
nclu
sion
s are
pro
vide
d ba
sed
on
thes
e an
alys
es:
1.
The
exte
nt o
f sur
face
pre
para
tion
was
det
erm
ined
to a
ffec
t th
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess o
f a p
avem
ent.
The
ext
ent o
f sur
face
pr
epar
atio
n w
as a
lso
foun
d to
hav
e an
inte
ract
ive
effe
ct o
n as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess w
hen
cons
ider
ed in
com
bina
tion
with
th
e pa
vem
ent r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing.
2.
The
over
lay
thic
knes
s was
det
erm
ined
to a
ffec
t the
as-
built
ro
ughn
ess o
f a p
avem
ent.
Alth
ough
the
effe
ct w
as n
ot
dete
rmin
ed to
be
stat
istic
ally
sign
ifica
nt w
hen
cons
ider
ed
indi
vidu
ally
, it w
as d
eter
min
ed to
hav
e a
stat
istic
ally
si
gnifi
cant
eff
ect o
n as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess w
hen
cons
ider
ed in
co
mbi
natio
n w
ith th
e pa
vem
ent r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing.
3.
The
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g w
as fo
und
to
have
an
effe
ct o
n th
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess o
f a p
avem
ent.
In
addi
tion,
pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g w
as fo
und
to h
ave
inte
ract
ive
effe
cts w
ith b
oth
the
exte
nt o
f sur
face
pr
epar
atio
n an
d ov
erla
y th
ickn
ess.
4.
The
type
of o
verla
y m
ater
ial (
i.e.,
virg
in o
r rec
ycle
d) w
as
dete
rmin
ed to
hav
e es
sent
ially
no
effe
ct o
n th
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess o
f a p
avem
ent.
5.
Pred
ictio
n eq
uatio
ns a
re p
rovi
ded
to e
stim
ate
the
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of a
pav
emen
t for
diff
eren
t typ
es o
f sur
face
pr
epar
atio
n, o
verla
y th
ickn
ess,
and
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss
befo
re re
surf
acin
g.
RE
CO
MM
EN
DA
TIO
NS
Bas
ed o
n th
e fin
ding
s of t
his p
aper
, the
follo
win
g re
com
men
datio
ns a
re p
rovi
ded:
43
LT
PP L
ON
GIT
UD
INA
L A
ND
TR
AN
SVE
RSE
CR
AC
KIN
G T
O M
TC
L
ON
GIT
UD
INA
L A
ND
TR
AN
SVE
RSE
CR
AC
KIN
G
The
diff
eren
ces i
n de
finiti
ons o
f the
thre
e se
verit
y le
vels
of
long
itudi
nal a
nd tr
ansv
erse
cra
ckin
g in
the
two
syst
ems a
re th
e sa
me
as th
e di
ffer
ence
s for
seve
rity
leve
ls in
blo
ck c
rack
ing.
The
co
nver
sion
tech
niqu
e us
ed to
con
vert
LTPP
long
itudi
nal a
nd
trans
vers
e cr
acki
ng q
uant
ities
in th
ree
seve
rity
leve
ls to
MTC
lo
ngitu
dina
l and
tran
sver
se c
rack
ing
quan
titie
s was
sim
ilar t
o th
at
used
for c
onve
rting
(equ
atio
n (1
)) b
lock
cra
ckin
g qu
antit
ies,
exce
pt
that
MTC
long
itudi
nal c
rack
ing
incl
udes
LTP
P lo
ngitu
dina
l cr
acki
ng o
nly
from
the
non-
whe
el p
ath
(bec
ause
MTC
ass
igns
the
porti
on in
the
whe
el p
ath
to lo
w se
verit
y al
ligat
or c
rack
ing,
ac
cord
ing
to th
e de
finiti
on).
Mor
eove
r, th
e qu
antit
ies i
n LT
PP
long
itudi
nal c
rack
ing
in n
on-w
heel
pat
h an
d LT
PP tr
ansv
erse
cr
acki
ng a
re a
dded
toge
ther
afte
r the
con
vers
ions
to M
TC sy
stem
to
obt
ain
MTC
long
itudi
nal a
nd tr
ansv
erse
cra
ckin
g qu
antit
ies i
n di
ffer
ent s
ever
ities
.
LT
PP P
AT
CH
ING
, SH
OV
ING
, AN
D R
AV
EL
ING
TO
MT
C P
AT
CH
ING
, D
IST
OR
TIO
NS,
WE
AT
HE
RIN
G, A
ND
RA
VE
LIN
G
Dur
ing
conv
ersi
ons o
f the
se d
istre
sses
, it w
as a
ssum
ed, b
ased
on
thei
r def
initi
ons,
that
ther
e is
no
diff
eren
ce b
etw
een
LTPP
shov
ing
and
MTC
dis
torti
on. S
imila
rly, L
TPP
patc
h/pa
tch
dete
riora
tion
was
con
side
red
the
sam
e as
MTC
pat
chin
g an
d ut
ility
cut
pat
ch,
and
LTPP
rave
ling
was
con
side
red
the
sam
e as
MTC
wea
ther
ing
and
rave
ling
(see
tabl
e 2)
.
PCI A
ND
DE
DU
CT
S FR
OM
MT
C-P
MS
Whe
n ap
prop
riate
dat
a co
nver
sion
s wer
e co
mpl
ete,
the
conv
erte
d da
ta w
ere
used
as i
nput
s in
the
MTC
-PM
S so
ftwar
e ve
rsio
n 7.
5 (M
TC, 1
999)
to c
alcu
late
PC
I val
ues,
dedu
cts a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith e
ach
of th
e di
stre
ss ty
pe-s
ever
ity c
ombi
natio
ns, p
erce
nt-lo
ad re
late
d de
duct
s, an
d pe
rcen
t-non
load
rela
ted
dedu
cts.
Each
of t
he se
lect
ed
39 d
ata
sets
was
con
side
red
as if
it w
ere
from
an
indi
vidu
al
insp
ectio
n un
it. A
dat
abas
e w
as fi
rst d
evel
oped
for t
he in
spec
tion
44
units
usi
ng th
e M
TC-P
MS
softw
are’
s “R
oad
Inve
ntor
y” a
nd
“Sec
tion
Des
crip
tion”
mod
ules
, and
dis
tress
info
rmat
ion
was
pr
ovid
ed a
s inp
ut d
istre
sses
usi
ng it
s “In
spec
tion
Uni
ts”
mod
ule.
Th
e “C
alcu
latio
ns”
mod
ule
was
use
d to
cal
cula
te “
PCI f
rom
In
spec
tion
Uni
ts.”
All
nece
ssar
y da
ta fo
r sta
tistic
al a
naly
sis w
ere
extra
cted
from
the
repo
rt “P
CI C
alcu
latio
n—D
educ
t Val
ues”
pr
oduc
ed b
y th
e so
ftwar
e (M
TC, 1
999)
. The
softw
are
calc
ulat
es
dedu
ct v
alue
s for
all
dist
ress
type
-sev
erity
com
bina
tions
bas
ed o
n th
e pa
vem
ent s
urfa
ce ty
pe. I
t com
bine
s all
dedu
cts t
o a
sing
le
valu
e, c
orre
cts f
or m
ultip
le o
ccur
renc
es, a
nd su
btra
cts t
he
corr
ecte
d va
lue
from
100
to d
eter
min
e PC
I val
ue (M
TC, 1
999)
. Th
is p
roce
ss is
a m
odifi
catio
n of
the
PAV
ER P
CI c
alcu
latio
n pr
oces
s (Sh
ahin
and
Wal
ters
, 199
0). T
he p
erce
nt-lo
ad re
late
d an
d no
nloa
d re
late
d de
duct
s are
cal
cula
ted
base
d on
the
seve
rity
leve
ls
of d
istre
ss ty
pes r
elat
ed to
the
caus
e of
det
erio
ratio
n. T
able
3
show
s the
seve
rity
leve
ls o
f dis
tress
type
s rel
ated
to c
ause
of
dete
riora
tion
(Sm
ith, 1
999)
. The
repo
rt tit
led
“PC
I Cal
cula
tion—
Ded
uct V
alue
s” p
rovi
des d
educ
ts fo
r eac
h of
the
dist
ress
-sev
erity
co
mbi
natio
ns, t
otal
ded
uct a
mou
nt, p
erce
nt lo
ad re
late
d de
duct
, pe
rcen
t-non
load
rela
ted
dedu
ct, a
nd P
CI f
or e
ach
insp
ectio
n un
it.
Tab
le 3
. Sev
erity
leve
ls o
f dis
tres
s typ
es r
elat
ed to
cau
se o
f de
teri
orat
ion
for
asph
alt a
nd su
rfac
e
trea
tmen
t pav
emen
ts (S
mith
, 199
9)
Cau
se o
f Det
erio
ratio
n D
istr
ess T
ype
Loa
d E
nvir
onm
ent
Oth
er
Alli
gato
r Cra
ckin
g Lo
w, m
ediu
m,
high
–
–
Blo
ck C
rack
ing
Hig
h Lo
w, m
ediu
m
– D
isto
rtion
s –
– Lo
w, m
ediu
m,
high
Lo
ngitu
dina
l and
Tr
ansv
erse
Cra
ckin
g H
igh
Low
, med
ium
–
Patc
hing
and
Util
ity
Cut
s (L
ow, m
ediu
m,
high
)/2
– (L
ow, m
ediu
m,
high
)/2
Rut
ting
and
Dep
ress
ions
Lo
w, m
ediu
m,
high
–
–
Wea
ther
ing
and
Rav
elin
g –
Low
, med
ium
, hi
gh
–
81
1
m/k
m =
63.
36 in
ches
/mi
Figu
re 8
. As-
built
rou
ghne
ss v
ersu
s pri
or r
ough
ness
for
SPS-
5 da
ta w
ith in
tens
ive
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thic
k ov
erla
y
Tab
le 1
5. R
esul
ts o
f ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
for
inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d th
ick
over
lay
Sour
ce o
f V
aria
tion
Sum
of
Squa
res
Deg
rees
of
Fr
eedo
m
Mea
n Sq
uare
F-
valu
e St
atis
tical
Si
gnifi
canc
e
Prio
r Rou
ghne
ss
0.09
2 1
0.
092
1.91
7 0.
189
Erro
r 0.
627
13
0.04
8 —
—
Tota
l 0.
719
14
—
—
—
CO
NC
LU
SIO
NS
Var
ious
stat
istic
al a
naly
ses,
incl
udin
g pa
ired
anal
yses
, reg
ress
ion
anal
yses
, and
a re
peat
ed m
easu
res a
naly
sis,
wer
e pe
rfor
med
to
exam
ine
the
effe
cts o
f sur
face
pre
para
tion,
ove
rlay
thic
knes
s, ty
pe
of o
verla
y m
ater
ial,
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g, a
nd
the
inte
ract
ive
effe
cts o
f the
se fa
ctor
s on
the
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of
y = 0
.171
3x +
0.6
314
R2 =
0.1
285
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Prio
r IRI
(m/k
m)
As-Built IRI (m/km)
80
18.9
per
cent
as s
how
n in
tabl
e 15
. O
ne p
ossi
ble
reas
on fo
r the
w
eak
rela
tions
hip
is th
e lo
w in
fluen
ce in
the
rela
tions
hip
of
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g ha
s in
the
rela
tions
hip.
Th
e sl
ope
of th
e re
gres
sion
line
is th
e lo
wes
t of a
ll th
e re
gres
sion
lin
es.
Alth
ough
the
rela
tions
hip
is w
eak,
the
pred
ictio
n eq
uatio
n fo
r as-
built
roug
hnes
s bas
ed o
n pa
vem
ent r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
with
inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d a
thic
k ov
erla
y is
as f
ollo
ws:
ior
PrIn
itial
IRI
17.063.0
IRI
×+
=
(4)
For e
xam
ple,
the
expe
cted
as-
built
roug
hnes
s for
a p
avem
ent w
ith
a pr
ior r
ough
ness
of 2
.00
m/k
m (1
27 in
ches
/mile
) und
ergo
ing
inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d a
thic
k ov
erla
y is
0.9
7 m
/km
(61
inch
es/m
ile).
As e
xpec
ted,
this
is th
e lo
wes
t exp
ecte
d as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess o
f the
four
com
bina
tions
. Th
e ex
pect
ed IR
I is 0
.05
m/k
m (3
.2 in
ches
/mile
) low
er th
an th
e tre
atm
ent o
f bas
ic su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d a
thic
k ov
erla
y an
d 0.
03 m
/km
(1.9
inch
es/m
ile)
less
than
the
valu
e ex
pect
ed fo
r a in
tens
ive
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thin
ove
rlay.
The
se v
alue
s com
pare
wel
l with
the
expe
cted
di
ffer
ence
s fro
m th
e pa
ired
anal
yses
.
The
slop
e of
the
pred
ictio
n eq
uatio
n fo
r bas
ic su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d th
ick
over
lay
is th
e lo
wes
t of a
ll fo
ur p
redi
ctio
n eq
uatio
ns.
