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ABSTRACT

Scholarly research of sports sponsorship commonly

measures success on the consumer’s ability to recall brand

and/or product. This is inappropriate for evaluating high-

level sponsorship effects such as attitude and/or

behavioural change. There is a lack of analysis of

sponsorship success in terms of consumer perceptions, not

just brand awareness.

This is a qualitative study of parental attitudes towards

Mars’ sponsorship of the FA, and how significant supporting

media and activities have been in leveraging positive

associations with the brand.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my housemates Ed, Sam, and Tom for support throughout the

year. My girlfriend Emily, Bailey, Finley, and the whole Brooks family for keeping me

during the study. My Mum, Dad, and Sisters; Natalie and Leanne, for constant

guidance and motivation. Finally, thank you to Tasos for being understanding and

supportive as a supervisor.

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CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 6

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Defining Sponsorship 7-8

2.2 Football Fever and Bandwagon Brands 8-9

2.3 Football Euphoria 9-10

2.4 The face of Mars 11-12

2.5 Recommendations for Future Research 12

3. METHODOLOGY 13

3.1 Problem 14

3.2 Aim & Objectives 14

3.3 Research Approach 15

3.4 Research Design 16-20

3.4.1 Sample 16-18

3.4.2 Semi-Structured Interviews 18-20

3.5 Limitations 20-21

4. ANALYSIS 22

4.1 Segmenting the Sample 22-23

4.2 Mars and the FA – Interview Timeline 23

4.3 1st

Cap for Mars 24-25

4.4 Branded Ambassadors 25-26

4.5 3 Lions on our Mars 26-27

4.6 Proud to wear the badge 27-28

4.7 Another Mars project kicks off 28-29

4.8 Check Your Code 29-30

4.9 Work Rest Play Your Part for England 30-31

5. CONCLUSION 32

5.1 Guilty by Association? 32

5.2 Impact on Children 33

5.3 Passion vs. Principles 33-34

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MARS 34-35

5.5. LIMITATIONS 35

5.6. RECCOMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 35

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1. INTRODUCTION

Bill Shankly famously said; "Some people believe football is a matter of life and death. I

can assure you, it is much more important than that” (Shankly 2012).

In 2006, Mars bars around the UK were rebranded with the word ‘Believe’ on the

packaging as a gesture of support for the England football team for the duration of the

World Cup hosted by Germany (Appendix 4). In October 2009, Mars and The FA

announced a 5-year sponsorship deal positioning them as an Official Supporter of the

England Team until July 2014. Mars said they would; “help galvanise the nation in their

support for England, and bringing fans closer to the team” (Mars 2012). Mars’ tie-in

with the England football team for the 2010 World Cup was a major opportunity at the

time, but the team’s early departure from the competition created problems for the

brand (Mintel 2011). Nevertheless, Mars has retained its enthusiasm for football and

launched their £4.3m multimedia marketing campaign for the UEFA Euros in April

2012. The activity represented a 70% increase in marketing spends compared with its

2010 World Cup campaign (Marketing Week 2012). Mars’ long-running strapline

“Work Rest Play” will be extended to “Work Rest Play Your Part” in a bid to encourage

fans to get behind the national team at the 2012 tournament.

Sports sponsorship has frequently been measured in terms of the consumer’s ability to

recall brand and/or product. An opportunity was identified to evaluate a high-profile

sponsorship based on an exploration of emotions and attitudes. Brands use sports

sponsorship to promote positive associations between the brand and the sport; this is

a qualitative study that aims to explore parental attitudes towards Mars’ sponsorship

with the FA. 8 in-depth interviews were conducted taking respondents on a consumer

journey from October 2009, when the sponsorship was announced, to present day,

Mars’ launch of their new Euro 2012 campaign. Respondents were taken through this

timeline of events to fully engage them with sponsorship and explore their feelings

towards Mars in its entirety.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

The purpose of this literature review is to outline the existing knowledge in the field of

sports event sponsorship. “Sponsorship is here to stay and its role in bringing an

organisation sustained competitive advantage is one that is likely to interest scholars

for years to come” (Dolphin 2003:184). The review is an examination of some of the

most significant research conducted in this particular field of study, and it is important

to emphasise that not all the literature selected in this field has been considered.

