Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship 2008Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship 2008Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship 2008Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship 2008

Alternative livestock farming: considerations for welfareAlternative livestock farming: considerations for welfareAlternative livestock farming: considerations for welfareAlternative livestock farming: considerations for welfare Elizabeth J Carter

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ContentsContentsContentsContents

1. Introduction 2

2. Animal welfare: what is it and why does it matter? 3

3. Ostrich farming 4

3.1 Background

3.2 South Africa

4. Bison Farming 9

4.1 Background

4.2 America and Canada

5. Crocodile Farming 14

5.1 Background

5.2 Australia

6. Farming of alternative species in the UK: considerations for welfare 18

7. Acknowledgements 22

8. Bibliography 23

9. Appendix - Travel Itinerary 26

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1111.... IIIIntroductionntroductionntroductionntroduction

In 2008 I was fortunate enough to be awarded a Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship for my

proposed project: ‘Alternative livestock farming: considerations for welfare’. My aim was to gain a

greater understanding of ‘alternative’ livestock and to consider the welfare of these species when farmed

in the United Kingdom (UK). Alternative livestock species are considered to be animals that are not

traditionally farmed in the UK (such as sheep, cattle and pigs), and of particular interest to me were:

ostrich, bison and crocodiles. I believe the farming of alternative species to be an important area for

study due to the increasing number of farmers who are diversifying and entering into other,

complementary activities alongside conventional agricultural practices. Diversification is necessary to

remain competitive in a progressively global market and 51% of farms in the UK have already entered

into some form of diversification to supplement traditional incomes.

One form of diversification involves exploring niche markets and over the past 25 years farmers in the

UK have ventured into ostrich and bison farming and, more recently, crocodiles. Novel species are

attractive since the products from these animals typically command higher prices than those from

traditional animals. However, because the farming of ostrich, bison and crocodiles is relatively new,

there is a lack of science based knowledge and expertise relating to the husbandry requirements of these

animals; which is vital if we are to keep and care for animals in a way that ensures their good welfare.

Traditional livestock, such as cattle, sheep, pigs and chickens, have been progressively selected and

domesticated over a period of thousands of years; the domestication of today’s domestic sheep began

approximately 10,000 years ago. Consequently there is a wealth of supporting literature, legislation, and

an established industry infrastructure and stockperson knowledge available to support farmers in the

care of traditional species. Ostrich and bison have only been selectively bred for farming comparably

recently (within the last 150 years and 100 years respectively) and crocodiles are only at the beginning

of selective breeding since the breeding stock of many farms is wild caught. These animals are therefore

only a limited way along the domestication path. Indeed, all of these species are considered principally

wild in the UK therefore requiring a dangerous wild animal’s licence before they may be kept or farmed.

Through my Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship I was able see first-hand how ostrich, bison and

crocodiles are farmed in South Africa, America and Canada, and Australia respectively. I hoped to

determine what was considered best-practice when raising these animals by visiting countries already

established in these industries. As usual with projects of this kind, the breadth and scope of the issues

involved only really became apparent once I had actually embarked on the journey. This report gives an

introduction to animal welfare, a background of ostrich, bison and crocodile farming, and raises some

points about the welfare of these species when farmed in the UK. As a result of my Winston Churchill

Travelling Fellowship I am keen to learn more about these fascinating animals and will be continuing

my work in this area. I would be delighted to hear from anyone else either interested in or working

within these fields: lizzycarter@hotmail.com.

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2222.... Animal WelfareAnimal WelfareAnimal WelfareAnimal Welfare: what is it : what is it : what is it : what is it and why does it matter?and why does it matter?and why does it matter?and why does it matter?

Humans have an impact on the lives of millions of animals every day and we utilise billions of animals

annually: pet animals are our companions, research animals are models for scientific investigations and

farm animals provide us with food, clothing, traction and transport. ‘Animal welfare’ is a concept that

has been around in varying forms for many years, for example, how animals may be used and treated

was debated by the ancient Greeks, however, although over time society has progressed in its knowledge

of animals - their anatomy, physiology and behaviour; what is meant by the term ‘animal welfare’ and

how much importance humans should attribute to it is still very much open to debate.

We are concerned about the welfare of animals due to the belief that animals, like humans, are sentient

beings and that they have a conscious awareness of subjective feelings - it is likely that what happens to

them, matters to them. There is division over which species in the animal kingdom are sentient, and to

the nature and range of feelings experienced, but generally it is believed that all vertebrates are capable

of experiencing some level of conscious emotion. It is therefore thought by many people that humans

have a moral duty to ensure that, where possible, the feelings of animals are taken into account and, at

the very least, that they do not suffer. As stated by John Webster, emeritus professor in animal

behaviour and welfare: “we have a moral duty to respect the intrinsic value of any animal in our care,

independent of its extrinsic value to us” (Webster, 2005).

There is not a single universal definition of animal welfare that satisfies everyone since people differ in

their opinion of what animal welfare means, however, in general it is agreed that there are three

elements to be considered when assessing an animal’s welfare: naturalness, physical health and

psychological well-being (Table 1). The weight given to each of the elements is subjective and depends

on the individual assessor; values can shift depending on background, scientific discipline, culture,

beliefs, or the circumstances surrounding an assessment.

Table 1: Key questions in the assessment of animal welfare.Table 1: Key questions in the assessment of animal welfare.Table 1: Key questions in the assessment of animal welfare.Table 1: Key questions in the assessment of animal welfare.

EverymanEverymanEverymanEveryman ScientificScientificScientificScientific

Is the animal living a natural life? Is the animal living in an environment consistent with that in

which the species has evolved and to which is has adapted?

Is the animal fit and healthy? Is the animal able to achieve normal growth and function, good

health and to sustain fitness to adult life?

Is the animal happy? Is the animal experiencing a sense of mental satisfaction or, at

least, freedom from mental distress?

(Source: Webster, 2005)

When considering the welfare of animals a basic framework that is frequently used as a starting point is

provided by the Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) and called the ‘five freedoms’:

1111.... Freedom from thirst, hunger and malnutrition – by ready access to fresh water and a diet to

maintain full health and vigour

2222.... Freedom from discomfort – by providing a suitable environment including shelter and a comfortable

resting area

3333.... Freedom from pain, injury and disease – by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment

4444.... Freedom from fear and distress – by ensuring conditions that avoid mental suffering

5555.... Freedom to express normal behaviour – by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company

of the animal’s own kind.

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3333.... OstrichOstrichOstrichOstrich

3333....1111 BackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackground

The ostrich (Struthio camelus) is a fascinating animal and belongs to a group of birds called ratites.

Ratites are unlike most other birds in that they are flightless; they have underdeveloped pectoral (flight)

muscles and their sternum lacks a keel bone, the structure that provides anchorage for flight muscles.

