Women and PowerWomen and Power

Ching-Chung, Priscilla, Palace Women of the Ching-Chung, Priscilla, Palace Women of the Northern Sung, Hinsch, Bret, Northern Sung, Hinsch, Bret, Women in Early Women in Early Imperial China, Imperial China, pp 1-13, 15-26.pp 1-13, 15-26.

Twitchet, Denis, Twitchet, Denis, Cambridge History of ChinaCambridge History of China, v.1; , v.1; Qin: pp Qin: pp 21-102; 21-102; 130-9; Former Han: 173-187; 190; 130-9; Former Han: 173-187; 190; 213-222; 213-222; (v3), C(v3), Ch 5: Kao-tsung (reign 649-83) and h 5: Kao-tsung (reign 649-83) and the empress Wu: the inheritor and the usurper, pp. the empress Wu: the inheritor and the usurper, pp. 242-279; Ch 6: The reigns of the empress Wu, Chung-242-279; Ch 6: The reigns of the empress Wu, Chung-tsung and Jui-tsung (684-712), pp. 290-320; tsung and Jui-tsung (684-712), pp. 290-320;

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Women and PowerWomen and Power IntroductionIntroduction Palace Women and Power (dynasties of Han origin)Palace Women and Power (dynasties of Han origin) Han DynastyHan Dynasty

– Marriage Policy of the Han Marriage Policy of the Han 汉汉– Palace Women and Court Politics Palace Women and Court Politics – The Usurpation of Wang MangThe Usurpation of Wang Mang

Jin Jin 晋晋 DynastyDynasty– The Power of Empress JiaThe Power of Empress Jia

Song DynastySong Dynasty– RegentsRegents– The Power of the RegentThe Power of the Regent– Preventing Women from Obtaining PowerPreventing Women from Obtaining Power– Recruitment and RetirementRecruitment and Retirement

Ming DynastyMing Dynasty– Recruitment of Palace WomenRecruitment of Palace Women

IntroductionIntroduction

The unification of China in 221 The unification of China in 221 B.C.E. under the Qin Shi Huangdi B.C.E. under the Qin Shi Huangdi 秦始皇帝秦始皇帝 was the beginning of was the beginning of imperial China.imperial China.

Previous to centralization, when the Previous to centralization, when the states needed allies, they had to states needed allies, they had to choose consorts from outside of choose consorts from outside of their own state.their own state.

The families of these women were The families of these women were powerful as they were the rulers of powerful as they were the rulers of the allied states.the allied states.

Once China was centralized, the Once China was centralized, the emperor was supreme and he chose emperor was supreme and he chose his consorts from within Chinahis consorts from within China..

Introduction (2)Introduction (2)

– The women no longer had the outside support and The women no longer had the outside support and authority of their families as their fathers were not authority of their families as their fathers were not kings.kings.

Centralization meant that all power resided in the Centralization meant that all power resided in the person of the emperor and those who gained his person of the emperor and those who gained his favor would share his power or even control him and favor would share his power or even control him and assume his power.assume his power.– The emperor, being supreme, was remote from his The emperor, being supreme, was remote from his

officials and ambitious officials had to use palace officials and ambitious officials had to use palace women as a way to influence and control the women as a way to influence and control the emperor. emperor.

Introduction (3)Introduction (3) Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.- 220 C.E.) was broken into two Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.- 220 C.E.) was broken into two

periods:periods:– Eastern Han (206 B.C.E.-8 C.E.)Eastern Han (206 B.C.E.-8 C.E.)– Western Han (9-220)Western Han (9-220)

The dynasty was interrupted by the usurpation of Wang Mang The dynasty was interrupted by the usurpation of Wang Mang (45 B.C.E.-23), the nephew of the Grand Empress Dowager (45 B.C.E.-23), the nephew of the Grand Empress Dowager Wang Zhengjun (71B.C.E.-13; aged 84).Wang Zhengjun (71B.C.E.-13; aged 84).

Wang Mang was a co-regent with the Grand Empress Dowager Wang Mang was a co-regent with the Grand Empress Dowager for three different reigns.for three different reigns.– The first was for her grandson; when the grandson died, The first was for her grandson; when the grandson died,

another emperor came to the throne and Wang had to resign.another emperor came to the throne and Wang had to resign.– At the death of this emperor, Wang again became co-regent At the death of this emperor, Wang again became co-regent

for another two short-lived emperors and at the death of the for another two short-lived emperors and at the death of the second one, he decided to usurp the throne.second one, he decided to usurp the throne.

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Palace Women and PowerPalace Women and Power There were several ways for women or their families to gain There were several ways for women or their families to gain

power and control court politics:power and control court politics:– The empress who seized power because of her position:The empress who seized power because of her position:

Help her husband to govern as he is in ill health and increasingly Help her husband to govern as he is in ill health and increasingly controls power until he is no longer able to rule.controls power until he is no longer able to rule.