2.1 Defining Sponsorship

"A sponsor wants to create activities that are enjoyable and memorable for audiences

and participants and provide them occasions to build the brand values and to develop

sales opportunities" (Akaoui 2007:147). Ali Mohamed et al (2011) believes the

sponsorship should therefore be assessed as to its potential of helping a brand secure

a position of competitive advantage. It could be argued that not all sponsor agendas

are just a case of an increase in competitive advantage. However, De Pelsmacker et al

(2001) have a similar view to d’Astous and Bitz (1995:6), who define sponsorship as

“an element of the communication mix where a firm provides some financial support

to an entity in order to pursue its activities and, at the same time, benefit from this

association in terms of global image and consumer awareness of the firm’s market

offerings”. In this case, a sponsor’s main aim is to increase sales, and ultimately profit.

They are not acting altruistically.

Brands should look to differentiate from competitors and the sponsorship must be

extendable. “It is important for the sponsoring company to have a comprehensive

media campaign to augment the regular media coverage promoted by the organisers…

it makes little sense to define a competence as core if it is omnipresent or easily

imitated by competitors” (Ali Mohamed et al 2011:182). Having a comprehensive

media strategy is essential if sponsors want to exploit their opportunity completely to

benefit from mass brand awareness. It is thought that the benefits of sponsorship are

likely to be “more effective in the early stages, whereas other elements of the

marketing strategy and environmental factors are far more influential in changing

behaviour” (Jalleh et al 2002:38). Thus, sponsorship can arouse opinions and have an

effect on consumer attitudes towards a brand, but it is not realistic to expect

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sponsorship to have a direct effect on behaviour (Pham 1992), this would require the

use of different types of media such as TV, radio, print, and digital.

2.2 Football Fever and Bandwagon Brands

Football being the most watched sport in the World and has become one of the most

lucrative forms of entertainment. Half of all UK males play, watch, or read about

football (Ali Mohamed et al 2011) and the 2010 World Cup in South Africa was shown

in every country and territory on Earth. The competition generated record-breaking

viewing figures in many TV markets around the world reaching over 3.2 billion people,

46.4 per cent of the global population (Fifa 2011). Akaoui (2007:156) says utilising

supporting media during the sponsorship can be more effective than choosing an

appropriate events; “he use you make of your sponsorship campaign is more

important than the event itself.” Given the viewing figures during high-profile events

such as the World Cup, it is possibly understandable that brands might want to exploit

the extensive media coverage (DeSarbo and Madrigal 2011).

Mars’ have been keen to explain and promote the nature of their sponsorship by

branding their packaging with the England badge (Appendix 4), and in their World Cup

2010 advert featuring John Barns singing; “3 lions on the Mars” (Appendix 3). This has

been Mars’ attempt to defend the sponsorship against competitors using ambush

marketing when “companies seek to exploit the event from the outside, without

paying a rights fee to the organisers”. Directly, this competition came from Kit Kat’s

'Cross Your Fingers' TV Advert (Appendix 5), as well as Coca Cola, Carlsberg, and

Budweiser’s World Cup 2010 advertisements (Appendix 6, 7, and 8). Mars still sit

above Kit Kat in terms of market share, but have had a decrease of 5.6% share in the

2009-2010 period, whereas Kit Kat has been steadily improving (Appendix 11). This

could mean consumers are cynical of Mars’ sponsorship with the England football

team, or that Mars have not been efficient in making the most of their opportunity to

build positive associations from the sponsorship with their brand.