The sternum of an ostrich is instead a flat, raft-like shape (hence ratite, from the Latin ratis for raft). The

loss of flight in ratites was also accompanied by an increase in size and the ostrich is the largest of all

ratites. Males (cocks) will grow up to 2.1-2.75 metres tall and weigh between 100 and 130 kilograms;

females (hens) are slightly smaller with a height and weight of 1.75 - 1.9 metres and 90 - 110 kilograms

respectively.

Male and female ostrich are dimorphic; the males have black body feathers and very white wing and tail

plume feathers whilst the females have brown feathers with creamy wing and tail plumes. Ostrich have

long, powerful legs and they are the fastest running bird, able to attain speeds of 40 miles per hour or

more over short distances and to sustain 35mph for longer periods. Even ostrich chicks are capable of

running soon after hatch and once they are one month old can achieve 30 miles per hour. Additionally

ostrich are surprisingly agile; although their wings are not designed for flying, they are large and have

many long feathers which they use to great effect to maintain balance and to achieve a surprising agility,

able to make 90 degree turns even at speed.

The social structure of ostrich is quite flexible and birds are usually polygamous and groups of up to 50

birds may be seen together at one time, although within the grouping will be a number of smaller groups

and harems. During the breeding season males develop red legs, neck and face and they carry out

elaborate courtship rituals. The male to female ratio ranges from 1:1 to 1:5. Hens in a harem will share a

nest but only the alpha hen and cock will incubate the eggs. A hen will naturally lay between four and

eight eggs with up to 25 eggs being laid in one nest, eggs are incubated for between 39-42 days before

hatch.

The relationship between man and ostrich extends back many years: the Egyptian queen Arsinoe II is

reported to have ridden a saddled ostrich and the Romans used ostrich to pull their chariots. Controlled

and selective breeding of ostrich for commercial farming however only really began in Africa during the

1860’s at which time the white plume feathers of ostrich were prized. For many years South Africa

dominated the feather market and the industry quickly expanded to the point where over one million

ostrich were in production and ostrich feathers were the fourth most important South African export

product following gold, diamonds and wool. Growth continued until 1913, at which point a

combination of factors (predominantly World War 1) resulted in the industry collapsing and the number

of farms and birds falling drastically. Over time, and by venturing into leather and meat markets along

with feathers, the ostrich industry survived, stabilised, and began to expand into other countries.

Ostriches began to be seen as a lucrative industry and during the 1990’s one live chick or one breeding

adult could sell for £1400 or £14,000 respectively. However, a second industry collapse rocked ostrich

farming in the1990s and production numbers have never recovered to those seen in previous years.

There is still a lot of instability in the industry with many countries not yet having the infrastructure

required for successful production, processing and marketing.

Today ostrich are farmed worldwide: China, Zimbabwe, Australia, Brazil, USA, Israel, Hungary, Spain,

Philippines, the UK and many more. South Africa still holds the main market share and in 2005, of the

350,000 ostrich slaughtered globally, 43% were produced in Africa.

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3333....2222 Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: WorldWorldWorldWorld’s’s’s’s Poultry Congress Poultry Congress Poultry Congress Poultry Congress XXXXXIIIXIIIXIIIXIII, Brisbane., Brisbane., Brisbane., Brisbane.

My Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship began in Brisbane, Australia, where I attended the XXIII

World’s Poultry Congress (WPC) (Figure 1). Sponsored by the World Poultry Science Association

(WPSA) the WPC is held every four years and attracts one of the largest audiences of poultry specialists

in the world. I felt very lucky to be able attend this periodic Congress, even more so because run

alongside the main meeting were a number of smaller, specialist Symposia, including the 4th

International Ratite Science Symposium.

The 4th International Ratite Science Symposium was attended by approximately 25 scientists and

industry personnel involved in ratite production and this reflects the relatively small nature of the

industry as a whole. Many subjects were covered during the four days of talks and workshops, including:

ratite anatomy, physiology, genetics, husbandry, health, and welfare. From the presentations given, and

the discussions that occurred, it was clear that many areas still require a significant amount of further

research. However, the dedication and clear collaborative nature of those present gave a very positive

view for future research and dissemination of knowledge. I learnt a great deal and made a number of

friendly contacts during my week at both the Congress and the Ratite Symposium, including a number

of people who I arranged to visit later in the year in South Africa.

Figure 1Figure 1Figure 1Figure 1: : : : World’s Poultry Congress XXIII,World’s Poultry Congress XXIII,World’s Poultry Congress XXIII,World’s Poultry Congress XXIII, Brisbane Brisbane Brisbane Brisbane

Brisbane Convention & Professor John Webster Professor Schalk Cloete

Exhibition Centre XXIII World’s Poultry Congress 4th International Ratite Science Symposium

3333....3333 Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Ostrich farming in Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Ostrich farming in Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Ostrich farming in Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Ostrich farming in South AfricaSouth AfricaSouth AfricaSouth Africa

The next ostrich stage of my Fellowship involved travelling to Oudtshoorn in South Africa, which is

considered the ostrich capital of the world and has a highly developed farming infrastructure. Whilst in

Oudtshoorn I visited a variety of ostrich farms, ranging from small backyard sidelines to highly

marketed show farms, together with the Oudtshoorn Experimental Research Farm which specialises in

ostrich research. I also met with the Liaison Manager, Jan Greyling, of the Klein Karoo Group, a leading

organisation in the ostrich industry today. Klein Karoo originally began in 1945 as a cooperative of 120

farmers attempting to bring some stability to their livelihood but over the years it has grown into an

international company of three parts: Klein Karoo International (Pty) Ltd., Klein Karoo Seed Holdings

(Pty) Ltd., and the Klein Karoo Services Division. The Klein Karoo Group have a hand in literally every

aspect of ostrich production, from growing and producing seed, manufacturing commercial feed, buying

and selling ostrich at various stages of production, killing and processing slaughter-weight ostrich, and

manufacturing a multitude of products for both the internal and external market. Jan gave me a tour of

one of the three Klein Karoo abattoirs, a Klein Karoo tannery, the new Karoo Cuisine plant and the

Klein Karoo feather factory.

In South Africa ostrich are farmed for leather, meat, oil and feathers, with leather being by far the most

important product. Ostrich leather is highly desirable due to its extreme durability, softness, distinctive

nodule pattern and vast range of production colours. The main hide leather is used to manufacture a

variety of goods from gloves and handbags, to sofas and car interiors. Leg skin is also utilised and forms a

striking, polished leather with a reptile like scale pattern for smaller products, such as belts and shoes.