Rule as a regent in the name of her son/titular son, or for her Rule as a regent in the name of her son/titular son, or for her grandson, if he is too young to rule and may, or may not, give up grandson, if he is too young to rule and may, or may not, give up power after he comes of age.power after he comes of age.

– Powerful male relatives used the women to exercise Powerful male relatives used the women to exercise influence or control the emperor; these relatives may influence or control the emperor; these relatives may continue to marry their daughters into the palace and continue to marry their daughters into the palace and control the court for several reigns.control the court for several reigns. They might also introduce a woman to him so that he would They might also introduce a woman to him so that he would

become so obsessed with her so that he was no longer interested become so obsessed with her so that he was no longer interested in government.in government.

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Han Dynasty: Marriage PolicyHan Dynasty: Marriage Policy The marriage policy was very flexible in early Han as the The marriage policy was very flexible in early Han as the

founder of the dynasty was a commoner; the wives did founder of the dynasty was a commoner; the wives did not come from powerful families. Example:not come from powerful families. Example:– Lady Wang, the wife of Jingdi 景帝 (r.157-141 BCE)

and the mother of Wudi 武帝 (r.140-87BCE), (r.140-87BCE), had been married before and had even given birth to a daughter. When a fortune-teller told Wang’s mother that her daughters

would be rich and famous, she took her daughter away from her husband and gave her to Jingdi when he was the heir-apparent 太子 .

There was tension between the Han emperors and their There was tension between the Han emperors and their more class-conscious officials over the choice of more class-conscious officials over the choice of empresses as many women were promoted because they empresses as many women were promoted because they had the favor of the emperor and not on the basis of their had the favor of the emperor and not on the basis of their virtue or family background. virtue or family background.

112/04/19112/04/19 88

Han Dynasty: Marriage Policy (2)Han Dynasty: Marriage Policy (2)

The officials wrote memorials condemning women of low The officials wrote memorials condemning women of low status being named empresses. status being named empresses. – They said that only the daughters of princes and nobles They said that only the daughters of princes and nobles

possessing territory were worthy to wed a ruler.possessing territory were worthy to wed a ruler. During the latter part of the Han (after the usurpation of During the latter part of the Han (after the usurpation of

Wang Mang Wang Mang (45BCE-23 CE), imperial wives came from (45BCE-23 CE), imperial wives came from families of powerful lineages as the emperors were not families of powerful lineages as the emperors were not able to centralize their power and needed the support of able to centralize their power and needed the support of these powerful familes.these powerful familes.

These consort families became powerful in court and in These consort families became powerful in court and in government and struggles between these great families and government and struggles between these great families and the eunuchs was one of the reasons for the fall of the Han. the eunuchs was one of the reasons for the fall of the Han.

Han DynastyHan DynastyPalace Women and Court PoliticsPalace Women and Court Politics

The Han dynasty was a period of time when women and The Han dynasty was a period of time when women and their families exercised great power.their families exercised great power.

During the Former or Eastern Han two Empress During the Former or Eastern Han two Empress Dowagers attended court and controlled the government.Dowagers attended court and controlled the government.

In the Later or Western Han, nine emperors were under In the Later or Western Han, nine emperors were under the control of Empress Dowagers and six Empress the control of Empress Dowagers and six Empress Dowagers attended court.Dowagers attended court.

Although women were the way to obtain and to maintain a Although women were the way to obtain and to maintain a familyfamily’’s established position of prominence the families s established position of prominence the families were extremely vulnerable.were extremely vulnerable.– The power and positions of the women and their The power and positions of the women and their

families were dependent on the life span of the women.families were dependent on the life span of the women.– Once the women died, the families may be Once the women died, the families may be

exterminated.exterminated. Example: The Liang family Example: The Liang family ––

99

1010

Han DynastyHan DynastyPalace Women and Court Politics (2)Palace Women and Court Politics (2)– It rose when it helped Guangwudi, the first emperor of It rose when it helped Guangwudi, the first emperor of

the Western Han, conquer the Northwest and it the Western Han, conquer the Northwest and it intermarried with Guangwudiintermarried with Guangwudi’’s family.s family.

– It fell when the head of the family was dismissed on It fell when the head of the family was dismissed on charges of corruption, jailed and executed. charges of corruption, jailed and executed.

– It recovered when a niece entered ZhangdiIt recovered when a niece entered Zhangdi’’s s 章帝 章帝 (r.76-(r.76-88)88) harem and had a son who would become Hedi harem and had a son who would become Hedi 和帝 和帝 (r.89-105)(r.89-105)..

– It provided empresses for Shundi It provided empresses for Shundi 順帝 順帝 (r.125-144) and (r.125-144) and Huandi Huandi 桓帝 桓帝 (r.146-148) . (r.146-148) .

– The Liang family dominated the government under The Liang family dominated the government under Shundi and Huandi but after the empress died, the Shundi and Huandi but after the empress died, the Liang family was not able to place another family Liang family was not able to place another family member as empress. member as empress.