The
low
slop
e is
an
indi
catio
n th
at a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess i
s lea
st
sens
itive
to p
rior r
ough
ness
whe
n in
tens
ive
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thic
k ov
erla
y tre
atm
ent a
re u
sed.
Thi
s is a
s exp
ecte
d be
caus
e th
is
treat
men
t is c
onsi
dere
d th
e m
ost e
xten
sive
for i
mpr
ovin
g th
e as
-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess o
f a p
avem
ent.
45
Parti
al re
sults
are
show
n in
tabl
e 4
with
the
IRI v
alue
s ass
ocia
ted
with
eac
h da
ta se
t.
Tab
le 4
. Par
tial r
esul
ts fr
om M
TC
-PM
S an
d co
rres
pond
ing
IRI v
alue
s
Dat
a N
umbe
r M
TC
PC
I
MT
C
% L
oad
Ded
uct
MT
C
% N
onlo
ad
Ded
uct
IRI
(m/k
m)
1 63
30
.58
69.4
2 1.
7228
2
26
75.3
4 24
.66
2.10
24
3 93
0.
00
100.
00
1.38
32
4 92
0.
00
100.
00
1.43
60
5 60
75
.09
24.9
1 1.
9102
6
70
85.7
3 14
.27
1.24
92
7 76
33
.68
66.3
2 1.
2060
8
56
58.2
3 41
.77
2.01
14
9 10
0 0.
00
100.
00
1.01
08
10
53
78.4
0 21
.60
1.50
92
11
100
0.00
10
0.00
1.
5694
12
36
77
.47
22.5
3 1.
4498
13
77
21
.12
78.8
8 0.
8844
14
51
38
.92
61.0
8 1.
1076
15
79
7.
29
92.7
1 1.
5756
16
76
12
.25
87.7
5 1.
9334
17
56
60
.50
39.5
0 1.
8020
18
66
63
.45
36.5
5 1.
5766
19
27
84
.86
15.1
4 3.
2080
20
10
0 0.
00
100.
00
0.75
14
21
83
41.7
0 58
.30
0.86
44
22
68
51.3
5 48
.65
0.73
14
23
100
0.00
10
0.00
0.
6540
24
10
0 0.
00
100.
00
0.68
00
25
79
43.2
2 56
.78
0.99
00
26
66
33.8
5 66
.15
1.43
42
27
67
54.1
2 45
.88
1.54
74
28
46
94.2
5 5.
75
1.64
96
46
Tab
le 4
. Par
tial r
esul
ts fr
om M
TC
-PM
S an
d co
rres
pond
ing
IRI v
alue
s—C
ontin
ued
Dat
a N
umbe
r M
TC
PC
I
MT
C
% L
oad
Ded
uct
MT
C
% N
onlo
ad
Ded
uct
IRI
(m/k
m)
29
70
94.4
3 5.
57
0.75
86
30
46
53.4
3 46
.57
1.70
88
31
6 88
.09
11.9
1 2.
2162
32
91
0.
00
100.
00
1.36
86
33
78
0.00
10
0.00
1.
5440
34
62
55
.99
44.0
1 2.
2574
35
28
69
.94
30.0
6 2.
3558
36
99
0.
00
100.
00
0.73
32
37
89
14.4
6 85
.54
0.79
52
38
100
0.00
10
0.00
0.
7804
39
10
0 0.
00
100.
00
0.78
16
STA
TIS
TIC
AL
AN
AL
YSI
S A
ND
EST
AB
LIS
HIN
G IR
I M
OD
EL
A st
atis
tical
ana
lysi
s was
con
duct
ed in
an
effo
rt to
est
ablis
h a
mod
el o
f IR
I as a
func
tion
of P
CI,
all d
istre
ss-s
ever
ity
com
bina
tions
, ded
ucts
from
eac
h di
stre
ss-s
ever
ity c
ombi
natio
n,
perc
ent-l
oad
rela
ted
dedu
cts,
and
perc
ent-n
onlo
ad re
late
d de
duct
s. A
tota
l of 4
5 pr
edic
tor v
aria
bles
was
con
side
red
in th
e st
atis
tical
an
alys
is, w
hich
cam
e fr
om 2
1 di
stre
ss-s
ever
ity c
ombi
natio
ns (7
di
stre
ss ty
pes t
imes
3 se
verit
y le
vels
), 21
ded
ucts
from
21
dist
ress
ty
pe-s
ever
ity c
ombi
natio
ns, 1
PC
I, 1
perc
ent l
oad
dedu
ct, a
nd 1
pe
rcen
t non
load
ded
uct.
Thes
e 45
pre
dict
or v
aria
bles
, dat
a fo
r 16
varia
bles
wer
e ze
ro fo
r all
39 d
ata
sets
. The
se 1
6 pr
edic
tors
thus
w
ere
rem
oved
from
furth
er c
onsi
dera
tion
in th
e an
alys
is. T
he
rem
oved
pre
dict
or v
aria
bles
wer
e: m
ediu
m a
nd h
igh
seve
rity
rutti
ng a
nd th
eir d
educ
ts; h
igh
seve
rity
bloc
k cr
acki
ng a
nd it
s de
duct
; low
, med
ium
, and
hig
h se
verit
y di
stor
tions
and
thei
r de
duct
s; h
igh
seve
rity
patc
hing
and
its d
educ
t; an
d hi
gh se
verit
y w
eath
erin
g an
d ra
velin
g an
d its
ded
uct.
79
1
m/k
m =
63.
36 in
ches
/mi
Figu
re 7
. A
s-bu
ilt r
ough
ness
ver
sus p
rior
rou
ghne
ss fo
r SP
S-5
data
with
inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d th
in o
verl
ay
Tab
le 1
4. R
esul
ts o
f ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
for
inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d th
in o
verl
ay
Sour
ce o
f V
aria
tion
Sum
of
Squa
res
Deg
rees
of
Fr
eedo
m
Mea
n Sq
uare
F-
valu
e St
atis
tical
Si
gnifi
canc
e
Prio
r Rou
ghne
ss
0.33
3 1
0.
333
5.34
9 0.
038
Erro
r 0.
810
13
0.06
2 –
–
Tota
l 1.
143
14
– –
–
INT
EN
SIV
E S
UR
FAC
E P
RE
PAR
AT
ION
AN
D T
HIC
K O
VE
RL
AY
The
regr
essi
on g
raph
for i
nten
sive
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thic
k ov
erla
ys is
show
n in
figu
re 8
and
show
s an
R-s
quar
ed o
f 0.1
3. T
his
is lo
wes
t R-s
quar
ed v
alue
of a
ll fo
ur re
gres
sion
ana
lyse
s. T
he
rela
tions
hip
has t
he lo
wes
t sta
tistic
al st
reng
th w
ith a
p-v
alue
of
y = 0
.302
5x +
0.4
049
R2 =
0.2
915
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Prio
r IRI
(m/k
m)
As-Built IRI (m/km)
78
Tab
le 1
3. R
esul
ts o
f ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
for
basi
c su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d th
ick
over
lay
Sour
ce o
f V
aria
tion
Sum
of
Squa
res
Deg
rees
of
Fr
eedo
m
Mea
n Sq
uare
F-
valu
e St
atis
tical
Si
gnifi
canc
e
Prio
r Rou
ghne
ss
0.25
6 1
0.
256
5.14
7 0.
041
Erro
r 0.
648
13
0.05
0 –
–
Tota
l 0.
905
14
– –
–
INT
EN
SIV
E S
UR
FAC
E P
RE
PAR
AT
ION
AN
D T
HIN
OV
ER
LA
Y
The
regr
essi
on g
raph
for i
nten
sive
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thin
ov
erla
ys is
show
n in
figu
re 7
and
show
s an
R-s
quar
ed o
f 0.2
9.
This
R-s
quar
ed v
alue
is th
e hi
ghes
t of t
he fo
ur re
gres
sion
ana
lyse
s fo
r spe
cific
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
over
lay
thic
knes
s tre
atm
ents
. Th
e re
latio
nshi
p ha
s a p
-val
ue o
f 3.8
per
cent
as s
how
n in
tabl
e 14
. Th
is is
the
stro
nges
t sta
tistic
al re
latio
nshi
p of
the
four
regr
essi
on
anal
yses
. Th
e pr
edic
tion
equa
tion
for i
nten
sive
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
a th
in o
verla
y is
as f
ollo
ws:
ior
PrIn
itial
IRI
29.040.0
IRI
×+
=
(3)
For e
xam
ple,
the
expe
cted
as-
built
roug
hnes
s for
a p
avem
ent w
ith
a pr
ior r
ough
ness
of 2
.00
m/k
m (1
27 in
ches
/mile
) und
ergo
ing
an
inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d a
thin
ove
rlay
is 1
.01
m/k
m (6
4 in
ches
/mile
). T
his v
alue
is a
ppro
xim
atel
y 0.
05 m
/km
(3.2
in
ches
/mile
) low
er th
an th
e va
lue
dete
rmin
ed fo
r a b
asic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thin
ove
rlay.
Thi
s val
ue is
sim
ilar t
o th
e m
ean
diff
eren
ce d
eter
min
ed e
arlie
r in
the
paire
d da
ta a
naly
ses.
47
A m
ultil
inea
r reg
ress
ion
anal
ysis
was
con
duct
ed u
sing
the
rem
aini
ng 2
9 pr
edic
tor v
aria
bles
. SA
S st
atis
tical
softw
are
was
use
d fo
r all
stat
istic
al v
alid
atio
n an
d m
odel
ing
(SA
S, 2
000)
. The
fina
l m
odel
for I
RI f
rom
this
stat
istic
al a
naly
sis w
as:
(2)
whe
re, I
RI i
s in
m/k
m
The
mod
el in
equ
atio
n (2
) has
a c
orre
latio
n co
effic
ient
(R2)
of
0.53
, coe
ffic
ient
of v
aria
tion
(CV
) of 2
8 pe
rcen
t, an
d a
root
mea
n sq
uare
err
or o
f 0.3
9. F
igur
e 3
com
pare
s gra
phic
ally
the
actu
al a
nd
the
pred
icte
d va
lues
of I
RI f
rom
cor
rela
tion
with
PC
I (eq
uatio
n (2
)) a
nd g
ives
a g
raph
ical
vie
w o
f the
dis
pers
ion
of d
ata
that
lead
s to
the
R2
valu
e. E
quat
ion
(2) c
an b
e us
ed to
est
imat
e pa
vem
ent
roug
hnes
s for
the
high
way
s in
Cal
iforn
ia, a
nd it
nee
ds o
nly
the
quan
titie
s of d
istre
ss-s
ever
ity c
ombi
natio
ns a
s inp
uts.
Bec
ause
of
the
lack
of r
ough
ness
dat
a fo
r the
loca
l stre
ets,
this
cor
rela
tion
shou
ld o
nly
be u
sed
as a
star
ting
poin
t, an
d sh
ould
be
refin
ed u
sing
da
ta o
n ci
ty st
reet
s. Th
e B
ay a
rea
agen
cies
nee
d es
tabl
ishe
d co
rrel
atio
ns b
etw
een
user
cos
ts a
nd p
avem
ent r
ough
ness
, val
id fo
r B
ay a
rea
citie
s and
cou
ntie
s, to
cou
ple
with
equ
atio
n (2
) to
estim
ate
user
cos
ts.
CR
ITIC
AL
RE
MA
RK
S
A m
ajor
pro
blem
enc
ount
ered
wor
king
with
the
SHR
P di
stre
ss
data
from
LTT
P si
tes w
as th
at so
me
dist
ress
type
-sev
eriti
es w
ere
all z
eros
bec
ause
thos
e di
stre
ss-s
ever
ities
wer
e no
t pre
sent
on
the
road
surf
ace
durin
g di
stre
ss su
rvey
s. It
is n
ow e
vide
nt fr
om th
e pr
evio
us d
iscu
ssio
n th
at m
ost o
f the
se a
bsen
t dis
tress
-sev
eriti
es
wer
e as
soci
ated
with
hig
h se
verit
ies a
nd w
ith d
isto
rtion
s of a
ll se
verit
ies.
All
of th
ese
abse
nt d
istre
ss-s
ever
ity c
ombi
natio
ns a
nd
dist
ortio
ns sh
ould
hav
e a
sign
ifica
nt in
fluen
ce o
n th
e va
lues
of I
RI.
The
reas
on fo
r the
abs
ence
of t
hese
dis
tress
-sev
erity
com
bina
tions
is
that
LTP
P da
ta a
re c
olle
cted
from
the
Stat
e hi
ghw
ays,
and
thes
e hi
gh d
istre
sses
or d
istre
ss-s
ever
ity c
ombi
natio
ns a
re g
ener
ally
qu
ickl
y re
paire
d on
Sta
te h
ighw
ays,
but c
omm
on o
n ci
ty st
reet
s.