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Ostrich meat is the second most important product and one which is marketed widely and successfully

through promotion as a versatile and healthy red meat. It is lower in fat and cholesterol than other red

meats whilst still having a high iron and protein content. Unlike other poultry, it is the leg muscles

which form the bulk of meat cuts rather than the breast muscles, since these are very small and under-

developed. Feathers are also an important product for the industry today and the most lucrative feathers

are the white plumes from the wings and tail, which are exported by the tonne to be used for carnival

costumes. Smaller feathers are used to make feather boas, dusters, trim for clothing and even wedding

confetti. An emerging product is ostrich oil, which is gaining in popularity for use in the cosmetics

industry and also therapeutically due to possible anti-inflammatory properties. Finally less significant

commodities include empty hatching eggs, which are used as ornaments after being carved and

decorated, and various ‘curios’, such as preserved and bottled still born chicks.

I saw a number of farms whilst travelling around South Africa and one of the differences between

farming systems that I noted was the way in which breeding ostrich are kept; birds were either kept in

extensive ranching systems or in enclosed, fenced systems (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Figure 2: Figure 2: Figure 2: Ostrich breeding systemsOstrich breeding systemsOstrich breeding systemsOstrich breeding systems

Ranched Enclosed

Ostrich are usually kept in either breeding pairs (one cock to one hen) or trios (one cock to two hens).

Ranching systems allow pairs and trios of breeding birds to roam and mingle over large areas of veldt

with very little management whilst enclosed systems fence one breeding pair or trio in an individual

paddock. Figure 3 shows ostrich nests in enclosed and ranched systems. Enclosed system breeding birds

may be left to make their own nest or the farmer may provide an artificial cover to encourage them to

lay their eggs in a particular place. Ranched ostrich will make their own nest between scrub bushes so

that they are less visible from predators.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 3333: : : : Ostrich nestsOstrich nestsOstrich nestsOstrich nests

Enclosed Enclosed Ranched

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Once the breeding pair starts egg laying then the eggs are usually taken away to be artificially incubated

(Figure 4). As well as allowing a greater control over the incubation process, removing the eggs from a

breeding pair or trio results in more eggs being laid, thereby increasing the number of eggs laid through

a season. The eggs will be candled to check they are fertile (Figure 5) before being placed in disinfected

tray cages (Figure 6). It is very important for ostrich eggs to turned regularly to prevent the developing

embryo from attaching to the shell therefore the tilt direction of the trays is changed regularly.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 4444: Incubator: Incubator: Incubator: Incubator Figure Figure Figure Figure 5555: Candling : Candling : Candling : Candling eggseggseggseggs Figure Figure Figure Figure 6666: Incubator egg trays: Incubator egg trays: Incubator egg trays: Incubator egg trays

Figure 7 shows a young ostrich chick about one week old. Once chicks have hatched then they are

reared in groups with other birds of a similar size and age. Chicks may be raised without the hen or cock

and with a high level of input from the stockperson (Figure 8), or they may be placed with a foster hen

and cock (Figure 9). Ostrich are exceptionally good parents and will readily accept and care for large

numbers of chicks (one foster pair that I saw had approximately 70 chicks).

FigureFigureFigureFigure 7777: Chick: Chick: Chick: Chick Figure Figure Figure Figure 8888: Chick: Chick: Chick: Chick pens pens pens pens Figure Figure Figure Figure 9999: Chicks with foster parents: Chicks with foster parents: Chicks with foster parents: Chicks with foster parents

Ostrich are reared together in groups until they reach slaughter weight (Figure 10). Ostrich are usually

sent to slaughter at around 12-14 months of age with birds weighing between 90 and 110 kilograms, at

which point they are then transported to a local slaughterhouse in specialised lorries (Figure 11).

Figure Figure Figure Figure 11110000 Groups of ostrichGroups of ostrichGroups of ostrichGroups of ostrich (approx. 6 mths and12 mths old) Figure 1Figure 1Figure 1Figure 11111: Ost: Ost: Ost: Ostrich transport lorryrich transport lorryrich transport lorryrich transport lorry

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Attending the conference, visiting various ostrich farms, a slaughterhouse, tannery and the research

farm was a highly educational experience and I enjoyed learning about the many different aspects of the

ostrich industry. However, I came away with an impression that the industry as a whole is still

developing in a number of areas. Practices and measures which are standard in other livestock sectors

and have little variation (such as fertility rates, hatching rates, mortality over set periods, precise

nutrient levels in feed, etc) are all still quite variable. Figures reported on by Carbajo (2006) show quite

how large the range is in the following production areas: average eggs laid per hen = 45 (range 30-70);

number of day old chicks per hen = 24 chicks (range 10-45) and percentage of birds reaching slaughter

age = 65% (range 17-90%). Additionally, basic areas such as ostrich diet formulation are still uncertain

and Cooper (2004) considers that much published data covering ostrich nutrition is wrong or misleading

and frequently based on the diets of other poultry species which is not appropriate for ostrich. There is

still so much to learn about the ostrich, a bird which has naturally been thought of as another farmed

poultry species but which actually has a number of characteristics more akin to red meat animals.

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4.4.4.4. American American American American Bison Bison Bison Bison

4444....1111 BackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackground

Bison are impressive animals. With a somewhat deceptive appearance of docility it can be surprising to

learn that bison are able to jump over 6 foot high fences and pivot on both their front and hind feet

(most animals only pivot on their back feet). Whilst talking to bison farmers and from reading about

these animals I have come across many incidents in which bison bulls have cleared 6 foot fences from a

standstill, crossed 8 foot cattle grids in one jump and also traversed 16 foot cattle grids (increased to 16

foot following a number of escapees!) by placing their feet precisely on the cattle grid bars and walking

across. Bison are also very fast and able to attain speeds of 40 miles per hour when running; they can

literally out run and out manoeuvre a horse (it is recommended that horses are not used to round up

bison). One bison bull ‘Harvey Wallbanger’ was used to race horses in 1986, initially raced following a

bet at a track in Wyoming the resulting win led Harvey to a career in racing, and frequently winning,

against horses for the next 4 years.

Adult bulls can reach up to 2 metres tall, 3 metres long and weigh up to 1000 kilograms. Cows are

slightly smaller and lighter. Bison are gregarious animals and will naturally aggregate into groups of

between 10 and 20 animals. Larger groups of a few hundred animals may be seen but they are usually

made up of smaller sub-units which, although in the vicinity of each other, are separate. Cows reach

sexual maturity at approximately 3 years of age and the breeding season runs from July to September

and calves are born in late April and May. Bison in the wild live on average for 15 years but captive

bison will often reach 30 years of age or more.

The American bison (Bison bison) are nomadic grazers and once roamed in huge herds across North

America, with estimates of total numbers varying between 30 and 70 million animals. From these vast

figures bison were nearly driven to the point of extinction through mass hunting; bison skin was used to

make ‘robes’, heads were hung as trophies, skulls crushed to make fertiliser and prized tongues cut out.