In elaboration of Akaoui, d’Astous and Bitz (1995:19) found “firms wishing to improve

their image through the use of sponsorship must choose an event for which consumers

perceive a moderate or strong link with their business activities.” Meaning; the link

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between the sponsor and the event has a more important influence on consumer

reactions than constant media coverage. Brand should firstly aim to evaluate the

potential impact of a sponsorship in regards to the quality of association the brand can

make with an event, rather than the potential audience reach of the sponsorship. “A

good perceived symbiosis between the sponsor and the event is thought to have

positive effects on the sponsor’s image. A weak link between the two might affect the

image negatively” (d’Astous and Bitz 1995:9). This is backed up further by Pickton and

Broderick (2001) who conducted a study during the 1998 World Cup in France. They

discovered 70% of the UK population believed too many unrelated brands jumped on

‘the World Cup bandwagon’ to exploit mass media exposure. Brands may act to hastily

to sponsor a high profile event because consumers feel more confident about a brand

that has the ability to do this (De Pelsmacker et al 2001). However, McDonald

(1991:36) also discusses synergy between what the company does in its business and

the detail of the sponsorship, noting the importance of product relevance. If the

sponsorship is unrelated, brands risk this causing a negative impact on sponsors,

resulting in a decrease in the brands ability to influence consumers (Pickton and

Broderick 2001). Sponsorships without a significant link to the event will seem to have

ulterior motive. “Many believe strongly that it is wrong for alcohol or tobacco interests

to be associated with a physical sport, and are often offended if they appear as

sponsors” (McDonald 1991:37). Although less of a health issue, consumers may feel

similarly in the case of Mars’ sponsorship of the England Football team, co-branding a

physical sport with a confectionary.

2.3 Football Euphoria

“Well-directed sponsorship can do much to enhance the perception of the company

and, possibly, its products. Conversely, ill-designed and badly thought-out sponsorship

may at best have no effect at all or, at worst, backfire” (McDonald 1991:31). The

effectiveness of sponsorship is not only increased by a strong link/relation between

the brand and the event, but also when consumers have a greater interest in the event

they show more sympathy towards the sponsor and consequently are more positive

towards the sponsor’s image (d’Astous and Bitz 1995). In a study on sponsorship

during the 2006 World Cup in Germany, Ali Mohamed et al (2011:185) found that

football sponsorship can reach a wide audience of disparate consumer types, to

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“influence the community”, and enhance national brand awareness. Akaoui (2007)

discovered that sponsorship contacts were not very influential with the general public,

but were more effective among males and those with interest in football. Pham (1992)

also found similar results showing; “when consumer involvement in a sponsored event

is high, consumer information processing is significantly affected. Higher involvement

leads to more active processing and presumably greater interest towards the

sponsorship.” This finding may have a significant effect on attitudes of a sponsor.

Consumers showing little interest in are not the audience for the event, and therefore

may feel less of a connection to the event and the sponsor.

Few companies have made serious attempts to develop an understanding of how to

measure the success of a sponsorship, mainly due to research in relation to particular

sponsorship spends often appears to be relatively high compared to the equivalent

cost of researching media advertising (McDonald 1991:32). The amount of impressions

and mentions a sponsorship gets in national press does not equate to proving its

effectiveness and research should be evaluative to measure the effects on brand

image; “the more people aware that a company is a sponsor, the more ‘favourable’

they feel towards it” (McDonald 1991:33). McDonald (1991:34) also believes; “a

sponsor is supporting, or even making possible, something that is dear to your heart”.

As publicity begins to increase during the build up to the World Cup for example,

consumers would be less conscious of a sponsor due to their eagerness for the

forthcoming pleasure, i.e. a football match (DeSarbo and Madrigal 2011). “For some

sports, sponsorship is seen as more than just desirable; it is necessary for survival... It is

perceived as a ‘good thing to do’, and this rubs off on the company” (McDonald

1991:36). High profile events, however, may find sponsorship of their event to be in

high demand. In relation to football, investment at grassroots level may be a key area

for brands to make a positive impact. Mars’ community support initiatives including

the Just Play programme; encouraging adults to play more football (Appendix 1) may

be seen as altruistic (DeSarbo and Madrigal 2011). “People are happy to see a

company promoting itself in ways which do good” (McDonald 1991:36). A high profile

sponsorship could lead to consumers having a reduced feeling of scepticism towards

the brand.