IRI =
0.0
171
(153
– P
CI)
48
Ther
e w
as n
o w
ay to
inco
rpor
ate
thes
e hi
ghly
influ
entia
l dis
tress
-se
verit
y co
mbi
natio
ns a
nd a
ssoc
iate
d de
duct
s in
the
stat
istic
al
anal
ysis
bec
ause
of t
he u
se o
f LTP
P da
ta. C
ity st
reet
s are
gen
eral
ly
foun
d w
ith m
ore
dist
ress
qua
ntiti
es a
nd h
ighe
r sev
eriti
es th
an a
re
high
way
s. A
n IR
I mod
el d
evel
oped
usi
ng d
ata
from
city
stre
ets
wou
ld h
ave
mor
e ap
plic
abili
ty.
Som
e ag
enci
es in
the
citie
s and
cou
ntie
s of t
he S
an F
ranc
isco
Bay
ar
ea n
eed
to c
olle
ct, a
t lea
st o
nce,
IRI d
ata,
alo
ng w
ith th
e di
stre
ss
data
from
a re
pres
enta
tive
sam
ple
of th
eir c
ity st
reet
s, an
d th
en
esta
blis
h a
mor
e ap
prop
riate
IRI m
odel
for t
heir
stre
ets b
y us
ing
the
data
tran
sfor
mat
ions
sim
ilar t
o th
e on
es d
escr
ibed
abo
ve. T
he
initi
al m
odel
dev
elop
ed sh
ould
be
refin
ed a
t rea
sona
ble
time
inte
rval
s, fo
r exa
mpl
e on
ce in
eve
ry 5
yea
rs, u
sing
the
mos
t cur
rent
da
ta fr
om th
e ci
ty st
reet
s to
mai
ntai
n th
e IR
I mod
el’s
relia
bilit
y.
1
m/k
m =
63.
36 in
ches
/mi
Figu
re 3
. Act
ual v
ersu
s pre
dict
ed v
alue
s of I
RI
SUM
MA
RY
Usi
ng th
e LT
PP d
istre
ss d
ata
as in
puts
in th
e M
TC-P
MS
syst
em
requ
ires t
rans
form
atio
ns to
mat
ch th
e da
ta w
ith M
TC-P
MS
defin
ition
s bec
ause
of t
he d
iffer
ence
s bet
wee
n th
e di
stre
ss
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0 0.
01.
02.
03.
04.
0A
ctua
l IR
I (m
/km
)
Predicted IRI (m/km)
77
pred
ictio
n eq
uatio
n fo
r bas
ic su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d a
thic
k ov
erla
y is
as f
ollo
ws:
ior
Built
AsIR
IIR
IPr
25.052.0
×+
=−
(2
) Fo
r exa
mpl
e, th
e ex
pect
ed a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess f
or a
pav
emen
t with
a
prio
r rou
ghne
ss o
f 2.0
0 m
/km
(127
inch
es/m
ile) u
nder
goin
g ba
sic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
a th
ick
over
lay
is 1
.01
m/k
m (6
4 in
ches
/mile
). T
his v
alue
is a
ppro
xim
atel
y 0.
05 m
/km
low
er th
an
the
prev
ious
val
ue d
eter
min
ed fo
r a b
asic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thin
ove
rlay,
and
is in
line
with
the
mea
n di
ffer
ence
det
erm
ined
ea
rlier
in th
e pa
ired
data
ana
lysi
s. A
noth
er d
iffer
ence
in th
e pr
edic
tion
equa
tion
for b
asic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thic
k ov
erla
y is
that
the
cons
tant
is la
rger
and
the
slop
e is
smal
ler t
han
in th
e pr
evio
us e
quat
ion.
The
smal
ler s
lope
is a
n in
dica
tion
that
the
thic
ker o
verla
y re
duce
s the
eff
ect o
f pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g.
1
m/k
m =
63.
36 in
ches
/mi
Figu
re 6
. A
s-B
uilt
roug
hnes
s ver
sus p
rior
rou
ghne
ss fo
r SP
S-5
data
with
bas
ic su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d th
ick
over
lay
y = 0
.245
6x +
0.5
233
R2 =
0.2
836
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Prio
r IRI
(m/k
m)
As-Built IRI (m/km)
76
Tab
le 1
2. R
esul
ts o
f ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
for
basi
c su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d th
in o
verl
ay
Sour
ce o
f V
aria
tion
Sum
of
Squa
res
Deg
rees
of
Fr
eedo
m
Mea
n Sq
uare
F-
valu
e St
atis
tical
Si
gnifi
canc
e
Prio
r Rou
ghne
ss
0.33
4 1
0.
334
5.06
1 0.
042
Erro
r 0.
859
13
0.06
6 –
–
Tota
l 1.
193
14
– –
–
1
m/k
m =
63.
36 in
ches
/mi
Figu
re 5
. A
s-bu
ilt r
ough
ness
ver
sus p
rior
rou
ghne
ss fo
r SP
S-5
data
with
bas
ic su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d th
in o
verl
ay
BA
SIC
SU
RFA
CE
PR
EPA
RA
TIO
N A
ND
TH
ICK
OV
ER
LA
Y
The
regr
essi
on g
raph
for b
asic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thic
k ov
erla
ys is
show
n in
figu
re 6
and
show
s an
R-s
quar
ed o
f 0.2
8. T
he
rela
tions
hip
has a
p-v
alue
of 4
.1 p
erce
nt a
s sho
wn
in ta
ble
13.
The
y =
0.31
09x
+ 0.
4398
R2 =
0.2
802
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Prio
r IRI
(m/k
m)
As-Built IRI (m/km)
49
defin
ition
s and
seve
ritie
s use
d in
the
LTPP
dat
abas
e an
d in
the
MTC
-PM
S sy
stem
. A m
odel
for I
RI a
s a fu
nctio
n of
pav
emen
t co
nditi
on in
form
atio
n w
as d
evel
oped
usi
ng th
e M
TC d
ata,
and
this
IR
I mod
el is
inte
nded
for u
se in
cal
cula
ting
user
cos
ts/b
enef
its in
th
e m
anag
emen
t sys
tem
. Sev
eral
man
ipul
atio
ns w
ere
requ
ired
to
cond
uct t
he tr
ansf
orm
atio
n of
diff
eren
t LTP
P di
stre
sses
and
se
verit
ies t
o ob
tain
MTC
dis
tress
qua
ntiti
es in
thre
e se
verit
y le
vels
. M
anip
ulat
ions
wer
e pe
rfor
med
bas
ed o
n th
e di
ffer
ence
s in
defin
ition
for d
istre
sses
and
seve
ritie
s in
the
two
syst
ems.
The
follo
win
g ca
n al
so b
e su
mm
ariz
ed fr
om th
e st
udy:
• Th
e da
ta in
the
LTPP
dat
abas
e ar
e st
ored
in m
etric
uni
ts
(mm
, etc
.) th
at n
eede
d to
be
conv
erte
d to
Eng
lish
units
(in
ch, e
tc.)
to m
atch
the
units
syst
em u
sed
in th
e M
TC-
PMS
softw
are.
• Tr
ansv
erse
pro
file
data
from
the
LTPP
dat
abas
e w
ere
used
to
cal
cula
te M
TC ru
tting
. MTC
mea
sure
s rut
dep
ths a
nd
quan
titie
s by
layi
ng a
3-m
(10-
ft) st
raig
hted
ge a
cros
s the
ru
t. R
ut d
epth
s are
the
max
imum
dep
ths f
ound
in th
e w
heel
pa
ths;
rutte
d w
idth
s are
the
wid
ths o
f the
whe
el p
aths
rutte
d m
ore
than
13
mm
(0.5
inch
).
• A
ccor
ding
to th
e de
finiti
ons o
f sev
eriti
es fo
r blo
ck
crac
king
, the
rang
es d
efin
ing
the
boun
darie
s of s
ever
ity
leve
ls in
the
LTPP
syst
em a
re d
iffer
ent f
rom
thos
e in
the
MTC
syst
em. E
quat
ions
wer
e fo
rmul
ated
bas
ed o
n th
e di
ffer
ence
s in
defin
ition
s in
the
two
syst
ems a
nd u
sed
to
conv
ert d
ata
from
one
syst
em to
the
othe
r.
• Si
nce
LTPP
long
itudi
nal c
rack
ing
in a
whe
el p
ath
at a
ny
seve
rity
was
con
side
red
as a
par
t of t
he lo
w se
verit
y al
ligat
or c
rack
ing
in th
e M
TC sy
stem
, MTC
low
seve
rity
allig
ator
cra
ckin
g in
clud
es L
TPP
low
seve
rity
allig
ator
cr
acki
ng a
s wel
l as L
TPP
long
itudi
nal c
rack
ing
in th
e w
heel
pat
h at
any
seve
rity.
• Th
e tra
nsfo
rmat
ion
tech
niqu
e us
ed to
con
vert
LTPP
lo
ngitu
dina
l and
tran
sver
se c
rack
ing
quan
titie
s in
thre
e
50
seve
rity
leve
ls to
MTC
long
itudi
nal a
nd tr
ansv
erse
cra
ckin
g qu
antit
ies w
as si
mila
r to
the
tech
niqu
e us
ed fo
r the
tra
nsfo
rmat
ion
of b
lock
cra
ckin
g qu
antit
ies e
xcep
t the
M
TC lo
ngitu
dina
l cra
ckin
g qu
antit
ies d
o no
t inc
lude
LTP
P lo
ngitu
dina
l cra
ckin
g qu
antit
ies i
n th
e w
heel
pat
h.
RE
FER
EN
CE
S
FHW
A (2
001)
. Dat
aPav
e 3.
0, C
D-R
OM
. U.S
. Dep
artm
ent o
f Tr
ansp
orta
tion,
Was
hing
ton
DC
, Fed
eral
Hig
hway
A
dmin
istra
tion.
Gill
espi
e, T
.D. (
1981
). Te
chni
cal C
onsi
dera
tions
in th
e W
orld
wid
e st
anda
rdiz
atio
n of
Roa
d Ro
ughn
ess M
easu
rem
ent—
A Re
port
to th
e W
orld
Ban
k. H
ighw
ay S
afet
y R
esea
rch
Inst
itute
, Ann
Arb
or, M
I, R
epor
t UM
-HR
SI-8
1-28
.
MTC
(198
6). P
avem
ent C
ondi
tion
Inde
x D
istr
ess I
dent
ifica
tion
Man
ual f
or A
spha
lt an
d Su
rfac
e Tr
eatm
ent P
avem
ents
, 2n
d Ed
ition
. Met
ropo
litan
Tra
nspo
rtatio
n C
omm
issi
on,
Oak
land
, CA
.
MTC
(199
9). P
avem
ent M
anag
emen
t Sys
tem
, ver
sion
7.5
. CD
-R
OM
. Met
ropo
litan
Tra
nspo
rtatio
n C
omm
issi
on,
Ass
ocia
tion
of O
rego
n C
ount
ies a
nd M
ario
n C
ount
ies,
Ore
gon.
SAS
(200
0). T
he S
AS
Syst
em fo
r Win
dow
s, R
elea
se 8
.01,
SA
S In
stitu
te, I
nc.,
Car
y, N
C.
Shah
in, M
. Y.,
and
Wal
ters
, J. A
. (19
90).
Pave
men
t Mai
nten
ance
M
anag
emen
t for
Roa
ds a
nd S
tree
ts U
sing
the
PAVE
R Sy
stem
. Tec
hnic
al R
epor
t No.
M90
/05,
U.S
. Arm
y C
onst
ruct
ion
Engi
neer
ing
Res
earc
h La
bora
tory
, C
ham
paig
n, IL
.
SHR
P (1
993)
. Dis
tres
s Ide
ntifi
catio
n M
anua
l for
the
Long
-Ter
m
Pave
men
t Per
form
ance
Pro
ject
. Was
hing
ton,
DC
, Stra
tegi
c H
ighw
ay R
esea
rch
Prog
ram
, Nat
iona
l Res
earc
h C
ounc
il,
SHR
P-P-
338.
75
built
roug
hnes
s val
ues f
or d
iffer
ent l
evel
s of s
urfa
ce p
repa
ratio
n,
over
lay
thic
knes
s, an
d pr
ior p
avem
ent r
ough
ness
and
to p
rovi
de a
m
etho
d of
qua
ntify
ing
the
expe
cted
diff
eren
ce re
sulti
ng fr
om a
ch
ange
in o
ne o
r mor
e of
thes
e fa
ctor
s. F
or e
xam
ple,
bot
h a
desi
gner
and
con
tract
or c
ould
est
imat
e th
e ad
ditio
nal s
moo
thne
ss
that
wou
ld b
e ex
pect
ed b
y in
crea
sing
a p
avem
ent o
verla
y th
ickn
ess.
The
des
igne
r wou
ld b
e in
tere
sted
in th
e lo
nger
pa
vem
ent l
ife th
at w
ould
resu
lt fr
om th
e lo
wer
as-
built
roug
hnes
s an
d th
e co
ntra
ctor
wou
ld b
e in
tere
sted
in th
e ad
min
istra
tive
impa
ct
rela
ted
to th
e ac
hiev
ing
the
requ
irem
ents
of a
smoo
thne
ss
spec
ifica
tion.