In the 1880s people began to realise quite how endangered the bison were and in 1905 the American

Bison Society was formed to save the bison and protect rangeland, by this time there were less than 1500

bison remaining, some estimates are as low as 300. People actively began to try and save the species by

keeping and raising bison in protected parks and private herds. Farming was extensive and

predominantly of a ranching style across large areas of land; it is only more recently that bison have

been farmed in more enclosed settings.

Today the largest farmed bison producers are the United States of America (U.S.A) and Canada. The total

U.S.A herd is approximately 198,000 animals (USDA Census of Agriculture, 2007) and the Canadian

bison herd is in the region of 196,000 (Canadian Census of Agriculture, 2006). Bison are predominantly

farmed for their meat, which has a similar texture, protein and iron levels to beef but is lower in fat

(Health Canada, 2008). Robes, skulls, trophy heads and controlled hunting may also used to generate

income.

There are two subspecies of American bison, the Plains bison (Bison bison bison) and the Wood bison

(Bison bison athabascae). The majority of farmed bison today are Plains bison, although genetic tests

carried out on some farmed animals indicate that cross breeding of the two species has occurred at some

point. American bison may be known as American buffalo, however, the term ‘bison’ is encouraged by

the National Bison Association of America to prevent there being any confusion between the American

bison, and the Asian Water Buffalo or the Asian Cape Buffalo.

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4444....2222 Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Yellowstone National ParkWinston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Yellowstone National ParkWinston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Yellowstone National ParkWinston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Yellowstone National Park

For part of my Fellowship I took the opportunity to visit Yellowstone National Park, one of the last

remaining places that American bison can be seen ranging free (Figure 12). With an area of over 3400

square miles Yellowstone it is now the home to over 4000 bison. The bison are protected within

Yellowstone but predominantly unmanaged and allowed to roam throughout. The numbers today are

vastly different to those of just over 100 years ago when only 23 Yellowstone bison remained following

the many years of hunting. These 23 animals, together with 21 imported bison from other sources, have

gradually increased in numbers over the years and form the bison herd seen today.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 11112222:::: Free ranging bison in Yellowstone National Park Free ranging bison in Yellowstone National Park Free ranging bison in Yellowstone National Park Free ranging bison in Yellowstone National Park

Small bison herd Large bison herd (in the distance!) made up of smaller sub units

Touring Yellowstone National Park was an amazing experience. Yellowstone is tremendously beautiful

and home to a vast array of flora and fauna. Somewhat unexpectedly the 4000 bison were, at times, very

elusive and difficult to find. However, with a few early starts, to catch the bison herds at dawn and

before they had moved away from the roads during very busy tourist periods, I was able to observe herds

of bulls, cows and calves. Since it was mid-breeding season, bulls within the herds could be seen

displaying and showing their strength (bellowing, pawing the ground, and rolling in the dirt creating

huge clouds of dust) and lone bulls who had already separated from the main herds after losing out to a

more dominant bull (Figure 13).

Figure 1Figure 1Figure 1Figure 13333: Yellowstone bison bulls: Yellowstone bison bulls: Yellowstone bison bulls: Yellowstone bison bulls

Lone bison bull Displaying bull Bull showing Flehmen reflex

4444....3333 Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: bison farming in bison farming in bison farming in bison farming in America and CanadaAmerica and CanadaAmerica and CanadaAmerica and Canada

I visited bison farms in America (Montana, Wyoming) and Canada (Alberta). Included on one visit was

an unexpected (and hair-raising!) trip in the farmer’s plane which allowed me to see from the air the

layout of his own and neighbouring bison farms. The majority of bison were raised in an extensive

manner, grazing large fields and with little hands-on management, although a few producers are, as in

11

other livestock industries, attempting to intensify production by raising bison on pasture but then

finishing in a feedlot system (Figure 14).

Figure 1Figure 1Figure 1Figure 14444: : : : Bison rearing systemsBison rearing systemsBison rearing systemsBison rearing systems

Extensive grazing Aerial view of feedlot paddocks

Bison are less selective grazers than domestic cattle and also have a higher food conversion ratio

therefore greater stocking densities may be used when farming bison than with cattle – making them an

attractive red meat animal to farm. Additionally, the metabolic rate of bison decreases over the winter

period which reduces the amount of feed required further (and thus costs). Bison are slow maturing and

require 20 to 30 months before they reach a slaughter-weight of between 450-1000 kilograms.

Slaughter-weight animals are then transported to one of the many abattoirs which are located

throughout the different States.

The majority of farms that I saw stocked approximately 100 hundred animals or less. Some individuals I

spoke to had tried expanding but found that this was not successful due to changes in the behaviour of

the herd; there seemed to be a tipping point at which the herd as a whole became less manageable. It is

important to handle and manage bison correctly since they are very large and very strong animals. Bison

need fences far higher than would be used for cattle and at least 6 foot fencing is recommended. Fence

height and strength should be increased in areas where bison are to be restrained or handled –many

premises that I saw in America and Canada had at least 8 foot fences, and up to 10 foot, in all collecting

yards and runways (Figure 15).

Figure 15Figure 15Figure 15Figure 15: Examples of bison fencing: Examples of bison fencing: Examples of bison fencing: Examples of bison fencing

I was frequently told how important it is not to stress bison, and how valuable pre-planning and

patience can be when handling bison. Additionally, time and again I was told that bison cannot be

herded or handled in the same way as domestic cattle. The flight zone of bison is much larger than for

cattle and they can become highly agitated if a stockperson advances to quickly or herds them in the

wrong way, for example, bison are very difficult to drive into a corner of a field (in contrast to other

herd animals) therefore many bison producers place their gateways along a middle edge of a field rather

than a corner.

12

Additionally, it is important to work with a herd animal’s natural inclination to follow curves and the

majority of bison farmers had catered for this when designing their handling systems (Figure 16).

Figure 1Figure 1Figure 1Figure 16666: Curved collecting yard: Curved collecting yard: Curved collecting yard: Curved collecting yard

Curved collecting yard fences Aerial view of a collecting yard

When confined, such as in a raceway, bison can become extremely agitated and may be so distressed

that they severely injure themselves or die due to overexertion. Bison may rub there heads against the

inside of the raceway to the point where they tear away the outer covering of their horns or panic and

attempt to climb over the animal in front. To try and mitigate this bison producer’s move their bison in

small groups and only one or two animals are moved from a short raceway into a squeeze at a time. The

majority of the bison producers I spoke to also ensured that their bison were familiar with collecting and

handling facilities by placing prime resources, such as water or feed, within part of the system. Many

also left the entire system open so that animals could explore the raceway and smaller collecting yards at

their leisure and with no external pressures. These practices enabled the bison to become habituated to

the area and to associate it with normal everyday activities, rather than a once or twice a year round-up

which may be undertaken for a procedure such as vaccination. Although bison farmers stated that

rounding up their animals for any husbandry procedures could still be stressful it was far less than when

the animals are not used to the system.