– The emperor resented the control of the Liang family The emperor resented the control of the Liang family and turned to the eunuchs for support and drove the and turned to the eunuchs for support and drove the Liang family from power. Liang family from power.

Han Dynasty: Palace Women and Court Han Dynasty: Palace Women and Court Politics Politics

The Empress who would seize powerThe Empress who would seize power Empress Empress LLüü 吕吕 , wife of Liu Bang, wife of Liu Bang 劉邦劉邦 , was the first in the , was the first in the

Han Han 汉汉 dynasty to seize power after the death of her dynasty to seize power after the death of her husband.husband.

Her son, Huidi Her son, Huidi 惠帝 惠帝 (r.195-188B.C.E.) was young when he (r.195-188B.C.E.) was young when he became emperor and she became regent. became emperor and she became regent.

When he became an adult he was unable to cope with his When he became an adult he was unable to cope with his domineering mother who actually ruled during his reign. domineering mother who actually ruled during his reign.

After his death she placed two different infants on the After his death she placed two different infants on the throne but she was the de facto ruler. throne but she was the de facto ruler.

Sima Qian Sima Qian 司马迁 司马迁 entitled his chapter covering the period as entitled his chapter covering the period as ““Basic Annals of Empress Dowager LBasic Annals of Empress Dowager Lüü 太后本记太后本记” ” and and credited her as being a good ruler.credited her as being a good ruler.

From then on, whenever a woman became too powerful the From then on, whenever a woman became too powerful the officials would remind her not to become another Empress officials would remind her not to become another Empress LLü.ü.

Han Dynasty: Palace Women and Court Han Dynasty: Palace Women and Court Politics Politics

Women who were used by Male RelativesWomen who were used by Male Relatives Empress Shangguan Empress Shangguan 上官 上官 was the granddaughter of two of was the granddaughter of two of

the three regents for the young, Zhaodi the three regents for the young, Zhaodi 昭帝 昭帝 (r.87-(r.87-74B.C.E.). 74B.C.E.).

Her paternal grandfather resented the maternal Her paternal grandfather resented the maternal grandfather, Huo Guang grandfather, Huo Guang 霍光 霍光 (d.68 B.C.E.), for having (d.68 B.C.E.), for having more power. more power.

Zhaodi sided with Huo Guang and her fatherZhaodi sided with Huo Guang and her father’’s family lost s family lost the power struggle and was killed.the power struggle and was killed.

Her maternal grandfather, Huo Guang, dominated Her maternal grandfather, Huo Guang, dominated government.government.

When Zhaodi died, another young man was chosen to When Zhaodi died, another young man was chosen to succeed.succeed.

Huo Guang convened a group of ranking officials and asked Huo Guang convened a group of ranking officials and asked his granddaughter to dethrone him as he did not properly his granddaughter to dethrone him as he did not properly perform the mourning rites and had behaved in a perform the mourning rites and had behaved in a disrespectful and irresponsible manner. disrespectful and irresponsible manner.

The young empress (15 The young empress (15 suisui), his granddaughter, approved ), his granddaughter, approved the memorial to depose him and enthroned another prince the memorial to depose him and enthroned another prince selected by Huo Guang – Xuandi selected by Huo Guang – Xuandi 宣帝 宣帝 (r.74-49B.C.E.).(r.74-49B.C.E.).

Han Dynasty: Palace Women and Court Han Dynasty: Palace Women and Court Politics :Politics :

An Emperor is ObsessedAn Emperor is Obsessed Chengdi Chengdi 成帝 成帝 (32-7BCE); (32-7BCE); was obsessed by Zhao Feiyan was obsessed by Zhao Feiyan 赵飞赵飞燕燕 , a slave-entertainer in the service of the imperial , a slave-entertainer in the service of the imperial princess.princess.– He took Zhao Feiyan and her sister into his harem and she became He took Zhao Feiyan and her sister into his harem and she became

his favorite and was named empress after the previous empress was his favorite and was named empress after the previous empress was deposed.deposed.

Since the emperor was not interested in governing his Since the emperor was not interested in governing his mother, mother, Empress Dowager Wang Zhengqun and her elder Empress Dowager Wang Zhengqun and her elder brother, Wang Feng, acted as co-regents – after brother, Wang Feng, acted as co-regents – after Wang Feng Wang Feng died, he was succeeded by ED Wang’s cousins and brothers died, he was succeeded by ED Wang’s cousins and brothers until Wang Mang until Wang Mang 王莽 王莽 became regent. became regent. Neither of the Zhao sisters had any children but they Neither of the Zhao sisters had any children but they

made the emperor kill the baby boys born to him by other made the emperor kill the baby boys born to him by other palace women so when the emperor died there was no palace women so when the emperor died there was no heir and the Grand Empress Dowager Wang named heir and the Grand Empress Dowager Wang named Chengdi’s nephewChengdi’s nephew, Aidi , Aidi 哀帝 哀帝 (r.6-1BCE)(r.6-1BCE), as emperor but he , as emperor but he also died after ruling for a short time.also died after ruling for a short time.