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2.4 The face of Mars

Sports sponsorship is the most popular sponsorship medium for brands, accounting for

at least three-quarters of all sponsorship spending in both the UK and the US… with

football and motor sport dominating expenditures (Ali Mohamed et al 2011:184).

Justifiably, Mars launched a £4.3 million multimedia marketing for the UEFA Euros

2012, a 70% increase compared to its World Cup 2010 campaign (Marketing Week

2012). “If sponsorship has been supported by advertising, one would look for

movements in advertising awareness also, and perhaps an even stronger overall

effect” (McDonald 1991:33). This tells us that supporting media should be an essential

part of any sponsorship campaign to maximise brand recall. Arsenal’s Theo Walcott

has replaced Mars’ most prolific Brand ambassador, Peter Crouch (Marketing Week

2012). Schroeder and Zwick (2004:32) describe a brand ambassador as a ‘male pin-up’;

“another form of portrait that informs contemporary male advertising imagery...

specifically designed to be looked at, admired, and worshipped.” Footballers at the

peak of their careers are admired for having great skill and fans look to them to bring

success for the country and the teams they support (Bordo 1997). Mars launched the

‘Just Play’ programme aiming to encourage thousands of adults to play football

(Appendix 1), and “gender remains central to the world of advertising and

consumption - it is difficult to conceive of most products without male and female

target markets” (Schroeder and Zwick 2004:47).

Extending their sponsorship through different media channels including; TV,

experiential, and online, has also become critical for Mars because “message impact

and recall may fall dramatically soon after a sponsored event” (Ali Mohamed et al

2011:184), in this case, the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. Advertising in the

community, as well as branding their products with the England crest, should have

helped to prolong the connection in consumers’ minds between Mars with the England

football team, before the 2012 Euros. Furthermore, although Mars aim to gain

positive brand associations from being fronted by famous footballers, choosing a

brand spokesperson from the national team carries a great risk of the players

underperforming, becoming injured, or in the case for Crouch and Walcott, potentially

not even being picked for the final Euro 2012 squad. Capewell (2006) gives an example

of Coca-Cola using Wayne Rooney as a brand ambassador during the 2006 World Cup

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where he was red-carded for stamping on an opponent in a game England went on to

lose. “This can create a series of negative associations between the brand and the

player and can result in certain consumers consciously choosing not to buy a product

decorated with Rooney’s image” (Capewell 2006:57).

2.5 Recommendations for Future Research

Some key suggestions for future research include; (1) advanced exploration to find if

consumer objections of controversial sponsorships are lessened depending on the

popularity of the sports event. (2) A more detailed examination of supporting media

and activities and if they succeed in leveraging the sponsorship programme to greater.

And most significantly; (3) measuring sponsorship success in terms of altering

consumer perceptions, not just brand awareness. This includes effects on consumer

attitudes towards a brand, and whether or not these changes are lasting or short term

(Mohamed et al 2011:181 and Dolphin 2003:184).

Sports sponsorship effectiveness is still measured largely in terms of fans’ TV

consumption, and therefore media coverage is likely to be a firm’s key motivator in

deciding what to sponsor. However, information regarding a firm’s decision making is

irregular. New media, such as internet broadcasting and other media channels, can

also play an important role extending the sponsorship in terms of reach. Dolphin

(2003:184) shares the same opinion and believes there could be an ambiguity or

inconsistency about the way sponsorship activities are selected. Brands are too

preoccupied with the potential viewing figures of an event, whereas other factors,

such as the relationship between sponsor and event, should be considered as more

important. As the results of sponsorship are typically appraised in terms of awareness

levels achieved, rarely does research delve deeper into consumer attitudes created or

altered by the sponsorship (McDonald 1991). “The most common type of sponsorship

effects research is the simple measurement of sponsor logo exposure time during

coverage of a sponsored event which is clearly inappropriate for evaluating high-level

sponsorship effects such as attitude and/or behavioural change” (Ali Mohamed et al

2011:181). Dolphin (2003:184) has also recommended future research to measure

sponsorship success through the altering of perceptions.