Once in the collecting system, a number of producers handle their bison from raised runways using flags

on extended poles. This is much safer for human handlers and it also results in bison becoming less

agitated. The collecting yards, raceways, and holding pens were quite amazing. Far larger and more

substantial than I have seen in any cattle handling system before. It was very obvious that all fixtures

and fittings were very robust to cater for the size and strength of bison (Figure 17).

Figure Figure Figure Figure 11117777: Fixtures and fittings: Fixtures and fittings: Fixtures and fittings: Fixtures and fittings

Sliding door for speedy closure Double gate latch Push gate back stop

13

Whilst in Alberta I visited HI-HOG Farm and Ranch Equipment Ltd who build handling equipment

specifically for bison. The manufacturers have spent a number of years adapting a crush to ensure that it

is of a suitable design and structure to handle bison (a squeeze or ‘crush’ is used by farmers to hold

animals securely to allow them to be inspected, given veterinary treatment or to carry out a procedure

such as ear tagging). Figure 18 below compares a domestic cattle crush and a bison crush.

FigureFigureFigureFigure 11118888: Dome: Dome: Dome: Domestic cattle stic cattle stic cattle stic cattle crush ‘v’ crush ‘v’ crush ‘v’ crush ‘v’ bbbbison crushison crushison crushison crush

Domestic cattle crush HI-HOG bison crush

The bison crush is about three foot taller than a normal cattle crush and measures approximately 9 foot

in height. Additionally, various features were added over time following feedback from farmers, the

main one being the closure of all sides and the addition of a large ‘crash gate’. When bison are restrained

in a crush they can panic and attempt to escape and over time producers found that open sided and open

topped crushes allowed bison to rear up and either climb out or trap and injure horns and legs. The Hi-

Hog therefore has a closed top and a number of removable side panels and only the panel which has to

be removed, e.g. an upper side panel to give a neck injection, is taken out and then replaced. The ‘crash

gate’, a large, solid addition which is in front of the main head gate, acts as an extra protection against

bison charging out of the crush. Originally open with vertical bars the crash gate was updated over time

due to bison attempting to break through. The crash gate is now solid with narrow vertical slits which

seem to let enough light in for bison to enter the crush easily but not too much to encourage an escape

attempt. Additionally, the sheet metal has been caulked with silicone to reduce noise levels. Another

difference between the equipment (but can’t be seen on the above photo) is that the head gate of a cattle

crush closes with a ‘v’ shape at the bottom, however the head gate of a bison crush closes with the ‘v’

shape at the top and has a narrow opening to the floor. This is because of the different conformation of

bison and the risk that if a bison lays down whilst restrained in a head gate with a bottom ‘v’ shape then

there is a risk of suffocation.

An overriding feeling that I came away with after visiting the different bison farms and speaking with

the many farmers is that the vast majority have a genuine respect for their bison. I think this is in part

due to the sheer size and strength of bison. Every producer that I spoke with in America and Canada had

a story about a show of strength from their bull. One farmer relayed how his bull had run full pelt down

the raceway and into a ‘Hi-Hog’ squeeze chute – the crash gate held but three of the four cement

footings gave way. Another spoke of his particularly large bull causing the top fixings of a Hi-Hog crush

to break simply by taking a deep breathe and forcing the squeeze to expand. Bison are clearly animals

that need an awful lot of careful consideration.

Open top and sides

Crash gate

Head gate

Closed top and sides

Removable panels

14

5555 CCCCrocodilesrocodilesrocodilesrocodiles

5555....1111 BackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackground

Crocodiles are one of the few animals alive today that have managed to survive relatively unchanged

over millions of years. Impressive predators, a number of specific adaptations enable them to hunt

underwater very successfully. One adaptation is integumentary sense organs (ISO’s); sensory cells

located in the skin on the head, neck and sometimes body of crocodiles, depending on species. The exact

function of these cells is still largely unknown but it thought that ISO’s present on the upper and lower

jaws are mechanoreceptors which sense pressure changes and likely assist the crocodile in prey

detection. Crocodiles also have a palatal valve, which is a flap of skin used by a crocodile to cover the

oesophagus and trachea and so prevents flooding of the throat when underwater, particularly useful

when capturing prey. Another useful feature is a third transparent eyelid which is used to cover and

protect the eye when submerged but still allows the crocodile to see. They can swim very rapidly using

their muscular tail and webbed back feet and also leap out of the water in a vertical jump. Movement

over land is usually a slower affair, most frequently a slow belly crawl or raised walk, but if required

then crocodiles are capable of running for short distances. Crocodiles are poikilotherms and they use

thermogradients within their natural environment, which is fresh or saltwater lakes, rivers, and

estuaries, to try and maintain a body temperature of between 28°C and 33°C.

Crocodile farming evolved over time following a period of unregulated hunting in the early and mid

1900s when many crocodile species were threatened with near extinction. Crocodylian skin (crocodile,

alligator and caiman) is much in demand to supply the exotic leather market. In 1975 the Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) placed all crocodylia species

under either CITES Appendix I or Appendix II to safeguard crocodilian populations and over the years

wild populations stabilised. Many countries then permitted the ‘ranching’ of crocodilians listed under

Appendix II. Ranching refers to the removal of eggs or juvenile crocodiles from the wild and then

raising them in a controlled farming environment. Today many crocodile farmers practice a mix of

controlled in-house breeding of crocodiles and ranching.

Crocodile farming is considered an emerging industry but one that is evolving rapidly. In a similar

format to other more established farming industries, crocodile farms are moving away from extensive,

outdoor, naturalistic enclosures and turning instead towards more intensive, enclosed units which offer

greater control over environmental conditions. The crocodile industry is quite competitive and

producers may work loosely together for a joint purpose, such as ensuring a steady supply of produce to

secure a large market deal, but on the whole crocodile farmers tend to work independently. Additionally

there is little vertical integration between the different units involved in the crocodilian leather industry

(producers, exporters, tanners, manufacturers and retailers) which can make it difficult for the industry

to move forward together as a whole.

Currently there are over thirty countries involved with farming thirteen species of crocodilian and in

2005 more than one million skins were produced to satisfy the international crocodilian leather market.

A large number of crocodile farming operations will raise a mixture of captive bred and wild-sourced

animals to meet demand.

15

5555....2222 Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship: AustraliaAustraliaAustraliaAustralia

To investigate crocodile farming I chose to visit Australia. Crocodile farming began in Australia during

the 1980s and farms are distributed throughout the Northern Territory, Queensland and Western

Australia. Australia does not hold a large market share in the trade of crocodilian leather but the Rural

Industries Research and Development Cooperation (RIRDC) of the Australian Government is keen to

support and promote the industry and has been carrying out research into crocodile farming practices

for a number of years. Additionally Australia is one of the few countries to have produced a ‘Code of

Practice’ for the farming of crocodiles, which outlines what is currently considered ‘best practice’ when

keeping and raising farmed crocodiles.