The
pre
dict
ion
equa
tions
are
con
side
red
valid
for t
he
rang
e of
the
regr
essi
on d
ata,
whi
ch is
for a
rang
e of
prio
r ro
ughn
ess o
f app
roxi
mat
ely
1.0
m/k
m (6
3 in
ches
/mile
) to
2.75
m
/km
(174
inch
es/m
ile).
BA
SIC
SU
RFA
CE
PR
EPA
RA
TIO
N A
ND
TH
IN O
VE
RL
AY
The
regr
essi
on g
raph
for b
asic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thin
ov
erla
ys is
show
n in
figu
re 5
and
show
s an
R-s
quar
ed o
f 0.2
8. T
he
rela
tions
hip
has a
p-v
alue
of 4
.2 p
erce
nt a
s sho
wn
in ta
ble
12.
The
pred
ictio
n eq
uatio
n de
term
ined
for b
asic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
a th
in o
verla
y is
as f
ollo
ws:
ior
Built
AsIR
IIR
IPr
31.044.0
×+
=−
(1
) w
here
=
−Bui
ltA
sIR
I a
s-B
uilt
IRI i
n m
/km
and
=
ior
PrIR
I IR
I prio
r to
resu
rfac
ing
in m
/km
Fo
r exa
mpl
e, th
e ex
pect
ed a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess f
or a
pav
emen
t with
a
prio
r rou
ghne
ss o
f 2.0
0 m
/km
(127
inch
es/m
ile) u
nder
goin
g ba
sic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
a th
in o
verla
y is
1.0
6 m
/km
(67
inch
es/m
ile).
74
Tab
le 1
1. R
esul
ts o
f ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
for
over
lay
thic
knes
s w
ith C
-LT
PP d
ata
Sour
ce o
f V
aria
tion
Sum
of
Squa
res
Deg
rees
of
Fr
eedo
m
Mea
n Sq
uare
F-
valu
e St
atis
tical
Si
gnifi
canc
e
Prio
r Rou
ghne
ss
0.01
5 1
0.
015
0.32
0 0.
582
Erro
r 0.
582
12
0.04
8 –
–
Tota
l 0.
597
13
– –
–
PRE
DIC
TIO
N E
QU
AT
ION
S FO
R A
S-B
UIL
T R
OU
GH
NE
SS
The
prev
ious
ana
lyse
s hav
e sh
own
that
four
fact
ors h
ave
a st
atis
tical
ly si
gnifi
cant
eff
ect o
n as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess a
t a 9
5 pe
rcen
t si
gnifi
canc
e le
vel:
• Su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n.
• Pa
vem
ent r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
(mea
sure
d qu
antit
ativ
ely)
.
• Th
e in
tera
ctiv
e ef
fect
of s
urfa
ce p
repa
ratio
n an
d pa
vem
ent
roug
hnes
s bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing.
• Th
e in
tera
ctiv
e ef
fect
of o
verla
y th
ickn
ess a
nd p
avem
ent
roug
hnes
s bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing.
The
pres
ence
of t
hese
stat
istic
al e
ffec
ts id
entif
ies t
he n
eed
to
quan
tify
the
expe
cted
as-
built
roug
hnes
s tha
t will
occ
ur fo
r the
se
fact
ors,
thus
four
regr
essi
on a
naly
ses w
ere
perf
orm
ed to
det
erm
ine
pred
ictio
n eq
uatio
ns th
at a
ccou
nt fo
r the
influ
ence
of t
hese
fact
ors.
Th
ese
pred
ictio
n eq
uatio
ns c
an b
e us
ed b
y de
sign
ers t
o ev
alua
te
the
effe
ct o
n as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess o
f the
ir de
sign
alte
rnat
ives
and
by
cont
ract
ors t
o es
timat
e th
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess t
hat w
ill b
e ac
hiev
ed
unde
r a p
artic
ular
com
bina
tion
of d
esig
n fa
ctor
s. It
shou
ld b
e no
ted
that
ther
e is
a c
onsi
dera
ble
amou
nt o
f var
iabi
lity
in th
e pr
edic
tion
equa
tions
, and
the
actu
al a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess o
f a
pave
men
t may
be
influ
ence
d by
oth
er fa
ctor
s not
inco
rpor
ated
into
th
e eq
uatio
ns.
The
equa
tions
are
inte
nded
to p
rovi
de ty
pica
l as-
51
Smith
, R.E
. (19
99).
Con
cept
ual D
escr
iptio
n of
Aut
omat
ed P
CI
Cal
cula
tion
by M
TC-P
MS
Softw
are.
Tex
as A
&M
U
nive
rsity
, Col
lege
Sta
tion,
TX
, Tex
as T
rans
porta
tion
Inst
itute
.
73
Tab
le 1
0. R
esul
ts o
f ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
for
prio
r ro
ughn
ess
with
C-L
TPP
dat
a
Sour
ce o
f V
aria
tion
Sum
of
Squa
res
Deg
rees
of
Fr
eedo
m
Mea
n Sq
uare
F-
valu
e St
atis
tical
Si
gnifi
canc
e
Prio
r Rou
ghne
ss
0.16
7 1
0.
167
4.64
3 0.
052
Erro
r 0.
431
12
0.03
6 –
–
Tota
l 0.
597
13
– –
–
VA
LID
AT
ION
OF
TH
E E
FFE
CT
OF
OV
ER
LA
Y T
HIC
KN
ESS
A re
gres
sion
plo
t of o
verla
y th
ickn
ess a
nd a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess f
or
the
C-L
TPP
data
is sh
own
in fi
gure
4.
The
data
indi
cate
low
er a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess w
ith th
icke
r ove
rlay
thic
knes
s. T
his i
s con
sist
ent
with
the
anal
yses
of t
he S
PS-5
dat
a. T
he a
naly
sis o
f var
ianc
e fo
r th
e C
-LTP
P da
ta is
show
n in
tabl
e 11
. Th
e p-
valu
e fo
r the
re
latio
nshi
p is
58
perc
ent,
indi
catin
g a
wea
k re
latio
nshi
p. I
t sho
uld
be n
oted
that
the
SPS-
5 re
latio
nshi
p w
as a
lso
wea
k an
d no
t st
atis
tical
ly si
gnifi
cant
at a
95
perc
ent s
igni
fican
ce le
vel.
Figu
re 4
. A
s-bu
ilt r
ough
ness
ver
sus o
verl
ay th
ickn
ess
for
C-L
TPP
dat
a
y =
-0.0
012x
+ 1
.311
2R
2 = 0
.025
9
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
050
100
150
200
Ove
rlay
Thic
knes
s (m
m)
As-Built IRI (m/km)
72
indi
cate
a p
ositi
ve re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n pr
ior r
ough
ness
and
as-
built
roug
hnes
s. P
avem
ents
with
a h
igh
roug
hnes
s bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
corr
espo
nd to
a h
igh
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s. O
ne
diff
eren
ce b
etw
een
the
data
sets
is th
at th
e C
-LTP
P da
ta c
onta
in
gene
rally
hig
her p
rior r
ough
ness
and
hig
her a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess
mea
sure
men
ts th
an th
e SP
S-5
data
. Th
e an
alys
is o
f var
ianc
e fo
r th
e re
latio
nshi
p is
show
n in
tabl
e 10
. Th
e p-
valu
e is
5.2
per
cent
an
d in
dica
tes t
hat t
he re
latio
nshi
p is
ver
y cl
ose
to b
eing
stat
istic
ally
si
gnifi
cant
at a
95
perc
ent s
igni
fican
ce le
vel.
Exa
min
ing
the
anal
ysis
as a
val
idat
ion
of th
e SP
S-5
rela
tions
hip,
the
p-va
lue
beco
mes
2.6
per
cent
and
indi
cate
s a st
atis
tical
ly si
gnifi
cant
re
latio
nshi
p at
a 9
5 pe
rcen
t con
fiden
ce le
vel.
The
resu
lts fr
om th
e C
-LTP
P da
ta c
onfir
m th
e fin
ding
s of t
he L
TPP
SPS-
5 an
alys
is.
Figu
re 3
. A
s-bu
ilt r
ough
ness
ver
sus p
rior
rou
ghne
ss
for
C-L
TPP
dat
a
y =
0.16
22x
+ 0.
7924
R2 =
0.2
790
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Prio
r IRI
(m/k
m)
As-Built IRI (m/km)
53
PAPE
R 3
A
NA
LY
SIS
OF
INFL
UE
NC
ES
ON
A
S-B
UIL
T P
AV
EM
EN
T R
OU
GH
NE
SS IN
A
SPH
AL
T O
VE
RL
AY
S
C.M
. Ray
mon
d,1 R
. Haa
s,2 S
.L. T
ighe
,3 and
L. R
othe
nbur
g4
AB
STR
AC
T
Pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss im
med
iate
ly a
fter c
onst
ruct
ion
is a
key
m
easu
re o
f qua
lity.
The
use
of s
moo
thne
ss sp
ecifi
catio
ns re
quire
s an
und
erst
andi
ng o
f the
influ
ence
s on
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s for
bot
h tra
nspo
rtatio
n ag
enci
es a
nd c
ontra
ctor
s. Th
is p
aper
use
s dat
a fr
om
the
Long
-Ter
m P
avem
ent P
erfo
rman
ce (L
TPP)
pro
gram
to
exam
ine
four
fact
ors a
nd d
eter
min
e th
eir e
ffec
ts o
n th
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess o
f a p
avem
ent;
thes
e fa
ctor
s are
: the
ext
ent o
f sur
face
pr
epar
atio
n be
fore
resu
rfac
ing;
ove
rlay
thic
knes
s; ty
pe o
f ove
rlay
mat
eria
l; an
d pa
vem
ent r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing.
Var
ious
st
atis
tical
pro
cedu
res (
incl
udin
g pa
ired
data
ana
lyse
s, re
gres
sion
an
alys
es, a
nd a
repe
ated
mea
sure
s ana
lysi
s) a
re p
erfo
rmed
to
inve
stig
ate
thes
e ef
fect
s and
any
inte
ract
ive
effe
cts.
The
ext
ent o
f su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n, o
verla
y th
ickn
ess a
nd p
avem
ent r
ough
ness
be
fore
resu
rfac
ing
are
dete
rmin
ed to
hav
e a
stat
istic
ally
sign
ifica
nt
effe
ct (a
t a 9
5 pe
rcen
t sig
nific
ance
leve
l) on
the
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of
a p
avem
ent e
ither
dire
ctly
or i
nter
activ
ely
with
ano
ther
var
iabl
e.
The
over
lay
mix
type
is d
eter
min
ed n
ot to
hav
e an
influ
ence
on
as-
built
pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss.
Dat
a fr
om th
e C
anad
ian
Long
-Ter
m
Pave
men
t Per
form
ance
(C-L
TPP)
pro
gram
is u
sed
to v
alid
ate
the
resu
lts fo
r ove
rlay
thic
knes
s and
pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e
1 P
h.D
. Can
dida
te, D
epar
tmen
t of C
ivil
Engi
neer
ing,
Uni
vers
ity o
f Wat
erlo
o,
Wat
erlo
o, O
ntar
io, N
2L 3
G1,
chr
is.ra
ymon
d@m
to.g
ov.o
n.ca
. 2 D
epar
tmen
t of C
ivil
Engi
neer
ing,
Uni
vers
ity o
f Wat
erlo
o, W
ater
loo,
Ont
ario
, N
2L 3
G1,
has
s@uw
ater
loo.
ca.
3 Dep
artm
ent o
f Civ
il En
gine
erin
g, U
nive
rsity
of W
ater
loo,
Wat
erlo
o, O
ntar
io,
N2L
3G
1, sl
tighe
@uw
ater
loo.
ca.
4 Dep
artm
ent o
f Civ
il En
gine
erin
g, U
nive
rsity
of W
ater
loo,
Wat
erlo
o, O
ntar
io,
N2L
3G
1.
54
resu
rfac
ing.
A se
ries o
f pre
dict
ion
equa
tions
are
als
o de
velo
ped
to
allo
w fo
r est
imat
ing
the
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of a
pav
emen
t und
er
vario
us c
ondi
tions
. Pa
vem
ent d
esig
ners
, con
stru
ctio
n en
gine
ers,
and
cont
ract
ors s
houl
d un
ders
tand
the
effe
cts t
hat i
nflu
ence
the
as-
built
roug
hnes
s of a
pav
emen
t so
that
they
can
max
imiz
e th
eir
desi
gns,
smoo
thne
ss sp
ecifi
catio
ns, a
nd/o
r bid
ding
of c
ontra
cts
with
smoo
thne
ss sp
ecifi
catio
ns.