Han Dynasty Han Dynasty The Usurpation of Wang MangThe Usurpation of Wang Mang

Wang Mang had served as a co-regent to Chengdi but Wang Mang had served as a co-regent to Chengdi but had to resign when Aidi came to the throne.had to resign when Aidi came to the throne.

After the death of Aidi, Grand ED Wang chose a After the death of Aidi, Grand ED Wang chose a young boy, Pingdi young boy, Pingdi 平帝 平帝 (r.1BCE-5CE) to succeed and (r.1BCE-5CE) to succeed and Wang Mang again became regent and named his Wang Mang again became regent and named his daughter as empress.daughter as empress.

But, Pingdi also did not reign long and an infant was But, Pingdi also did not reign long and an infant was chosen as the successor and Wang became the chosen as the successor and Wang became the Acting Emperor but the young emperor also died.Acting Emperor but the young emperor also died.– After having repeatedly served as regent for After having repeatedly served as regent for

several reigns, Wang Mang decided to proclaim several reigns, Wang Mang decided to proclaim himself emperor of a new dynasty, Xin himself emperor of a new dynasty, Xin 新新 (r.9-23).(r.9-23).

Jin DynastyThe Power of Empress Jia

The Jin dynasty (265-420) 晉朝 was founded by the Sima family which united China after the Three Kingdoms Period – the dynasty is divided into Western Jin (265-316) and Eastern Jin (316-420).

The first Jin emperor, Sima Yan, divided his new empire into 19 provinces and appointed princes to manage these regions and power was decentralized.

He named his son, Sima Zhong 衷 (r.265-420) as heir at age 7, but he boy was soon found to be developmentally disabled.

Sima Zhong was married to Empress Jia 賈 (256-300) when he was 12; she was 2 years older than he was.

Jin DynastyThe Power of Empress Jia (2)

When the young man inherited the throne under the regents named by his father, his wife, Empress Jia, conspired with the eunuchs and others against the regents.– She had her husband issue an edict declaring that the

regent had committed crimes and should be removed from his posts.

– There were 8 powerful princes at this time and Empress Jia began getting rid of them.

The empress and the Jia clan remained in power until 300 when she deposed and assassinated the heir to the throne.

The prince who commanded the imperial guards, took this opportunity to kill Empress Jia and her faction.

1717

Song DynastySong DynastyRegentsRegents

There were a total of 8 regents during the Song There were a total of 8 regents during the Song dynasty (dynasty (960–1279)960–1279). . – Of the 166 years of the Northern Song (Of the 166 years of the Northern Song (960–1127)960–1127), ,

regents ruled for 25.5 years. regents ruled for 25.5 years. Regents had different styles based on their Regents had different styles based on their

personalities and the times they lived in:personalities and the times they lived in:– Regents who ruled as Regents who ruled as defacto defacto sovereigns (ED Liu; sovereigns (ED Liu;

Gao);Gao);– Regents who ruled keeping low profiles (ED Cao, Regents who ruled keeping low profiles (ED Cao,

Xiang);Xiang);– Regents who ensured the succession (Meng);Regents who ensured the succession (Meng);– Regents who ruled through influencing the Regents who ruled through influencing the

emperor (ED Yang);emperor (ED Yang);– Regents who ruled at times of defeat (ED Xie). Regents who ruled at times of defeat (ED Xie).

1818

Song Dynasty: Regents who Ruled as Song Dynasty: Regents who Ruled as defactodefacto Sovereigns: Sovereigns:

Empress Dowager Liu Empress Dowager Liu 刘刘 Empress Dowagers Liu Empress Dowagers Liu 刘刘 (d.1033) was the most ambitious (d.1033) was the most ambitious

and aggressive of the Northern Song regents.and aggressive of the Northern Song regents.– She had risen to power through control of her husband She had risen to power through control of her husband

when he was ill and unofficially took over the when he was ill and unofficially took over the administration of the empire.administration of the empire.

– She had no sons but took the son (Renzong: r.1022-1063) of She had no sons but took the son (Renzong: r.1022-1063) of a palace woman and claimed that he was her biological son a palace woman and claimed that he was her biological son – he did not know of this until after her death. – he did not know of this until after her death.

As the “biological” mother she was regent for Renzong for 11 As the “biological” mother she was regent for Renzong for 11 years (1022-1033) and refused to retire when he came of age.years (1022-1033) and refused to retire when he came of age.

When she died she even left a will stipulating that another When she died she even left a will stipulating that another palace woman should succeed her as regent even though palace woman should succeed her as regent even though Renzong was already 23. Renzong was already 23.