I visited a number of crocodile farms in Queensland and the Northern Territory and the favoured species

was the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). The majority of breeding stock in Australia’s crocodile

farms are originally sourced from the wild. Additionally, each year a number of wild, usually ‘problem’

adult crocodiles are caught and given to farms who are keen to receive outside stock with fresh genetics.

However, farmers are also beginning to identify and tag juvenile crocodiles and to select promising

individuals for breeding. This is a major step in crocodile farming and will potentially allow producers to

breed crocodiles more suitable to a farmed setting.

Female crocodiles will start breeding under farm conditions at approximately 6 years of age and males 10

years; the breeding season runs from approximately late October to the end of May/early June. I saw

three main types of breeding pens for crocodiles: naturalistic two pond pens with one male and one

female, more structured and artificial pens with one male and then one or more females in their own

areas with controlled access to the male, or very large, naturalistic and uncontrolled group systems

(Figure 19). The more structured and less naturalistic pens allow greater monitoring of animals, safer egg

collection and easier maintenance; but it is not clear what effect less naturalistic pens may have on the

crocodiles themselves. Most breeding pens have more than one waterhole to allow males and females

their own water space.

Figure Figure Figure Figure 19191919: Crocodile breeding pens: Crocodile breeding pens: Crocodile breeding pens: Crocodile breeding pens

Naturalistic, two ponds Artificial, two ponds Naturalistic, large communal

Between 30 and 60 eggs will be laid in a nest that the female has built. The temperature during

incubation controls the sex of the crocodiles born; males are born at temperatures around 32°C and

females are born at higher or lower temperatures. Males are preferred in farming systems because they

typically grow more quickly than females. The eggs are therefore collected from the nest and artificially

incubated at 31.6°C in specialist incubators. Collecting eggs can be a tricky affair since both the male and

female are extremely protective and will attempt to attack keepers during collection. Eggs hatch after

77-80 days and then great care is taken over the small crocodile hatchlings (approximately 25-30cm in

length). Hatchlings are particularly prone to stress and disease during the first 6 months and are

therefore reared in strictly controlled indoor environments for the first few months. Between one to

three years there is less need to control the environmental temperature so critically and animals are

grown-on in outdoor areas (Figure 20). Pens usually comprise either one or two water pools, a land area,

and occasionally some form of enrichment, such as pipes or net covers.

16

Two pool systems allow crocodiles to move from one pool to the other whilst the water is being cleaned;

which mitigates the stress experienced by the crocodiles during the cleaning out procedure. Water

quality is important to prevent bacterial and fungal infections.

Figure 2Figure 2Figure 2Figure 20000: Growing pens: Growing pens: Growing pens: Growing pens

Growing crocodiles are periodically ‘graded’ which involves electrically stunning the larger crocodiles

and then removing them from the group to another pen. It is important to keep crocodiles of a similar

size together to prevent injury through food competition and to increase overall mean growth. Farmed

crocodiles are traditionally fed a diet of raw red meat and chicken heads; to give them sufficient calcium

and protein. However research is also being carried out on the use of pelleted feed; providing

commercial, homogenised diets to livestock allows greater control of nutrient intake, can reduce feed

and associated transport costs, and usually results in greater control over the growth and finish of

animals which is desirable to producers wishing to provide a uniform product.

Crocodiles will be grown-on until their belly width is between 35 and 45cm, which usually coincides

with a body length of 1.5 to 2 metres, and two to three years of age. A belly width of 45cm is the most

desirable since the leather may be used for larger articles, such as handbags, briefcases and garments, and

therefore gives a greater return. Similarly to ostrich leather, crocodile skins are graded and a greater

price achieved for a higher quality of skin, although there is no formal regulation of skin grading. To

improve skin quality some producers are beginning to use individual pens for the last few months of

growth so that any skin damage which may have been caused whilst being housed in a group setting has

time to heal (Figure 21). Once crocodiles reach slaughter size then they are usually killed on-site using a

.22 calibre rifle, or via a nape neck stab.

Figure 2Figure 2Figure 2Figure 21111: Individual crocodile pens: Individual crocodile pens: Individual crocodile pens: Individual crocodile pens

17

Visiting the various crocodile farms was an educational experience; crocodile farming is something that I

had very little previous knowledge of and I was unsure what to expect when seeing these units first-

hand. What I found was a mix of farms ranging from almost hobby operations that use their farmed

crocodiles as part of a tourist experience to highly competitive businesses that are driving research and

striving to make farming crocodiles a more predictable and profitable venture.

As well as seeing farmed crocodiles in Australia I also took the opportunity to see crocodiles in a more

natural setting and booked onto a two-day tour around Kakadu National Park, Northern Territory. The

tour was a great experience and included trips to various waterfalls, wetlands and billabongs, where I

saw many wild-living crocodiles. I noticed that it was very rare to see crocodiles in large groups or close

together and, on the whole, most animals seemed to be either on their own or have many metres

between them and the next crocodile (Figure 22). I also saw a crocodile trap for catching unwanted

crocodiles; these animals are then usually the ones given to farms for breeding stock (Figure 23).

Figure Figure Figure Figure 22222222:::: L L L Loan crocodileoan crocodileoan crocodileoan crocodile Figure 2 Figure 2 Figure 2 Figure 23333: Crocodile trap: Crocodile trap: Crocodile trap: Crocodile trap

18

Animal wAnimal wAnimal wAnimal welfare considerationselfare considerationselfare considerationselfare considerations when farming ostrich, bison or crocodiles in the UK when farming ostrich, bison or crocodiles in the UK when farming ostrich, bison or crocodiles in the UK when farming ostrich, bison or crocodiles in the UK

6666....1111 General General General General

My thoughts before travelling to Australia, Canada, America and South Africa were that I would be able

to see, first-hand what was considered to be ‘best-practice’ within the ostrich, bison and crocodile

farming industries. I also wanted to learn more about the animals themselves and their potential ability

to adapt to being farmed in areas other than their native country, especially with regards to the UK and

climate. As I visited each country and learnt about the different animals it became apparent that any

animal welfare issues would predominantly be due to management practices rather than an inherent

incompatibility with the UK. Ostrich and bison are both biologically capable of living and breeding

successfully in environments of varying temperatures and the temperatures that they would be exposed

to in the UK fall within range. Crocodiles are less equipped to deal with extreme temperature variations,

since they are ectotherms and rely on external conditions to regulate their body temperature, however,

given an appropriate temperature gradient then crocodiles will adapt their behaviour and choose a

preferred temperature region to retain internal homeostasis. Crocodile housing is therefore likely to

require some form of artificial heating in the UK.