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3. Methodology

The Methodology section aims to outline and explain the reasoning and planning for

the proposed research. Examination of some of the most significant research

conducted in the sports sponsorship field was essential in setting the aim and

objectives for the project. McMillan and Weyers (2011:284) describe objectives as;

“goals outlined in specific terms and tending to relate to individual, achievable

outcomes that are required to achieve the ultimate aim.”

Once the objectives were set, the planning for the research approach was drawn.

Research methods are extensive, with a wide range of disciplines; these sections will

explore the rationale for the chosen methods for obtaining data. The design of the

research will explain the main techniques used to obtain this data, including who the

sample is, and the selection process. Furthermore, this section will go on to describe

how the research was conducted. This will consist of; stimulus material, how to

analyse results, and the appropriate ways of displaying such data. Finally, with the aim

of improving the reliability and validity, there will be an analysis of the limitations of

the research methodology (McMillan and Weyers 2011).

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3.1 Problem

Scholarly research of sports sponsorship commonly measures success on the

consumer’s ability to recall brand and/or product. This is inappropriate for evaluating

high-level sponsorship effects such as attitude and/or behavioural change (Ali

Mohamed et al 2011:181 and Dolphin 2003:184). There is a lack of analysis of

sponsorship success in terms of consumer perceptions, not just brand awareness.

3.2 Main Aim

To explore parental attitudes towards Mars’ sponsorship of the FA, and how significant

supporting media and activities have been in leveraging positive associations with the

brand

Objectives

1. To identify parents’ feelings towards the association of Mars with football

2. To explore parents’ feelings towards Mars’ use of famous footballers as brand

ambassadors

3. To investigate the relationship between interest in Football and scepticism towards

the sponsor

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3.3 Research Approach

A qualitative approach was used for the purpose of this research, rather than mixed

method approach. The reason for this decision resulted from the findings in the

literature review, and recommendations for future research. The latter stating; the

most common type of sponsorship research is the simple measurement of sponsor

logo exposure time during coverage of a sponsored event, as well as brand or product

recall. This research was stated as; “inappropriate for evaluating high-level sponsorship

effects such as attitude and/or behavioural change” (Ali Mohamed et al 2011:181).

McMillan and Weyers (2011:123) affirm qualitative research methods are investigative

approaches especially useful when examining; opinions, feelings, values, and

behavioural patterns. “One of the strengths of qualitative research lies in the flexibility

it offers to explore areas that might be rich in the research context but which might

not have been anticipated in the question bank created by the researcher/moderator”

(McMillan and Weyers 2011:133).

In depth interviews were preferred for this study as the personal one-to-one situation

gives the respondent the feeling of being the focus of attention. Respondents attained

a heightened state of awareness, which created a rapport with the interviewer, and

therefore allowed respondents to be more honest and open with their personal

thoughts and feelings throughout the interviews. As well as creating an atmosphere

with no group pressure, a one-to-one interview also eliminates the opportunity for

respondents to hide behind other members (Proctor 2005:234).

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3.4 Research Design

3.4.1 Sample

Proposed were 8 in-depth interviews in total; which took place on the week

commencing 16th of April, in 8 different locations:

Number of participants: 8

Duration: 45-60 mins

Location: Respondents homes

Sample Description:

Tiered system recruited using screening questions (Appendix 10):

(Tier 1 - 2 respondents)

Reclusive Spectator - little or no interest in football, actively avoids football in general.

Uninterested and unconcerned as to scores or news regarding football

(Tier 2 - 2 respondents)

Casual Supporter - some interest in football, occasionally watches games but does not

necessarily feel affected emotionally by the score line. Rarely goes to live games or

actively seeks out information regarding football

(Tier 3 - 2 respondents)

Avid Follower – enthusiastic football follower, will often watches games on TV but only

occasionally goes to live games. May or may not be emotionally affected by the match

results

(Tier 4 - 2 respondents)

Football Fanatics - avid football fan actively supports club and country, as often as

possible go to live games. Emotionally affected by the match results

(Tapp and Clowes 2002)

Parents of any age, as well as a mix of all social groups are welcome, but must have

children between 12-16 years of age. Their children should have a significant interest

in Football; all enjoy watching or participating in the sport, and actively support

England.