1919

Song Dynasty: Regents who Ruled as Song Dynasty: Regents who Ruled as defactodefacto Sovereigns: Empress Dowager Sovereigns: Empress Dowager

Gao Gao 高高 Grand Empress Dowager Gao Grand Empress Dowager Gao 高高 (1031-1093), principal (1031-1093), principal

consort of Yingzong (r.1063-1067), and the natural consort of Yingzong (r.1063-1067), and the natural mother of Shenzong (r.1068-1086), ruled as regent for mother of Shenzong (r.1068-1086), ruled as regent for her grandson, Zhezong (r.1086-1100). her grandson, Zhezong (r.1086-1100).

As regent, she ruled for eight years as the As regent, she ruled for eight years as the de factode facto ruler. ruler. Gao had disagreed with her son‘s policies of reform – Gao had disagreed with her son‘s policies of reform –

Wang Anshi Wang Anshi 王安石 王安石 (1021-1086) – and so she recalled (1021-1086) – and so she recalled the conservative, Sima Guang the conservative, Sima Guang 司马光 司马光 (1019-1086), to (1019-1086), to head the government to reverse Wang Anshi’s policies. head the government to reverse Wang Anshi’s policies.

She was extremely strict with her relatives refusing to She was extremely strict with her relatives refusing to grant them special treatment.grant them special treatment.

She was considered a good ruler and was praised as “a She was considered a good ruler and was praised as “a sage among women”.sage among women”.

2020

Song Dynasty: Regents who ensured the Song Dynasty: Regents who ensured the succession:succession:

Empress Dowager Meng Empress Dowager Meng 孟孟 Meng (1077-1135) was chosen by ED Gao as Zhezong’s Meng (1077-1135) was chosen by ED Gao as Zhezong’s

(r.1086-1100) empress but was deposed after Gao’s death.(r.1086-1100) empress but was deposed after Gao’s death. When the Jin – Gold (1115-1234) attacked the capital, Meng When the Jin – Gold (1115-1234) attacked the capital, Meng

was not living in the palace as she had been deposed and so was not living in the palace as she had been deposed and so was not taken captive.was not taken captive.

Meng had the unique distinction of serving as regent twice Meng had the unique distinction of serving as regent twice although both were of short duration.although both were of short duration.

The Jin had placed a puppet, Zhang Bangchang (d.c.1130), The Jin had placed a puppet, Zhang Bangchang (d.c.1130), on the throne and to gain legitimacy, Zhang named Meng as on the throne and to gain legitimacy, Zhang named Meng as his regent.his regent.

When Meng learned that Prince Kang, one of the sons of When Meng learned that Prince Kang, one of the sons of Huizong (r.1101-1126), a brother of Qinzong, the last Huizong (r.1101-1126), a brother of Qinzong, the last emperor of the Northern Song, had arrived at Kaifeng, she emperor of the Northern Song, had arrived at Kaifeng, she sent her brother with a letter declaring him as the legitimate sent her brother with a letter declaring him as the legitimate emperor, and retired from her regency. emperor, and retired from her regency. – Zhang was forced to retire and committed suicide.Zhang was forced to retire and committed suicide.

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Regents who ensured the succession:Regents who ensured the succession:Empress Dowager Meng (2)Empress Dowager Meng (2)

In 1129, Gaozong was defeated in battle at Yangzhou and two In 1129, Gaozong was defeated in battle at Yangzhou and two discontented leaders of his bodyguard forced him to abdicate discontented leaders of his bodyguard forced him to abdicate in favor of his three-year-old son and Meng again served as in favor of his three-year-old son and Meng again served as regent.regent.– Gaozong’s loyal followers were able to restore him as Gaozong’s loyal followers were able to restore him as

emperor and so Meng retired from her regency after only emperor and so Meng retired from her regency after only 25 days.25 days.

– In the same year, Gaozong sent her into Jiangsi (when he In the same year, Gaozong sent her into Jiangsi (when he was again threatened by the Jin) so that if he were captured was again threatened by the Jin) so that if he were captured or killed she would represent the legitimacy of the dynasty. or killed she would represent the legitimacy of the dynasty.

– The Jin understood her powers as a senior widow and tried The Jin understood her powers as a senior widow and tried to capture her. to capture her.

Gaozong felt very indebted to her and treated her as if she Gaozong felt very indebted to her and treated her as if she was his own mother and rewarded her relatives generously was his own mother and rewarded her relatives generously naming about 80 of them to posts.naming about 80 of them to posts.

2222

Song Dynasty: Regents during times of Song Dynasty: Regents during times of defeat:defeat:

Empress Dowager Xie Empress Dowager Xie 谢谢 During times of defeat, the empress dowager would During times of defeat, the empress dowager would

often remain behind to negotiate and sign the terms often remain behind to negotiate and sign the terms of surrender while the young emperor fled from the of surrender while the young emperor fled from the capital.capital.