One factor which is specific to the UK and may affect welfare is legislation. Legislation is one route

through which animal welfare may be safeguarded and within England farmed animals are afforded

legislative protection by way of the Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007. However, I

am currently unsure as to how effective these regulations are at protecting the welfare of ostrich, bison

and crocodiles since they have predominantly been written to protect traditional species: for example,

they exclude reptiles entirely; there are no Schedules outlining species specific conditions for ostrich or

bison and there are no supporting Codes of Practice in England for either crocodile or ostrich. Bison are

included within the Code of Practice for cattle, which is not ideal since there are a number of

behavioural differences between cattle & bison. However, all vertebrate animals (therefore including

ostrich, bison and crocodiles) are covered by the Animal Welfare Act 2006 (AWA) which provides a

basic framework of conditions and standards. Part of the Act (Section 9) places a duty of care on the

owner or keeper of an animal obliging that person to ensure that reasonable steps are taken to meet the

needs of any animal, based on the Five Freedoms (see page 3), for which they are responsible. The AWA

would therefore require, for example, that crocodiles were given a suitable environment.

Additionally, ostrich, bison and crocodiles are covered by the Dangerous Wild Animal Act 1976

(Modification) (No.2) Order 2007 (DWAA). All three animals are considered dangerous wild animals

under DWAA and anyone wishing to keep these species, including farmers, must first obtain a

dangerous wild animals licence from their Local Authority. Although the primary purpose of the

DWAA when it originally came into force in 1976 was to protect society from any threat posed by

dangerous wild animals (through regulating the keeping of wild animals by private individuals due to a

growing trend of dangerous wild animals being kept as pets), also included within the DWAA are

provisions regarding the suitability of animal accommodation and a requirement that adequate food,

drink and bedding materials are provided. DWAA therefore offers a route through which the welfare of

these animals may be monitored since to obtain a dangerous wild animal licence a veterinary inspection

is first required to ensure that the animals are not a risk to the public and also that these basic provisions

have been met. However, following a recent consultation, the licence duration and inspection

requirements for DWAA has been changed; before the consultation licences were valid for one calendar

year and required annual renewal following another veterinary inspection. As of October 2009 the

period of renewal has been extended to two years and the requirement for a veterinary inspection on

renewal has been removed and will now only be carried out when considered necessary. This is likely to

have implications for the welfare of animals since the length of time between inspections may now be

19

many years with the possibility that in the interim time animals may be housed in unacceptable

standards of accommodation and suffering may result. When considering legislation as a means of

protecting animal welfare it should be remembered that there can be difficulties in monitoring all

situations and that enforcing legislation can prove complicated, costly and time-consuming.

Additionally, legislation often only sets minimum standards, which may regulate against unnecessary

suffering but often does not promote high welfare standards. In most farming situations it is the

stockperson who determines the level of animal welfare.

6666....2222 OstrichOstrichOstrichOstrich

In the UK ostrich farming did not make an appearance until the late 1980s and today it is estimated that

there are approximately 100 producers in the UK. The British Domesticated Ostrich Association (BDOA)

was formed in 1992 to support the development of the industry and the World Ostrich Association

(WOA) was established in 2002. The BDOA and WOA are closely linked, being run by the same person,

and on payment of a small subscription charge farmers and interested individuals can become members

and gain access to a variety of industry information and activities such as a ‘members only’ mailing list,

bulletin discussion board in which questions and answers can be posted, periodic newsletters and

General Meetings. The WOA published its own welfare codes in 2007. Currently there are no legally

binding government guidelines or codes of practice in England to specifically cover the farming of

ostrich and Defra instead refers producers to the Recommendation Concerning Ratites (Ostrich, Emu

and Rhea) published by the Council of Europe in 1997. Adopted by the Standing Committee of the

European Convention for the Protection of Animals Kept for Farming Purposes the Recommendations

cover basic details of the biological characteristics of ratites; stockmanship and inspection; enclosures,

buildings and equipment; management; changes in phenotype or genotype and killing, and may be used

as guidance on best practice for ratites, although they are not part of UK legislation.

The Recommendations note that currently there is a high morbidity and mortality in many ratite sites

compared with other domesticated farm animal species and that these birds are not domesticated and

extremely susceptible to stress. The Standing Committee state a concern that the scientific knowledge

and practical experience of keeping ratites under European conditions are limited and that there is a risk

that producers may introduce husbandry methods which are not suitable for the health and welfare of

ratites and recommend that further research on the welfare and health of ratites should be encouraged.

In 2006 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW) Panel

published a Scientific Opinion on ‘The welfare aspects of the main systems of stunning and killing

applied to commercially farmed deer, goats, rabbits, ostriches, ducks , geese and quail’. The Opinion was

requested by the European Commission to evaluate the stunning and killing of these species and to

ensure that the best methods are applied in relation to animal welfare, biosecurity and public health.

The AHAW panel found that the published scientific information on slaughter and killing for the

species under consideration was very scarce and that there was an urgent need for further detailed

investigation of the methods, mechanisms and effects of different stunning methods.

In the UK there are over 100 slaughterhouses which have been licenced by the Meat Hygiene Service for

stunning and killing animals. Each slaughterhouse is approved for the killing of certain species and two

are approved to slaughter ostrich and 10 are approved to slaughter bison. Due to the small number of

slaughterhouses which are approved to slaughter these animals it is likely that animal’s must first travel a

lengthy distance. Transport is very stressful for animals for a number of reasons Additionally, where

slaughterhouses are approved to kill these animals a year or more often goes by between times – in 2007

the number of abattoirs who actually killed any ostrich or bison was one and four respectively (Meat

Hygiene Service, Pers. Comm.).

20

6666....3333 BisonBisonBisonBison

Bison have been farmed in small numbers in the UK to supply a speciality meat market for

approximately 20 years. In the early 1990s a group of individuals interested in bison formed The British

Bison Association and in 2008 there were 35 members, 23 of whom stock bison, based both within the

UK or Europe. There seems to be a strong community spirit within the bison industry and a willingness

to share information on husbandry and marketing matters. Most of the individuals who keep bison have

been farmers of other livestock for many years and have branched into bison because they are keen to

diversify and try something different. All bison farmers that I spoke to (within the UK, America and

Canada) seemed to have a great respect for bison and wanted to house and handle them in the best way

possible. However, this view may be slightly biased since the farmers who were willing for me to visit

their property are also likely to be the ones who care for their bison appropriately.