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
Pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss is
the
prim
ary
mea
sure
of p
ublic
satis
fact
ion
with
the
high
way
syst
em a
nd, a
ccor
ding
ly, t
he a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess
of a
pav
emen
t im
med
iate
ly a
fter c
onst
ruct
ion
is a
key
qua
lity
mea
sure
. A
s-bu
ilt p
avem
ent r
ough
ness
has
als
o be
en sh
own
to
affe
ct th
e lo
ng-te
rm p
erfo
rman
ce o
f a p
avem
ent (
Ray
mon
d, 2
001;
TA
C, 2
002)
. C
onse
quen
tly, m
ost t
rans
porta
tion
agen
cies
hav
e in
corp
orat
ed a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess r
equi
rem
ents
into
thei
r acc
epta
nce
crite
ria.
Thes
e ro
ughn
ess r
equi
rem
ents
are
gen
eral
ly te
rmed
“s
moo
thne
ss sp
ecifi
catio
ns.”
Alth
ough
ther
e ha
s bee
n co
mm
on
acce
ptan
ce o
f sm
ooth
ness
spec
ifica
tions
in C
anad
a an
d th
e U
nite
d St
ates
, the
pay
adj
ustm
ents
and
smoo
thne
ss re
quire
men
ts v
ary
cons
ider
ably
am
ong
trans
porta
tion
agen
cies
(Sch
mitt
et a
l., 1
998;
TA
C, 1
999)
.
Smoo
thne
ss sp
ecifi
catio
ns a
re a
n ef
fect
ive
mea
ns o
f im
prov
ing
the
as-b
uilt
smoo
thne
ss o
f a p
avem
ent (
Smith
199
7, M
cGhe
e 20
00).
Th
e in
cent
ive/
disi
ncen
tive
prov
isio
ns e
ncou
rage
con
tract
ors t
o ac
hiev
e a
smoo
th p
avem
ent s
urfa
ce, w
hich
can
incl
ude
purc
hasi
ng
new
equ
ipm
ent,
impr
ovin
g gr
ade
cont
rols
and
add
ition
al tr
aini
ng
of st
aff.
In d
evel
opin
g a
smoo
thne
ss sp
ecifi
catio
n, it
is im
porta
nt
that
tran
spor
tatio
n ag
enci
es u
nder
stan
d no
t onl
y th
e ef
fect
of a
s-bu
ilt p
avem
ent r
ough
ness
on
long
-term
per
form
ance
but
als
o th
e fa
ctor
s tha
t aff
ect a
s-bu
ilt p
avem
ent r
ough
ness
. C
ontra
ctor
s mus
t al
so u
nder
stan
d th
e fa
ctor
s tha
t will
aff
ect t
heir
abili
ty to
con
stru
ct
a sm
ooth
pav
emen
t. T
his k
now
ledg
e is
impo
rtant
for
com
petit
ivel
y bi
ddin
g co
ntra
cts w
ith p
aym
ent a
djus
tmen
ts b
ased
on
as-
built
pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss.
71
Tab
le 9
. B
etw
een-
subj
ects
eff
ects
of r
epea
ted
m
easu
res a
naly
sis
Sour
ce o
f V
aria
tion
Sum
of
Squa
res
Df
Mea
n Sq
uare
F
Stat
istic
al
Sign
ifica
nce
Inte
rcep
t 96
.559
1
96
.559
21
0.44
0.
000
Prio
r Rou
ghne
ss
(Hig
h or
Low
) 1
.233
1
1
.233
2
.687
0.
125
Erro
r 5
.965
13
0
.459
–
– Th
e ef
fect
of p
avem
ent r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
has a
p-v
alue
of
12.
5 pe
rcen
t, w
hich
doe
s not
indi
cate
a st
atis
tical
ly si
gnifi
cant
re
latio
nshi
p (a
t a 9
5 pe
rcen
t sig
nific
ance
leve
l). P
avem
ent
roug
hnes
s bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
shou
ld st
ill b
e co
nsid
ered
as a
st
atis
tical
ly si
gnifi
cant
influ
ence
on
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s bec
ause
it
was
det
erm
ined
to h
ave
a st
atis
tical
ly si
gnifi
cant
eff
ect w
hen
exam
ined
qua
ntita
tivel
y in
stea
d of
qua
litat
ivel
y as
hig
h an
d lo
w
roug
hnes
s. A
seco
nd re
ason
to c
onsi
der p
avem
ent r
ough
ness
be
fore
resu
rfac
ing
as a
stat
istic
al in
fluen
ce is
that
it h
as st
atis
tical
ly
sign
ifica
nt in
tera
ctiv
e ef
fect
s with
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
over
lay
thic
knes
s.
VA
LID
AT
ION
WIT
H C
-LT
PP D
AT
A
To v
alid
ate
the
findi
ngs o
f the
ana
lyse
s per
form
ed o
n th
e SP
S-5
site
s, da
ta fr
om th
e C
-LTP
P pr
ogra
m w
as e
xam
ined
. R
egre
ssio
n an
alys
es w
ere
perf
orm
ed to
val
idat
e th
e in
divi
dual
eff
ects
of p
rior
roug
hnes
s and
ove
rlay
thic
knes
s. In
suff
icie
nt d
ata
wer
e av
aila
ble
to v
alid
ate
the
effe
cts o
f sur
face
pre
para
tion
and
over
lay
mat
eria
l.
Ave
rage
prio
r rou
ghne
ss a
nd o
verla
y th
ickn
ess v
alue
s for
eac
h si
te
wer
e an
alyz
ed fo
r the
ir re
latio
nshi
p w
ith th
e av
erag
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess f
or e
ach
site
. Th
e C
-LTP
P m
easu
rem
ents
repr
esen
t 14
data
poi
nts.
VA
LID
AT
ION
OF
TH
E E
FFE
CT
OF
SUR
FAC
E P
RE
PAR
AT
ION
The
regr
essi
on g
raph
for t
he e
ffec
t of p
avem
ent r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
on a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess i
s sho
wn
in fi
gure
3.
This
gra
ph
is si
mila
r to
the
corr
espo
ndin
g SP
S-5
grap
h in
that
the
data
70
Tab
le 8
. W
ithin
-sub
ject
s eff
ects
of r
epea
ted
mea
sure
s ana
lysi
s
Sour
ce o
f V
aria
tion
Sum
of
Squa
res
Df
Mea
n Sq
uare
F
Stat
istic
al
Sign
ifica
nce
SP
4.24
E-0
2 1
4.
24 E
-02
5.89
7 0.
030
SP, P
R
5.22
E-0
2 1
5.
22 E
-02
7.26
8 0.
018
Erro
r 9.
34 E
-02
13
7.18
E-0
2
O
T 5.
23 E
-04
1
5.23
E-0
4 0.
033
0.86
0 D
T, P
R
0.10
0 1
0.
100
6.22
8 0.
027
Erro
r
0.
209
13
1.61
E-0
2
O
M
1.46
E-0
4 1
1.
46 E
-04
0.00
3 0.
955
OM
, PR
1.
79 E
-04
1
1.79
E-0
4 0.
004
0.95
0 Er
ror
0.57
4 13
4.
41 E
-02
SP, O
T 1.
42 E
-06
1
1.42
E-0
6 0.
000
0.99
3 SP
, OT
PR
3.
90 E
-03
1
3.90
E-0
3 0.
192
0.66
9
Erro
r
0.2
65
13
2.04
E-0
2
SP
, OM
2.
68 E
-03
1
2.68
E-0
3 0.
229
0.64
0 SP
, OM
PR
1.
20 E
-04
1
1.20
E-0
4 0.
010
0.92
1
Erro
r
0.
152
13
1.17
E-0
2
O
T, O
M
3.42
E-0
2 1
3.
42 E
-02
1.80
5 0.
202
OT,
OM
PR
2.
54 E
-03
1
2.54
E-0
3 0.
134
0.72
0
Erro
r
0.
246
13
1.90
E-0
2
SP
, OT,
OM
2.
60 E
-03
1
2.60
E-0
3 0.
119
0.73
5 SP
, OT
3.73
E-0
4 1
3.
73 E
-04
0.01
7 0.
898
OM
, PR
Er
ror
0.28
3 13
2.
18 E
-02
Prio
r Rou
ghne
ss –
PR
O
verla
y Th
ickn
ess –
OT
Surf
ace
Prep
arat
ion
– SP
O
verla
y M
ater
ial –
OM
55
This
pap
er e
xam
ines
four
des
ign
fact
ors f
or th
eir e
ffec
t on
the
as-
built
pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss o
f asp
halt
over
lays
con
stru
cted
ove
r ex
istin
g as
phal
t pav
emen
ts: t
he d
egre
e of
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
befo
re o
verla
y; o
verla
y th
ickn
ess;
type
of o
verla
y m
ater
ial;
and
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g. T
he in
fluen
ce o
f the
se
fact
ors o
n as
-bui
lt pa
vem
ent r
ough
ness
can
be
an is
sue
of
disa
gree
men
t bet
wee
n tra
nspo
rtatio
n ag
enci
es a
nd c
ontra
ctor
s. A
nu
mbe
r of o
ther
fact
ors n
ot c
onsi
dere
d in
the
anal
ysis
incl
ude
the
use
of a
mat
eria
l tra
nsfe
r veh
icle
; the
deg
ree
of sm
ooth
ness
re
quire
d by
the
owne
r’s s
moo
thne
ss sp
ecifi
catio
n; th
e m
agni
tude
of
ince
ntiv
es a
nd/o
r dis
ince
ntiv
es p
rovi
ded
in th
e ow
ner’
s sm
ooth
ness
spec
ifica
tion;
the
cont
ract
or’s
atti
tude
and
cap
abili
ty to
ac
hiev
e a
smoo
th p
avem
ent;
and
the
oper
atio
nal c
onst
rain
ts re
late
d to
the
proj
ect (
such
as t
raff
ic st
agin
g, lo
catio
n of
inte
rsec
tions
, and
ex
tent
of n
ight
pav
ing)
.
RE
LA
TE
D S
TU
DIE
S
Prev
ious
rese
arch
has
pro
vide
d di
ffer
ent c
oncl
usio
ns re
gard
ing
the
influ
ence
s on
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s. A
n ea
rlier
stud
y sp
onso
red
by
the
Fede
ral H
ighw
ay A
dmin
istra
tion
(FH
WA
) was
una
ble
to
iden
tify
any
stat
istic
al d
iffer
ence
in a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess f
rom
the
four
fact
ors m
entio
ned
abov
e (s
urfa
ce p
repa
ratio
n, o
verla
y th
ickn
ess,
over
lay
mat
eria
l and
roug
hnes
s bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing)
(P
erer
a, B
yrum
, and
Koh
n, 1
998;
Per
era,
and
Koh
n, 1
999)
. R
esea
rch
by th
e V
irgin
ia D
epar
tmen
t of T
rans
porta
tion
conc
lude
d th
at a
s-bu
ilt p
avem
ent r
ough
ness
is in
fluen
ced
by th
e pa
vem
ent
roug
hnes
s bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing,
the
func
tiona
l cla
ssifi
catio
n of
the
road
way
, and
the
appl
icat
ion
of a
smoo
thne
ss sp
ecifi
catio
n (M
cGhe
e, 2
000)
. Th
e sa
me
rese
arch
als
o re
ports
that
the
num
ber
of a
dditi
onal
stru
ctur
al la
yers
, the
surf
ace
mix
type
, and
pav
emen
t m
illin
g be
fore
ove
rlay
do n
ot in
fluen
ce a
s-bu
ilt p
avem
ent
roug
hnes
s.
DE
SCR
IPT
ION
OF
DA
TA
SO
UR
CE
S
The
data
for t
he a
naly
sis i
s fro
m th
e LT
PP p
rogr
am e
stab
lishe
d as
pa
rt of
the
Stra
tegi
c H
ighw
ay R
esea
rch
Prog
ram
(SH
RP)
that
56
bega
n in
198
7. I
t con
sist
s of n
umer
ous t
est s
ectio
ns lo
cate
d th
roug
hout
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es a
nd C
anad
a. O
f int
eres
t to
this
re
sear
ch a
re th
e SP
S-5
expe
rimen
ts.
Each
SPS
-5 si
te c
onsi
sts o
f ni
ne 1
50-m
eter
(m) (
492-
feet
(ft))
sect
ions
(FH
WA
, 96)
. Ei
ght
sect
ions
are
exp
erim
enta
l, w
hile
one
sect
ion,
sect
ion
501,
is a
co
ntro
l sec
tion
with
no
spec
ific
treat
men
t exc
ept f
or ro
utin
e m
aint
enan
ce.