An example of such a woman was Xie.An example of such a woman was Xie.– Xie was the empress for Lizong (r.1224-1264) and Xie was the empress for Lizong (r.1224-1264) and

was regent for the adopted heir, Duzong.was regent for the adopted heir, Duzong.– Xie stopped the massacre of the Song population Xie stopped the massacre of the Song population

by negotiating surrender terms with the Mongols by negotiating surrender terms with the Mongols in which she only asked for the lives of the people in which she only asked for the lives of the people of Hangzhou, the Song House, and that the Song of Hangzhou, the Song House, and that the Song ancestral temples not be destroyed.ancestral temples not be destroyed.

– She became ill when the royal captives were to be She became ill when the royal captives were to be taken north and so stayed behind until she had taken north and so stayed behind until she had recovered.recovered.

The Power of the Regent There were three historical conditions under which the

mother or the grandmother of the emperor could govern as regent:– When the emperor was too young to govern –17 sui seemed to have

been the acceptable norm.– When the emperor was too ill to attend to affairs;– When the emperor was unexpectedly removed.

A senior widow was preferred as regent as:– She had no legitimate right to become emperor and her role was seen

as temporary.

– It was dangerous to select regents from among the emperor’s brothers or uncles who could usurp the throne.

Strong regents were defacto rulers. Weak ones were figureheads, delegating authority to her

relatives or to civil officials, who made decisions in her name.

The Power of the Regent (2)

Female rulers fall into three types:– Ruling directly as regents refusing to retire even when the

emperors came of age – Filling in while the emperor was sick or when the emperor

was young and acting on the advice of the top officials.– Taking charge temporarily while a new emperor is named.

The power of these women appeared to contradict the Confucian role prescribed for women.

Therefore, many palace women who exercised power are often stereotyped as the Dragon Lady such as Cixi in he Qing.– Reaction to this stereotype is mixed: many respected the

dragon lady’s decisiveness, ingenuity, and effectiveness.– Others distrust her, finding her ruthless, cunning and cruel.

Despite negative feelings towards female rule, it was a necessity and many women were praised as being great rulers.

Preventing Women and their families Preventing Women and their families from Obtaining Powerfrom Obtaining Power

Power by the imperial women and their families meant less Power by the imperial women and their families meant less power for the officials.power for the officials.– They repeatedly warned the emperor about preventing the They repeatedly warned the emperor about preventing the

power of these groups.power of these groups.– They reminded regents about the dangers of becoming They reminded regents about the dangers of becoming

another Empress Dowager Lü.another Empress Dowager Lü. The emperors were also aware of these dangers and tried to The emperors were also aware of these dangers and tried to

find ways to prevent it.find ways to prevent it.– Song emperors forbade the husbands of the princesses Song emperors forbade the husbands of the princesses

from having real positions although they had titles and the from having real positions although they had titles and the money that went along with the titles.money that went along with the titles.

– Ming emperors only brought in consorts from commoner Ming emperors only brought in consorts from commoner families with no power.families with no power.

2525

2626

Song Dynasty: Recruitment and Song Dynasty: Recruitment and Retirement: Retirement:

Methods of Entry into the PalaceMethods of Entry into the Palace Where did these palace women come from?Where did these palace women come from?

– A study of the women of the Northern Song show the A study of the women of the Northern Song show the following:following: Marriage as principal consort.Marriage as principal consort. Marriage as secondary consort (acquired as Marriage as secondary consort (acquired as

principal consort is barren).principal consort is barren). Entry through summons (may have been acquired Entry through summons (may have been acquired

as captive through conquest, recommended for as captive through conquest, recommended for beauty, etc.).beauty, etc.).

Entry through nationwide recruitment to staff Entry through nationwide recruitment to staff palace.palace.

Other methods – unknown.Other methods – unknown.

2727

Song Dynasty: Song Dynasty: RecruitmentRecruitment

Methods of Entry into the PalaceMethods of Entry into the Palace

Ratio Percentage Ranks Achieved

Marriage as principal consort

14/92 15.22 All empresses

Marriage as secondary consort

2/92 2.17 All empresses

Entry through summons 12/92 13.04 4 empresses; 7 imperial consorts1 minor wife

Possible recruitment 57/92 61.96 5 empresses; 19 imperial consorts; 33 minor wives

Unknown means 7/92 7.61 3 empresses; 2 imperial consorts; 2 minor wives

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Song Dynasty: Song Dynasty: Recruitment and Retirement Recruitment and Retirement AdvancementAdvancement

Family background 15 empresses; 3 imperial consorts; 2 minor wives

Imperial favour 7 empresses; 1 imperial consort; 1 minor wife

Entering the nunnery 3 imperial consorts; 1 minor wife

Birth or children 5 empresses; 3 imperial consorts; 3 minor wives

Combination of imperial favour & birth of children

7 imperial consorts

Combination of birth of children & longevity

6 imperial consorts

Longevity 3 imperial consorts; 3 minor wives

Meritorious service 3 imperial consorts; 2 minor wives

Patronage 1 empress; 2 imperial consorts

Unknown 19 minor wives

2929

Song Dynasty: Song Dynasty: Recruitment and Recruitment and Retirement RetirementRetirement Retirement

Women were released from the palace through:Women were released from the palace through:– Consorts, when deposed, were sent to auxiliary palaces Consorts, when deposed, were sent to auxiliary palaces

or to the nunnery. or to the nunnery. – General releases of palace women and married off with General releases of palace women and married off with

dowriesdowries Intervals for releases varied from 1-30 years (Song Renzong Intervals for releases varied from 1-30 years (Song Renzong

released women in 1039 and then did not do so again until released women in 1039 and then did not do so again until 1059).1059).