In the UK there appear to be a number of contraindications concerning how bison should be classed in

legislation. Currently bison are deemed dangerous wild animals for stocking purposes, may be classed as

game species for slaughter, included with domestic cattle when it comes to government Codes of

Recommendations, but are not included when it comes to receiving subsidies. Additionally there are also

unresolved issues regarding the following:

• Ear-tagging

Calves of domestic cattle must be ear-tagged within 36 hours (dairy) or within 20 days (beef) of

being born. However, ear tagging a young bison calf can prove incredibly difficult; the very

protective nature of bison cows make it dangerous to attempt to handle new born calves, plus the

handling process itself is very stressful to the young calf and cow. Currently an European

Commission Regulation (EC) No 509/1999 allows the tagging of bison calves to be postponed until

nine months of age or when moved from the premises, whichever is sooner. However, even

handling a nine month old calf and cow can be difficult and injuries to calves are likely when

passing the herd as a whole through a collecting yard, race and crush – which is a necessary

requirement for ear-tagging. Bison producers would therefore prefer bison to be treated similarly to

deer, which are only required to be ear-tagged as they leave the premises.

• Bovine tuberculosis

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an infectious disease of cattle caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium

bovis and which may also cause infection and disease in other animals, including humans. The

Tuberculosis (England) Order 2007 places controls on the movement and testing of cattle within

England to safeguard public and animal health. Currently all cattle herds within England must be

routinely tested every one to four years depending on region and of risk. Testing for bTB is carried

out by a veterinarian and involves an intradermal tuberculin (skin) test, and a gamma-interferon

assay. When bTB testing is carried out animals are run through a handling system approximately 3

days apart, the first time to administer the test, and the second time to assess the test site. Bison

producers in the UK find that handling bison, especially during veterinary procedures, can take up

to four times as long as would be expected for domestic cattle, additionally, a bison herd can be very

agitated following a period of handling and consequently bringing the herd in again within a few

days is very difficult and results in significant stress, animal injuries and increased danger to stock-

keepers. Not all animals at risk of bTB are routinely tested, e.g. deer, and bison producers would

prefer that bTB testing is only carried out when animals leave the premises and the area testing

requirements indicate the need, or when there has been a bTB breakdown on a neighbouring

holding.

21

• Bovine Somatotrophin Encephalopathy (BSE)

To protect any risk to public health from BSE all cattle aged over thirty months (OTM) and due to

enter the human food chain must be slaughtered in an approved OTM abattoir and then tested for

BSE following slaughter. If during killing the brain stem is damaged then BSE testing is not carried

out and the carcass must instead be destroyed. This is a concern for bison producers since the frontal

bone of a bison may be up to six times thicker than the skull of usual beef and dairy cattle farmed in

the UK, therefore achieving an effective stun using a captive bolt can be difficult and it is instead

recommended that to kill a bison animal effectively a head-on shot with a free bullet is required

(Humane Slaughter Association, 2008) - BSE testing is therefore often not feasible. Bison producers

consider that because bison are slower maturing animals then the thirty month rule is not

appropriate and would prefer instead that BSE testing was only carried out on animals aged over

forty months.

Source: The British Bison Association, 2008

6666....4444 CrocodilesCrocodilesCrocodilesCrocodiles

Crocodile farming is a recent addition to UK agriculture and I am aware of only one farm which, to date,

I have been unable to visit due to building works. The farmer has been farming traditional species for

many years and decided to venture into farming crocodiles to supply home-grown crocodile meat to the

UK consumer. I think this is definitely a wait and see area with regards to how successful this venture

will become. A number of crocodiles are kept in the UK within zoos therefore the keeping of crocodiles

is not in itself a concern, however issues may arise when the time comes to slaughter these animals. The

most humane method of killing crocodiles is by shooting the animal through the brain with a rifle.

However this requires a great amount of skill since the brain of a full grown animal is the size of a

person’s finger and encased in two layers of skull and there is just one spot which is suitable to achieve a

clean kill. A high level of operator skill and anatomical knowledge of crocodiles is therefore required.

22

AcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

My first thank you goes to James Kirkwood who brought the Winston Churchill Travelling Fellowship

to my attention and gave me the opportunity to travel away from my usual role as UFAW Scientific

Officer. I am incredibly grateful.

I would also like to thank my family who provided advice and words of encouragement throughout (and

especially when I lost my luggage, had to change flights details en-route and following dubious visits to

eccentric bison farmers!).

Finally, and most importantly, thank you to all of the farmers (especially for their unending patience to

my many many questions) and thank you to the Winston Churchill Memorial Trust. Few things that are

presented as a ‘once in a lifetime’ opportunity actually deliver but I truly believe that the Travelling

Fellowship scheme supported by the WCMT enables people to experience just that. Thank you.

23

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26

Appendix 1Appendix 1Appendix 1Appendix 1 –––– Travel Travel Travel Travel ItineraryItineraryItineraryItinerary

Part 1 (Australia, America and Canada)Part 1 (Australia, America and Canada)Part 1 (Australia, America and Canada)Part 1 (Australia, America and Canada)

Date Activity

28/06/08 Depart Heathrow

29/06/08 Stop over Singapore

30/06/08 Arrive Brisbane

30/06/08 –

04/07/08

Attend 23rd World Poultry Congress including the 4th International Ratite Science

Symposium

05/07/08 Fly from Brisbane to Rockhampton

06/07/08 –

07/07/08 Visit crocodile farm

08/07/08 Travel from Rockhampton to Cairns by coach

09/07/08 Arrive Cairns

10/07/08 –

18/07/08 Visit crocodile farms

19/07/08 Fly from Cairns to Darwin

20/07/08 –

22/07/08 Visit crocodile farm

23/07/08 –

24/07/08 Travel to and see crocodiles in wild

25/07/08 –

26/07/08 Fly from Darwin to LA to Denver

27/07/08 Fly from Denver to Gillette

28/07/08 –

02/08/08 Cattle ranching, Wyoming (Holiday)

03/08/08 Drive across Wyoming to Yellowstone National Park

04/08/08 –

07/08/08 Tour Yellowstone to see Bison in natural setting and visit bison farm

08/08/09 Visit Bozeman University

09/08/08 Fly from Bozeman to Calgary

10/08/08 –

12/08/08 Visit bison farms in Alberta

13/08/08 Fly from Calgary to Heathrow

Part 2 Part 2 Part 2 Part 2 ((((South AfricaSouth AfricaSouth AfricaSouth Africa))))

Date Activity

01/11/08 Fly from Gatwick to Cape Town (via Dubai)

02/11/08 Arrive Cape Town

03/11/08 Visit ostrich farm

04/11/08 –

12/11/08 Drive to Oudtshoorn. Visit ostrich farms and Oudtshoorn Research Farm.

13/07/08 –

18/11/08 Drive to Port Elizabeth. Visit Game Lodge and see ostrich in wild setting.

19/11/08 Fly from Port Elizabeth back to Cape Town

20/11/08 Visit crocodile farm

20/11/08 Fly from Cape Town to Gatwick (via Dubai)