Bec
ause
the
cont
rol s
ectio
n pr
ovid
es n
o in
form
atio
n re
late
d to
this
exa
min
atio
n of
as-
built
roug
hnes
s, it
is n
ot
inco
rpor
ated
into
the
anal
ysis
. Th
e ei
ght e
xper
imen
tal s
ectio
ns fo
r ea
ch p
roje
ct w
ere
setu
p as
show
n in
tabl
e 1
with
diff
eren
t tre
atm
ents
for e
xten
t of s
urfa
ce p
repa
ratio
n, ty
pe o
f ove
rlay
mat
eria
l, an
d ov
erla
y th
ickn
ess (
not i
nclu
ding
repl
acem
ent o
f m
illed
mat
eria
l). T
he p
rimar
y di
ffer
ence
bet
wee
n ba
sic
and
inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n is
the
amou
nt o
f mill
ing
that
was
pe
rfor
med
for t
he se
ctio
n. P
avem
ent r
ough
ness
is m
easu
red
in
term
s of I
nter
natio
nal R
ough
ness
Inde
x (I
RI)
usi
ng a
K.J.
Law
Pr
ofilo
met
er.
Dat
a fo
r thi
s ana
lysi
s are
from
the
Dat
aPav
e 3.
0 da
taba
se.
The
tabl
es e
ntitl
ed T
ST_L
05A
, SPS
5_LA
YER
, and
M
ON
_PR
OFI
LE_M
AST
ER w
ere
used
for t
his r
esea
rch.
V
alid
atio
n of
SPS
-5 a
naly
sis w
as p
erfo
rmed
bas
ed o
n da
ta fr
om
the
C-L
TPP
data
base
supp
lied
by th
e C
anad
ian
Stra
tegi
c H
ighw
ay
Res
earc
h Pr
ogra
m (C
-SH
RP)
.
69
effe
cts a
re 1
.8 p
erce
nt a
nd 2
.7 p
erce
nt, r
espe
ctiv
ely.
The
pre
senc
e of
thes
e in
tera
ctiv
e ef
fect
s mea
ns th
at w
hen
estim
atin
g th
e ef
fect
of
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
or o
verla
y th
ickn
ess o
n as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess,
the
effe
ct sh
ould
be
cons
ider
ed in
com
bina
tion
with
the
pave
men
t ro
ughn
ess b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g. N
o ot
her s
tatis
tical
ly si
gnifi
cant
in
tera
ctiv
e ef
fect
s are
app
aren
t fro
m th
e an
alys
is.
68
Tab
le 7
. R
esul
ts o
f ana
lysi
s of v
aria
nce
for
loga
rith
m o
f pri
or
roug
hnes
s for
SPS
-5 si
tes
Sour
ce o
f V
aria
tion
Sum
of
Squa
res
Deg
rees
of
Fr
eedo
m
Mea
n Sq
uare
F-
valu
e St
atis
tical
Si
gnifi
canc
e
Prio
r Rou
ghne
ss
0.27
0 1
0.
270
5.56
9 0.
035
Erro
r 0.
630
13
0.04
8 –
– To
tal
0.90
0 14
–
– –
INV
EST
IGA
TIO
N O
F IN
TE
RA
CT
IVE
EFF
EC
TS
As n
oted
ear
lier i
n th
is p
aper
, the
eff
ects
of s
urfa
ce p
repa
ratio
n an
d pa
vem
ent r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
stat
istic
ally
influ
ence
the
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of a
pav
emen
t, an
d th
e ef
fect
of o
verla
y th
ickn
ess h
as a
mar
gina
lly st
atis
tical
influ
ence
on
the
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of a
pav
emen
t. T
o fu
lly u
nder
stan
d th
e fa
ctor
s tha
t in
fluen
ce th
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess o
f a p
avem
ent,
it is
als
o ne
cess
ary
to in
vest
igat
e th
e in
tera
ctiv
e ef
fect
s. T
he b
est m
etho
d fo
r ex
amin
ing
the
inte
ract
ive
effe
cts i
s to
perf
orm
a re
peat
ed-m
easu
res
anal
ysis
on
the
effe
cts o
f sur
face
pre
para
tion,
ove
rlay
thic
knes
s, ov
erla
y m
ater
ial,
and
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g. T
he
limite
d am
ount
of d
ata
requ
ires t
hat p
avem
ent r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
be c
ateg
oriz
ed in
to h
igh
and
low
pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss.
An
IRI l
evel
of 1
.5 m
/km
(95
inch
es/m
ile) w
as se
lect
ed a
s an
appr
opria
te le
vel t
o se
para
te lo
w a
nd h
igh
prio
r pav
emen
t ro
ughn
ess.
The
with
in-s
ubje
cts e
ffec
ts fo
r rep
eate
d m
easu
red
anal
ysis
are
pr
esen
ted
in ta
ble
8 an
d th
e be
twee
n-su
bjec
ts e
ffec
ts a
re p
rese
nted
in
tabl
e 9.
The
resu
lts fo
r the
repe
ated
mea
sure
s ana
lysi
s con
firm
th
e re
sults
of t
he p
revi
ous p
aire
d-da
ta a
naly
sis r
elat
ed to
the
indi
vidu
al e
ffec
ts o
f sur
face
pre
para
tion,
ove
rlay
thic
knes
s, an
d ov
erla
y m
ater
ial.
The
ana
lysi
s als
o in
dica
tes t
hat t
here
are
st
atis
tical
ly si
gnifi
cant
(at a
95
perc
ent s
igni
fican
ce le
vel)
inte
ract
ive
effe
cts f
or su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d pa
vem
ent r
ough
ness
be
fore
resu
rfac
ing
as w
ell a
s for
ove
rlay
thic
knes
s and
pav
emen
t ro
ughn
ess b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g. T
he p
-val
ues f
or th
ese
inte
ract
ive
57
Tab
le 1
. SP
S-5
expe
rim
enta
l tes
t sec
tions
Sect
ion
Surf
ace
Prep
arat
ion
Des
ign
Ove
rlay
T
hick
ness
(m
m)*
Ove
rlay
M
ater
ial
502
Bas
ic
50
Rec
ycle
d
503
Bas
ic
125
Rec
ycle
d
504
Bas
ic
125
Virg
in
505
Bas
ic
50
Virg
in
506
Inte
nsiv
e 50
V
irgin
507
Inte
nsiv
e 12
5 V
irgin
508
Inte
nsiv
e 12
5 R
ecyc
led
509
Inte
nsiv
e 50
R
ecyc
led
1 m
m =
0.0
39 in
ch
* D
esig
n ov
erla
y th
ickn
ess d
oes n
ot in
clud
e re
plac
emen
t of m
illed
mat
eria
l
AS-
BU
ILT
RO
UG
HN
ESS
PA
VE
ME
NT
SE
CT
ION
S
As-
built
pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss m
easu
rem
ents
wer
e ta
ken
for e
ach
sect
ion
imm
edia
tely
afte
r res
urfa
cing
for t
he 1
7 si
tes a
nd a
re
show
n in
tabl
e 2.
Rou
ghne
ss is
qua
ntifi
ed b
ased
on
the
IRI.
The
ta
ble
also
pro
vide
s the
ave
rage
as-
built
IRI f
or e
ach
site
, the
av
erag
e as
-bui
lt IR
I det
erm
ined
for e
ach
sect
ion
treat
men
t, co
rres
pond
ing
stan
dard
dev
iatio
ns, a
nd c
oeff
icie
nts o
f var
iatio
ns.
Five
of t
he a
s-bu
ilt IR
I val
ues f
or M
aine
wer
e m
issi
ng fr
om th
e da
taba
se, r
equi
ring
extra
pola
tion
from
the
IRI d
ata
2 ye
ars
follo
win
g co
nstru
ctio
n. T
he e
xtra
pola
tion
of th
ese
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s val
ues i
s bas
ed o
n th
e av
erag
e ch
ange
in IR
I for
the
othe
r thr
ee se
ctio
ns d
urin
g th
is ti
me
perio
d.
An
exam
inat
ion
of th
e av
erag
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess o
f the
var
ious
se
ctio
ns in
dica
tes t
hat m
ost a
vera
ges a
re c
lose
to th
e ov
eral
l av
erag
e of
0.9
1 m
/km
(58
inch
es p
er m
ile (i
nche
s/m
i). S
ectio
n 50
2 (b
asic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion,
thin
ove
rlay,
and
recy
cled
mat
eria
l)
58
and
sect
ion
508
(inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n, th
ick
over
lay,
and
re
cycl
ed m
ater
ial)
have
the
grea
test
dev
iatio
n fr
om th
e ov
eral
l site
av
erag
e. S
ectio
n 50
2 ha
s a h
igh
aver
age
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of 0
.97
m/k
m (6
1 in
ches
/mile
); se
ctio
n 50
8 ha
s a lo
w a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess o
f 0.
86 m
/km
(54
inch
es/m
ile).
The
theo
ry th
at e
xten
sive
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
and
thic
k ov
erla
ys p
rovi
de th
e sm
ooth
est a
s-bu
ilt
pave
men
ts w
ould
seem
to b
e co
nsis
tent
with
the
aver
age
roug
hnes
s va
lues
for s
ectio
ns 5
02 a
nd 5
08.
Wha
t rem
ains
une
xpla
ined
is w
hy
the
corr
espo
ndin
g se
ctio
ns w
ith d
iffer
ent o
verla
y m
ater
ial d
o no
t pr
ovid
e si
mila
r as-
built
roug
hnes
s val
ues.
Bec
ause
the
type
of
over
lay
mat
eria
l is n
ot c
onsi
dere
d to
aff
ect a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess,
the
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of s
ectio
ns 5
05 (b
asic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion,
thin
ov
erla
y, a
nd v
irgin
mat
eria
l) an
d 50
7 (in
tens
ive
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion,
thic
k ov
erla
y, a
nd v
irgin
mat
eria
l) sh
ould
cor
resp
ond
with
the
aver
ages
for s
ectio
ns 5
02 a
nd 5
08.
The
aver
age
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s for
sect
ion
505
is sl
ight
ly g
reat
er th
an th
e ov
eral
l av
erag
e an
d th
e av
erag
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess f
or se
ctio
n 50
7 is
sl
ight
ly lo
wer
than
the
over
all a
vera
ge.
The
effe
ct o
f the
var
ious
tre
atm
ents
on
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s is e
xam
ined
late
r in
this
pap
er.
67
sign
ifica
nt e
ffec
t (at
a tw
o-ta
iled
95 p
erce
nt si
gnifi
canc
e le
vel)
on
as-b
uilt
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss.
Pave
men
ts w
ith a
hig
h pa
vem
ent
roug
hnes
s bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
will
tend
to h
ave
a hi
gher
as-
built
ro
ughn
ess a
fter r
esur
faci
ng.
The
estim
ate
of th
e re
gres
sion
slop
e is
0.
29, w
hich
indi
cate
s tha
t for
eve
ry 1
.0 m
/km
(63
inch
es/m
ile)
incr
ease
in p
avem
ent I
RI b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g th
ere
will
be
an
expe
cted
0.2
9 m
/km
(18
inch
es/m
ile) i
ncre
ase
in a
s-bu
ilt IR
I. T
he
regr
essi
on li
ne is
bas
ed o
n th
e av
erag
e ro
ughn
ess f
or e
ach
site
be
fore
resu
rfac
ing
and
the
aver
age
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s for
eac
h si
te.
The
data
exc
lude
two
site
s, N
ew M
exic
o an
d M
anito
ba, b
ecau
se
limite
d in
form
atio
n is
ava
ilabl
e on
the
roug
hnes
s of t
hese
site
s be
fore
resu
rfac
ing.
Fi
gure
2.
As-
built
rou
ghne
ss v
ersu
s pri
or r
ough
ness
fo
r SP
S-5
data
y = 0
.287
4x +
0.4
506
R2 =
0.2
999
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Prio
r IRI
(m/k
m)
As-Built IRI (m/km)
66
resu
lts o
f a c
ompa
rison
of t
he e
ffec
t of o
verla
y m
ater
ial o
n as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess a
re sh
own
in ta
ble
6. T
he re
sults
indi
cate
that
ther
e ar
e es
sent
ially
no
stat
istic
al d
iffer
ence
s in
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s bet
wee
n re
cycl
ed a
nd v
irgin
mix
ture
s. A
ll of
the
p-va
lues
are
clo
se to
a
valu
e of
one
, ind
icat
ing
no re
latio
nshi
p w
ith a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess.
Tab
le 6
. Pa
ired
dat
a an
alys
is o
f the
eff
ect o
f ove
rlay
mat
eria
l on
as-
built
IRI
Dat
a Se
t
Mea
n D
iffer
ence
(m
/km
)
Stan
dard
D
evia
tion
of
Diff
eren
ces
(m/k
m)
Obs
er-
vatio
ns
t-st
atis
tic
Stat
istic
al
Sign
ifica
nce
(2-t
aile
d)
D
ata
with
pr
ior I
RI
grea
ter
than
1.5
m
/km
0.00
5 0.
144
9 0.
099
0.92
4
Dat
a w
ith
prio
r IR
I le
ss th
an
1.5
m/k
m
0.00
0 0.
155
6 −0
.004
0.
997
All
0.
002
0.13
5 17
0.