During Song Huizong’s reign they were released During Song Huizong’s reign they were released annually; the numbers released ranged from 24-600.annually; the numbers released ranged from 24-600.

– During the Qing, women were released at age 25.During the Qing, women were released at age 25.– Since they have served in the palaces they were to be Since they have served in the palaces they were to be

honored above their husbands.honored above their husbands.– But many men married them for the dowries.But many men married them for the dowries.– Some resold them into prostitution.Some resold them into prostitution.

Ming DynastyMing DynastyRecruitment of Palace WomenRecruitment of Palace Women

During the Ming (1368-1644)During the Ming (1368-1644) founding period, political founding period, political marriages to cement alliances, were an important part of marriages to cement alliances, were an important part of the strategy of the founder, Zhu Yuanzhang, for the strategy of the founder, Zhu Yuanzhang, for establishing himself as emperor of China. establishing himself as emperor of China.

In the final edition of his In the final edition of his Ancestral InstructionsAncestral Instructions, he , he announced a change of policy and stated that the announced a change of policy and stated that the daughters of men of high rank must never be chosen as daughters of men of high rank must never be chosen as consorts for the imperial princes. consorts for the imperial princes.

Imperial wives should be Imperial wives should be ““girls of good familiesgirls of good families”” 良家女良家女 -- -- commoners, whose fathers held no official or noble commoners, whose fathers held no official or noble positions.positions.– Daughters of the rich and powerful should be excluded Daughters of the rich and powerful should be excluded

from the selection.from the selection.– The criteria used was that the girls be healthy young The criteria used was that the girls be healthy young

virgins between the ages of about 10 and 20 virgins between the ages of about 10 and 20 sui.sui. This policy was based on two reasons:This policy was based on two reasons:

– Ming founders and their wives were all commoners but Ming founders and their wives were all commoners but there was an increasing growth of powerful families.there was an increasing growth of powerful families.

– Fear of the power of women and their families.Fear of the power of women and their families.

Ming DynastyMing DynastyRecruitment of Palace Women (2)Recruitment of Palace Women (2)

The senior woman in the imperial family, either the The senior woman in the imperial family, either the empress dowager or the empress, would issue an empress dowager or the empress, would issue an imperial order to the Ministry of Rites, instructing imperial order to the Ministry of Rites, instructing the officials to begin the recruitment when the heir-the officials to begin the recruitment when the heir-apparent and other princes came of age and were apparent and other princes came of age and were ready to be married.ready to be married.

The Ministry of Rites then issued a public decree The Ministry of Rites then issued a public decree which specified the number of women to be selected which specified the number of women to be selected and the regions which were to supply them. and the regions which were to supply them.

Other recruitments were conducted in secret as Other recruitments were conducted in secret as officials were often opposed to them officials were often opposed to them –– especially if it especially if it was to be done during a period of mourning.was to be done during a period of mourning.

Ming DynastyMing DynastyRecruitment of Palace Women (3)Recruitment of Palace Women (3)

An account of the recruitment:An account of the recruitment:– The first phase was overseen by the eunuchs.The first phase was overseen by the eunuchs.– In the first month of the year, more than 5,000 girls, between 13 In the first month of the year, more than 5,000 girls, between 13

and 16 and 16 suisui, were brought to the palace gates by their parents, , were brought to the palace gates by their parents, who were given gifts of money as compensation. who were given gifts of money as compensation.

– The girls were divided into groups of 100 for the first inspection The girls were divided into groups of 100 for the first inspection and those who were too tall, too short, too fat and unhealthy and those who were too tall, too short, too fat and unhealthy were dismissed were dismissed –– 1,000. 1,000.

– The remaining girls were again divided into groups of 100 and The remaining girls were again divided into groups of 100 and the eunuchs looked at their ears, eyes, mouths, noses, hair, skin, the eunuchs looked at their ears, eyes, mouths, noses, hair, skin, waists, necks, arms and backs. If any of these were not waists, necks, arms and backs. If any of these were not acceptable, they were dismissed. acceptable, they were dismissed.