060
0.95
3
1 m
/km
= 6
3.36
inch
es/m
ile
CO
MPA
RIS
ON
OF
PAV
EM
EN
T R
OU
GH
NE
SS B
EFO
RE
RE
SUR
FAC
ING
As o
utlin
ed p
revi
ousl
y, th
e SP
S-5
expe
rimen
tal s
ectio
ns w
ere
setu
p as
a fa
ctor
ial e
xper
imen
t bas
ed o
n ex
tent
of s
urfa
ce
prep
arat
ion,
ove
rlay
thic
knes
s, an
d ty
pe o
f ove
rlay
mat
eria
l.
Bec
ause
the
effe
ct o
f pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g ca
nnot
be
inve
stig
ated
in th
e sa
me
man
ner a
s the
fact
oria
l va
riabl
es, a
regr
essi
on a
naly
sis w
as p
erfo
rmed
to d
eter
min
e w
heth
er th
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess o
f a p
avem
ent i
s aff
ecte
d by
the
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g. A
plo
t of t
he re
gres
sion
an
alys
is is
show
n in
figu
re 2
, and
the
anal
ysis
of v
aria
nce
stat
istic
s ar
e sh
own
in ta
ble
7. T
he p
-val
ue is
3.5
per
cent
, whi
ch in
dica
tes
that
the
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g ha
s a st
atis
tical
ly
59
Tab
le 2
. A
s-bu
ilt IR
I mea
sure
men
ts
As-
Bui
lt IR
I (m
/km
) T
est S
ectio
n N
umbe
r St
ate/
Pr
ovin
ce
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
Ave
r-ag
e (m
/km
) A
laba
ma
0.77
0.
83
0.85
0.
82
0.70
0.
76
0.93
0.
81
0.81
A
rizon
a 1.
36
0.95
1.
20
1.27
1.
02
1.30
0.
94
1.03
1.
13
Cal
iforn
ia
0.95
1.
08
1.02
0.
72
0.81
0.
83
0.75
1.
01
0.90
C
olor
ado
0.94
0.
78
0.83
0.
78
0.93
0.
70
0.78
0.
91
0.83
Fl
orid
a 0.
68
0.74
0.
64
0.49
0.
50
0.55
0.
72
0.57
0.
61
Geo
rgia
0.
52
0.54
0.
49
0.56
0.
47
0.47
0.
66
0.52
0.
53
Mai
ne
0.68
0.
88
0.84
0.
67
0.79
0.
82
0.75
0.
98
0.80
M
aryl
and
1.39
1.
03
0.91
1.
01
0.74
0.
88
0.79
1.
03
0.97
M
inne
sota
0.
85
0.76
1.
12
1.08
1.
08
0.85
1.
00
078
0.94
M
issi
ssip
pi
1.41
1.
80
1.20
1.
72
1.41
1.
26
1.41
1.
78
1.50
M
onta
na
0.82
0.
99
0.72
0.
66
0.67
1.
14
0.76
0.
69
0.81
N
ew Je
rsey
0.
99
0.67
0.
72
0.89
0.
73
0.78
0.
74
0.75
0.
78
New
Mex
ico
0.59
0.
45
0.44
0.
47
0.44
0.
51
0.49
0.
50
0.49
O
klah
oma
1.13
1.
01
1.07
1.
02
1.00
0.
88
0.94
0.
91
1.00
Te
xas
1.23
1.
11
1.54
1.
36
1.52
1.
45
1.06
1.
24
1.32
A
lber
ta
1.04
1.
05
1.29
1.
14
1.06
1.
38
1.04
1.
01
1.12
M
anito
ba
1.20
0.
79
0.79
1.
08
1.45
0.
69
0.81
0.
99
0.97
A
vera
ge
0.97
0.
91
0.92
0.
92
0.90
0.
90
0.86
0.
91
0.91
St
anda
rd
Dev
iatio
n 0.
28
0.30
0.
29
0.34
0.
33
0.30
0.
20
0.30
0.
26
Coe
ffic
ient
of
Var
iatio
n 0.
29
0.33
0.
32
0.36
0.
37
0.34
0.
24
0.33
0.
29
1 m
/km
= 6
3.36
inch
es/m
ile
PRIO
R R
OU
GH
NE
SS O
F PA
VE
ME
NT
SE
CT
ION
S
Rou
ghne
ss m
easu
rem
ents
for e
ach
sect
ion
befo
re re
surf
acin
g ar
e sh
own
in ta
ble
3. T
he ta
ble
also
pro
vide
s the
ave
rage
prio
r IR
I for
ea
ch si
te, t
he a
vera
ge p
rior I
RI d
eter
min
ed fo
r eac
h se
ctio
n tre
atm
ent,
and
the
corr
espo
ndin
g st
anda
rd d
evia
tions
and
co
effic
ient
s of v
aria
tions
. R
ough
ness
mea
sure
men
ts b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g ar
e no
t ava
ilabl
e fo
r the
Man
itoba
site
. Th
e N
ew
Mex
ico
site
has
prio
r rou
ghne
ss m
easu
rem
ents
for o
nly
two
sect
ions
. B
ecau
se th
ere
is c
onsi
dera
ble
varia
tion
in th
e tw
o ro
ughn
ess v
alue
s (1.
74 m
/km
(110
inch
es/m
ile) a
nd 3
.04
m/k
m
(193
inch
es/m
ile),
the
mea
sure
men
ts w
ere
not i
ncor
pora
ted
into
th
e an
alys
es (i
.e.,
the
New
Mex
ico
site
was
eva
luat
ed w
ithou
t prio
r ro
ughn
ess m
easu
rem
ents
). T
wo
othe
r site
s, C
olor
ado
and
60
Min
neso
ta, w
ere
mis
sing
roug
hnes
s mea
sure
men
ts b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g fo
r at l
east
one
sect
ion.
The
se si
tes w
ere
eval
uate
d ba
sed
on th
e in
form
atio
n av
aila
ble,
with
the
aver
age
site
roug
hnes
s be
ing
subs
titut
ed fo
r mis
sing
val
ues.
Tab
le 3
. IR
I mea
sure
men
ts b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g
As-
Bui
lt IR
I (m
/km
) T
est S
ectio
n N
umbe
r St
ate/
Pr
ovin
ce
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
Ave
rage
(m
/km
)
Ala
bam
a 1.
04
0.99
1.
03
1.14
1.
05
1.24
1.
06
1.71
1.
16
Ariz
ona
2.01
1.
69
1.55
2.
56
1.73
1.
83
1.55
2.
38
1.91
C
alifo
rnia
3.
13
1.78
1.
89
1.55
1.
81
2.35
2.
06
2.13
2.
09
Col
orad
o 1.
49
1.74
1.
51
1.38
1.
86
1.
60
Flor
ida
1.07
1.
03
1.40
1.
45
0.97
1.
14
1.12
1.
07
1.16
G
eorg
ia
1.07
0.
96
1.11
1.
21
1.07
0.
88
0.91
0.
99
1.03
M
aine
1.
02
1.21
1.
37
1.27
1.
16
1.43
1.
24
1.10
1.
22
Mar
ylan
d 1.
60
2.07
2.
02
1.53
1.
35
1.41
1.
47
1.36
1.
60
Min
neso
ta
2.80
2.
74
3.17
2.
55
2.
64
2.49
2.
95
2.76
M
issi
ssip
pi
2.58
2.
70
2.42
1.
75
2.06
2.
07
2.33
2.
73
2.33
M
onta
na
1.56
1.
80
1.39
1.
07
1.95
1.
03
1.34
0.
98
1.39
N
ew Je
rsey
2.
07
2.02
1.
61
1.80
1.
74
2.05
1.
53
2.18
1.
88
New
Mex
ico
O
klah
oma
2.51
2.
04
2.08
1.
07
2.01
2.
31
1.76
1.
59
1.92
Te
xas
1.37
1.
49
1.38
1.
55
1.18
1.
46
1.26
1.
95
1.45
A
lber
ta
2.06
2.
09
2.41
1.
38
1.50
1.
62
1.80
1.
98
1.85
M
anito
ba
A
vera
ge
1.83
1.
76
1.76
1.
55
1.51
1.
68
1.59
1.
79
1.68
St
anda
rd
Dev
iatio
n 0.
69
0.56
0.
58
0.46
0.
40
0.54
0.
46
0.65
0.
48
Coe
ffic
ient
of
Var
iatio
n 0.
38
0.32
0.
33
0.30
0.
26
0.32
0.
29
0.36
0.
29
1 m
/km
= 6
3.36
inch
es/m
ile
The
aver
age
roug
hnes
s bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
for t
he si
tes i
s 1.6
8 m
/km
(106
inch
es/m
ile).
Sec
tion
506
has t
he lo
wes
t ave
rage
ro
ughn
ess b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g of
1.5
1 m
/km
(96
inch
es/m
ile) a
nd
sect
ion
502
has t
he h
ighe
st, o
f 1.8
3 m
/km
(116
inch
es/m
ile).
If th
e IR
I bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
is re
late
d to
the
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of a
pa
vem
ent,
the
low
prio
r IR
I for
sect
ions
505
and
508
may
hel
p ex
plai
n w
hy th
eir a
vera
ge a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess v
alue
s are
low
er th
an
for t
heir
corr
espo
ndin
g se
ctio
ns w
ith d
iffer
ent o
verla
y m
ater
ial
65
stat
istic
ally
sign
ifica
nt a
t a tw
o-ta
iled
sign
ifica
nce
leve
l of 9
5 pe
rcen
t, w
hen
the
anal
ysis
is c
onsi
dere
d fr
om a
one
-sid
ed
appr
oach
, the
p-v
alue
bec
omes
6.0
5 pe
rcen
t, w
hich
is c
lose
to
bein
g st
atis
tical
ly si
gnifi
cant
at a
95
perc
ent s
igni
fican
ce le
vel.
The
mea
n di
ffer
ence
in IR
I bet
wee
n th
in a
nd th
ick
over
lays
is −
0.06
3 m
/km
(−4.
0 in
ches
/mile
) for
pav
emen
ts w
ith a
low
pav
emen
t ro
ughn
ess b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g. T
he d
iffer
ence
is n
ot st
atis
tical
ly
sign
ifica
nt. H
owev
er, t
he fa
ct th
at p
avem
ents
with
a h
igh
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g ha
ve a
pos
itive
diff
eren
ce
in IR
I and
pav
emen
ts w
ith a
low
pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g ha
ve a
neg
ativ
e di
ffer
ence
sugg
ests
a p
ossi
ble
inte
ract
ive
effe
ct w
ith p
rior r
ough
ness
. Th
is in
tera
ctiv
e ef
fect
is
exam
ined
late
r in
this
pap
er.
Tab
le 5
. Pa
ired
dat
a an
alys
is o
f the
eff
ect o
f des
ign
over
lay
thic
knes
s on
as-b
uilt
IRI
Dat
a Se
t M
ean
Diff
eren
ce
(m/k
m)
Stan
dard
D
evia
tion
of
Diff
eren
ces
(m/k
m)
Obs
er-
vatio
ns
t-st
atis
tic
Stat
istic
al
Sign
ifica
nce
(2-t
aile
d)
Dat
a w
ith
prio
r IR
I gr
eate
r th
an 1
.5
m/k
m
0.05
5 0.
095
9 1.
736
0.12
1
Dat
a w
ith
prio
r IR
I le
ss th
an
1.5
m/k
m
−0.0
63
0.08
1 6
−1.9
06
0.11
5
All
0.
033
0.13
9 17
0.
969
0.34
7
1 m
/km
= 6
3.36
inch
es/m
ile
CO
MPA
RIS
ON
OF
OV
ER
LA
Y M
AT
ER
IAL
The
type
of o
verla
y m
ater
ial (
i.e.,
recy
cled
or v
irgin
) has
not
tra
ditio
nally
bee
n co
nsid
ered
an
influ
enci
ng fa
ctor
in p
avem
ent
roug
hnes
s, bu
t is i
nves
tigat
ed to
con
firm
its l
ack
of e
ffec
t. T
he
64
thro
ugh
the
use
of p
rope
r pav
ing
tech
niqu
es a
nd g
rade
con
trols
. Sh
ould
a p
erfe
ctly
smoo
th a
spha
lt la
yer b
e pl
aced
ove
r a p
revi
ous
pave
men
t dev
iatio
n, th
e su
bseq
uent
com
pact
ion
of th
e as
phal
t mix
by
rolle
rs w
ill “
refle
ct”
a po
rtion
of t
he ro
ughn
ess i
nto
the
new
as
phal
t lay
er, a
s illu
stra
ted
in fi
gure
1.
Asp
halt
behi
nd a
pav
ing
scre
ed is
at a
ppro
xim
atel
y 70
to 8
0 pe
rcen
t of t
heor
etic
al
max
imum
den
sity
, whi
le th
e fin
al a
spha
lt co
mpa
ctio
n is
gen
eral
ly
arou
nd 9
4 pe
rcen
t of t
heor
etic
al m
axim
um d
ensi
ty (U
SAC
E,
1991
). T
his a
dditi
onal
con
solid
atio
n ca
n re
sult
in a
ppro
xim
atel
y 20
per
cent
of t
he p
revi
ous d
evia
tions
bei
ng re
flect
ed in
to th
e ne
w
asph
alt l
ift.