– The eunuchs then listened to the girlsThe eunuchs then listened to the girls’’ voices as they said their voices as they said their names and ages and if the voice was too strong, too weak, or too names and ages and if the voice was too strong, too weak, or too hesitant, they were dismissed hesitant, they were dismissed –– 2,000. 2,000.

– On the third day, the eunuchs measured the girlsOn the third day, the eunuchs measured the girls’’ hands and hands and feet and made them walk a short distance and if their wrists feet and made them walk a short distance and if their wrists were too short, feet too large or behavior too reckless or hasty, were too short, feet too large or behavior too reckless or hasty, they were dismissed they were dismissed –– 1,000. 1,000.

Ming DynastyMing DynastyRecruitment of Palace Women (4)Recruitment of Palace Women (4)

During the second phase, the remaining girls were During the second phase, the remaining girls were inspected by palace women. inspected by palace women.

They were taken to a private room where matrons They were taken to a private room where matrons inspected them physically, smelled their armpits and inspected them physically, smelled their armpits and felt their flesh. felt their flesh.

Only 300 passed this final inspection and all of these Only 300 passed this final inspection and all of these became members of the imperial household. became members of the imperial household.

These girls were kept in the palace for one month, These girls were kept in the palace for one month, during which time the imperial women of the older during which time the imperial women of the older generation became familiar with their personalities generation became familiar with their personalities and their conversational abilities and judged their and their conversational abilities and judged their strength or weakness and their wisdom or lack of it. strength or weakness and their wisdom or lack of it.

50 girls, all to be consorts or concubines, passed this 50 girls, all to be consorts or concubines, passed this stage of the selection.stage of the selection.

These girls were then inspected by the senior These girls were then inspected by the senior imperial woman during the third phase.imperial woman during the third phase.

Ming DynastyMing DynastyRecruitment of Palace Women (5)Recruitment of Palace Women (5)

These women were tested in writing, mathematics, These women were tested in writing, mathematics, poetry, painting and other arts and the three most poetry, painting and other arts and the three most outstanding ones would be selected. outstanding ones would be selected.

These three were again physically inspected and These three were again physically inspected and presented to the emperor who made the final decision. presented to the emperor who made the final decision. – The chosen one would be around 15 The chosen one would be around 15 suisui with a face like that with a face like that

of the goddess Guanyin. of the goddess Guanyin. – Her complexion would be like the rosy morning mist reflected Her complexion would be like the rosy morning mist reflected

in the snow, like hibiscus flowers emerging from water. in the snow, like hibiscus flowers emerging from water. – Her hair like a spring cloud and her eyes like autumn waves. Her hair like a spring cloud and her eyes like autumn waves. – Her mouth like a red cherry and her nose like a perfectly Her mouth like a red cherry and her nose like a perfectly

shaped vase. Her teeth delicate and pure. shaped vase. Her teeth delicate and pure. – She would have a strong chin, a broad forehead and a long She would have a strong chin, a broad forehead and a long

neck.neck.– When she walked, it would be like water flowing from a When she walked, it would be like water flowing from a

hidden spring. hidden spring. – She was to be totally without blemish and without any sign of She was to be totally without blemish and without any sign of

disease. disease.

Ming DynastyMing DynastyRecruitment of Palace Women (6)Recruitment of Palace Women (6)

There were other criteria for selection of women for special There were other criteria for selection of women for special duties:duties:– Wet-nurses needed to have a rich supply of milk and be Wet-nurses needed to have a rich supply of milk and be

free from disease. free from disease. – Sedan chair carriers need to have natural, unbound feet Sedan chair carriers need to have natural, unbound feet

and were usually recruited from Fujian Province, where and were usually recruited from Fujian Province, where there were many women whose feet were not bound.there were many women whose feet were not bound. The sedan chair carriers were also chosen from The sedan chair carriers were also chosen from

families that could not afford to bind their daughters’ families that could not afford to bind their daughters’ feet. feet.

Most of the chair carriers were probably Hakka as Most of the chair carriers were probably Hakka as they did not bind the feet of their women. they did not bind the feet of their women.

There was resistance to the recruitment and so most women There was resistance to the recruitment and so most women were recruited from near the two capitals and military were recruited from near the two capitals and military garrisons where there was greater control.garrisons where there was greater control.

Han and non-Han Imperial WomenReadings:

“Imperial marriage in the Native Chinese and non-Han State, Han to Ming”

OR“The Harem in Northern Wei Politics, 398-493 AD: A Study of Tuoba attitudes towards the institution of empress dowager and regency governments in the Chinese dynastic system during early Northern Wei” in Holmgren, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power in Northern China. The Northern Wei (398-493):

OR“Family, Marriage and Political Power in Sixth Century China: A study of the Gao Family of the Northern Qi, c.520-550”, in Holmgren, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power in Northern China. pp VI, 1-50.

OR“ Politics of the Inner Court under the Hou-chu (Last Lord of the Northern Qi, ca. 565-73” in Dien, Albert E., ed., State and society in early medieval China, pp 269-330.