It sh
ould
be
note
d th
at th
e ov
erla
y th
ickn
ess v
alue
s pr
esen
ted
earli
er d
o no
t inc
lude
the
repl
acem
ent o
f mill
ed m
ater
ial
for s
ectio
ns w
here
pav
emen
t mill
ing
was
per
form
ed.
Fi
gure
1.
Lim
itatio
n on
ach
ievi
ng a
smoo
th p
avem
ent w
ith
a si
ngle
lift
of a
spha
lt
A c
ompa
rison
of t
he a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess o
f thi
n ov
erla
ys in
rela
tion
to th
ick
over
lays
is sh
own
in ta
ble
5. T
he re
sults
of t
his a
naly
sis
indi
cate
no
stat
istic
ally
sign
ifica
nt d
iffer
ence
s in
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s co
mpa
red
to o
verla
y th
ickn
ess.
Alth
ough
the
mea
n di
ffer
ence
in
IRI b
etw
een
thin
and
thic
k ov
erla
ys is
0.0
33 m
/km
(2.1
in
ches
/mile
), th
e tw
o-ta
iled
p-va
lue
is 3
5 pe
rcen
t, w
hich
indi
cate
s no
stat
istic
ally
sign
ifica
nt re
latio
nshi
p (a
t a tw
o-ta
iled
sign
ifica
nce
leve
l of 9
5 pe
rcen
t) is
pre
sent
. Th
e m
ean
diff
eren
ce in
IRI
betw
een
thin
and
thic
k ov
erla
ys is
0.0
55 m
/km
(3.5
inch
es/m
ile)
for p
avem
ents
with
a h
igh
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g w
ith a
two-
taile
d p-
valu
e of
12.
1 pe
rcen
t. A
lthou
gh n
ot
Ove
rlay
Mat
eria
l O
verla
y M
ater
ial
Behi
nd s
cree
d ap
prox
imat
ely
70–8
0 pe
rcen
t den
sity
Af
ter c
ompa
ctio
n w
ith ro
llers
ap
prox
imat
ely
94 p
erce
nt d
ensi
ty
Exis
ting
Pave
men
t E
xist
ing
Pave
men
t
61
(i.e.
, sec
tions
502
and
507
). S
imila
rly, t
he h
igh
prio
r IR
I of s
ectio
n 50
9 m
ay h
elp
expl
ain
why
its a
vera
ge a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess i
s hig
her
than
sect
ion
506,
the
corr
espo
ndin
g se
ctio
n w
ith d
iffer
ent o
verla
y m
ater
ial.
INV
EST
IGA
TIO
N O
F IN
FLU
EN
CE
S O
N A
S-B
UIL
T
RO
UG
HN
ESS
The
influ
ence
s on
as-b
uilt
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss a
re in
vest
igat
ed
usin
g se
vera
l sta
tistic
al te
chni
ques
. Th
e ef
fect
s of s
urfa
ce
prep
arat
ion,
ove
rlay
thic
knes
s, an
d ov
erla
y m
ater
ial o
n as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess a
re in
vest
igat
ed b
ased
on
a se
ries o
f pai
red
anal
yses
. Th
e pa
ired
anal
yses
con
side
r the
var
ious
eff
ects
bas
ed o
n th
ree
data
sets
: pav
emen
t site
s with
a h
igh
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g (i.
e., I
RI g
reat
er th
an 1
.5 m
/km
(95
inch
es/m
ile))
; pa
vem
ent s
ites w
ith a
low
pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g (i.
e., I
RI l
ess t
han
1.5
m/k
m (9
5 in
ches
/mile
)); a
nd a
ll si
tes.
Fo
llow
ing
the
paire
d da
ta a
naly
sis,
a re
gres
sion
ana
lysi
s is
pref
orm
ed to
exa
min
e th
e in
fluen
ce o
f pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g on
the
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of a
pav
emen
t. T
his a
naly
sis
is re
quire
d to
exa
min
e pa
vem
ent r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
as a
qu
antit
ativ
e va
riabl
e. A
third
stat
istic
al to
ol, a
repe
ated
mea
sure
s an
alys
is, i
s use
d to
exa
min
e th
e in
tera
ctiv
e ef
fect
s of s
urfa
ce
prep
arat
ion,
ove
rlay
thic
knes
s, ov
erla
y m
ater
ial a
nd p
avem
ent
roug
hnes
s bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
on th
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess o
f a
pave
men
t. N
ext,
regr
essi
on a
naly
ses a
re p
erfo
rmed
on
data
from
th
e C
-LTP
P pr
ogra
m to
val
idat
e so
me
of th
e co
nclu
sion
s rea
ched
fr
om th
e SP
S-5
data
. La
stly
, reg
ress
ion
anal
yses
are
per
form
ed o
n th
e SP
S-5
data
to d
evel
op fo
ur p
redi
ctio
n eq
uatio
ns fo
r est
imat
ing
the
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of a
pav
emen
t. A
95
perc
ent s
tatis
tical
si
gnifi
canc
e le
vel w
as se
lect
ed fo
r all
anal
yses
as t
he c
riter
ia to
id
entif
y th
e pr
esen
ce o
f a si
gnifi
cant
rela
tions
hip.
S UR
FAC
E P
RE
PAR
AT
ION
The
SPS-
5 te
st se
ctio
ns in
volv
ed tw
o ty
pes o
f sur
face
pre
para
tion,
ba
sic
and
inte
nsiv
e (P
erer
a, B
yrum
, and
Koh
n, 1
998;
Per
era,
and
K
ohn,
199
9).
Inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n co
nsis
ts o
f mill
ing
the
62
exis
ting
asph
alt f
ollo
wed
by
patc
hing
dis
tress
ed a
reas
and
cra
ck
seal
ing.
Bas
ic su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n is
inte
nded
to c
onsi
st o
f pa
tchi
ng se
vere
ly d
istre
ssed
are
as a
nd p
otho
les,
and
plac
emen
t of a
le
velin
g co
urse
for r
uts g
reat
er th
an 1
2 m
m (0
.47
inch
es) i
n de
pth,
al
thou
gh th
e co
nstru
ctio
n in
form
atio
n in
dica
tes t
hat 5
of t
he 1
7 si
tes h
ad m
illin
g pe
rfor
med
for t
he se
ctio
ns d
esig
nate
d fo
r bas
ic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion.
Whe
re m
illin
g w
as p
erfo
rmed
, the
dep
th o
f re
plac
emen
t mat
eria
l was
not
cou
nted
as t
he p
art o
f the
ove
rlay
thic
knes
s spe
cifie
d fo
r the
sect
ion
(Per
era,
Byr
um, a
nd K
ohn,
19
98; P
erer
a, a
nd K
ohn,
199
9).
The
prim
ary
diff
eren
ce in
the
two
exte
nts o
f sur
face
pre
para
tion
is w
heth
er o
r not
mill
ing
of th
e ex
istin
g as
phal
t pav
emen
t is p
erfo
rmed
. M
illin
g is
a te
chni
que
than
pla
nes o
ff th
e ex
istin
g as
phal
t to
a pr
edet
erm
ined
dep
th.
The
Asp
halt
Inst
itute
(AI)
repo
rts th
at m
illin
g ca
n of
ten
rem
ove
roug
hnes
s bet
ter t
han
an a
spha
lt pa
ver b
ecau
se o
f its
gre
ater
abi
lity
to re
mov
e a
varia
ble
thic
knes
s of m
ater
ial (
AI,
1989
). A
pai
red
com
paris
on o
f the
as-
built
roug
hnes
s of p
avem
ent s
ectio
ns w
ith
diff
eren
t ext
ents
of s
urfa
ce p
repa
ratio
n is
show
n in
tabl
e 4,
whi
ch
is se
para
ted
into
thre
e ro
ws.
The
firs
t row
pre
sent
s dat
a fr
om
pave
men
t site
s with
a h
igh
pave
men
t rou
ghne
ss b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g (i.
e., I
RI g
reat
er th
an 1
.5 m
/km
(95
inch
es/m
ile))
; the
seco
nd ro
w
pres
ents
dat
a fr
om p
avem
ent s
ites w
ith a
low
pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss
befo
re re
surf
acin
g (i.
e., I
RI l
ess t
han
1.5
m/k
m (9
5 in
ches
/mile
));
and
the
third
row
pre
sent
s the
com
plet
e se
t of d
ata.
The
resu
lts
indi
cate
that
ther
e is
an
over
all s
igni
fican
t diff
eren
ce (a
t a tw
o-ta
iled
sign
ifica
nce
leve
l of 9
5 pe
rcen
t) in
the
as-b
uilt
roug
hnes
s of
pave
men
t sec
tions
with
bas
ic a
nd e
xten
sive
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion.
Th
is st
atis
tical
diff
eren
ce is
evi
dent
with
bot
h th
e co
mpl
ete
data
set
and
for t
he d
ata
with
a h
igh
roug
hnes
s bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing.
No
sign
ifica
nt st
atis
tical
diff
eren
ce w
as fo
und
for t
he d
ata
from
site
s w
ith a
low
roug
hnes
s lev
el b
efor
e re
surf
acin
g. I
n fa
ct, t
he m
ean
diff
eren
ce in
as-
built
roug
hnes
s for
thes
e si
tes i
s ess
entia
lly z
ero,
in
dica
ting
no d
iffer
ence
in a
s-bu
ilt ro
ughn
ess f
or th
e di
ffer
ent
leve
ls o
f sur
face
pre
para
tion.
Thi
s lac
k of
diff
eren
ce m
ay b
e be
caus
e a
low
prio
r pav
emen
t rou
ghne
ss d
oes n
ot p
rovi
de a
n ad
equa
te o
ppor
tuni
ty fo
r the
eff
ect o
f sur
face
pre
para
tion
to b
e de
mon
stra
ted.
The
pai
red
t-tes
t ana
lyse
s ind
icat
es th
at o
n av
erag
e,
63
ther
e is
a 0
.040
m/k
m (2
.5 in
ches
/mile
) low
er a
s-bu
ilt IR
I for
pa
vem
ents
con
stru
cted
with
inte
nsiv
e su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n as
co
mpa
red
with
pav
emen
ts c
onst
ruct
ed w
ith b
asic
surf
ace
prep
arat
ion
(i.e.
, int
ensi
ve su
rfac
e pr
epar
atio
n co
ntrib
utes
to
smoo
ther
as-
built
pav
emen
ts).
Whe
n on
ly p
avem
ents
with
a h
igh
leve
l of r
ough
ness
bef
ore
resu
rfac
ing
are
exam
ined
, the
ave
rage
di
ffer
ence
in a
s-bu
ilt IR
I inc
reas
es to
0.0
81 m
/km
(5.1
in
ches
/mile
).
Tab
le 4
. Pai
red
data
ana
lysi
s of t
he e
ffec
t of s
urfa
ce
prep
arat
ion
on a
s-bu
ilt IR
I
Dat
a Se
t
Mea
n D
iffer
ence
(m
/km
)
Stan
dard
D
evia
tion
of
diff
eren
ces
(m/k
m)
Obs
er-
vatio
ns
t-st
atis
tic
Stat
istic
al
Sign
ifica
nce
(2-t
aile
d)
Dat
a w
ith
prio
r IR
I gr
eate
r th
an 1
.5
m/k
m
0.08
1 0.
070
9 3.
489
0.00
8
Dat
a w
ith
prio
r IR
I le
ss th
an
1.5
m/k
m
−0.0
04
0.04
5 6
−0.2
60
0.80
6
All
0.04
0 0.
070
17
2.38
5 0.
030
1 m
/km
= 6
3.36
inch
es/m
ile
OV
ER
LA
Y T
HIC
KN
ESS
Ove
rlay
thic
knes
s is c
onsi
dere
d to
be
a co
ntrib
utin
g fa
ctor
to th
e as
-bui
lt ro
ughn
ess o
f a p
avem
ent.
Thi
cker
ove
rlays
pro
vide
a
cont
ract
or m
ore
oppo
rtuni
ty to
redu
ce th
e ro
ughn
ess o
f a p
avem
ent
sect
ion.
Thi
s im
prov
emen
t can
be
attri
bute
d to
the
fact
that
thic
ker
over
lays
typi
cally
invo
lve
mor
e lif
ts, w
hich
allo
w fo
r inc
rem
enta
l im
prov
emen
ts in
pav
emen
t sm
ooth
ness
. Th
e op
portu
nity
for
impr
ovin
g sm
ooth
ness
with
mor
e ov
erla
y lif
ts is
rela
ted
to th
e op
erat
iona
l con
stra
ints
of a
n as
phal
t pav
er.
One
obj
ectiv
e of
an
asph
alt p
aver
is to
pro
duce
a sm
ooth
asp
halt
mat
beh
ind
the
scre
ed