According to Abrams (2010:538), “probability sampling simply does not fit the goals

and assumptions of most qualitative research questions”. A non-probability sample

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was therefore employed as the research was an explorative study (McGivern 2003;

Greenbaum 1998). “Qualitative research is often characterised as involving intensive

research with small samples, with little emphasis on the possibility of generalising from

sample findings to the population as a whole. Instead, the focus is typically on the

depth of understanding attained within the confines of the project sample” (Christy

and Wood 1999). McMillan and Weyers (2011:125) establish that small samples may

not be representative of the whole population, but this is not necessarily an issue, “in

many cases, the value of qualitative research derives from authentic and case-specific

detail that it can encompass. The information obtained is potentially richer and deeper

than that described in numbers and statistics, and can take advantage of the many

subtle ways of using language to express opinions, experiences and feelings”

(McMillan and Weyers 2011:125).

Proctor (2005:145) asserted the per-interview cost, as well as the refusal rate, can be

high. Without the ability to offer and incentive recruitment was made more difficult. It

was therefore important to over-recruit participants. Convenience sampling was also

chosen due to this circumstance, “which often force researchers to operate with

samples of available subjects” (Abrams 2010:542). Abrams (2010:542) defines

convenience sampling as the “reliance on participants who are readily available and

accessible to the researcher.” This does not hinder the project, but instead typically

means recruiting people who are likely to have a key insight on a chosen topic. The use

of ‘convenience sampling’ in research shows no prior knowledge of what is right and

wrong which allowed respondents to decide their own personal opinions (Proctor

2003).

In order to ensure the research was reliable and relevant to this study, participants

were screened according to a defined set of criteria (McMillan and Weyers 2011:131).

Christy and Wood (1999) say the later stages of screening may well be vital in

confirming the attractiveness of a particular segment, and raises logistical and ethical

barriers ” (Abrams 2010:543). The study sample was highly relevant to the research

questions and aims, and was likely to generate rich information, and it can be assured

that it was ethical (Appendix 22). This information was obtained before the interviews

were conducted (Appendix 12). A key finding in the literature review illustrated;

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consumers with a higher interest in the event show more sympathy towards the

sponsor, and subsequently are more positive towards the sponsor’s image (d’Astous

and Bitz 1995 and Akaoui 2007). This allowed for the adoption of a systematic

approach for sampling (Christy and Wood 1999). A Likert scale was used as the

information gained provides a more rounded view of what consumers really feel in

terms of their own opinion, whether emotional, or rational (Birn 2004). Using a Likert

scale also allowed the screening questions to be distributed efficiently, allowing

potential respondents to fill out a short questionnaire. Further, this finding gave

reason for the sample to be ‘tiered’ in level of interest in football, ranging from

participants who were avid supporters, to those who are less interested in football.

“Random sampling assumes that one person is ‘as good as the next’ as a data point so

long as they contribute to representing the larger population. Qualitative researchers,

on the other hand, recognize that some informants are better are situated to provide

key insight and understandings than others” (Abrams 2010:537).

3.4.2 Semi-Structured Interviews

As this study is in relation to consumer emotions, a semi-structured approach for the

interviews was adopted in order to allow the researcher to delve deeper into

respondent’s answers, in order to gain a better insight (Chisnall 2005). A timescale for

this research project was constructed (Figure 1), allowing necessary time to recruit

respondents for the interviews. Mars launched their UEFA Euros 2012 campaign on the

15th of April (Marketing Week 2012), and this formed part of the stimuli used to show

participants during the interviews. The interviews were organised to take participants

through the sponsorship in its entirety from October 2009, when Mars and The FA

announced their 5-year sponsorship deal (Marketing Week 2009), to Mars’ launch of

their Euro 2012 campaign, and respondents were shown the stimuli chronologically. 2

interviews are being conducted each day, on the week commencing 16th of April.

Friday the 20th was used as a contingency date, in case there were any respondents

who could not attend.

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Stage Activity 26Mar 2Apr 9Apr 16Apr 23Apr 30Apr 7May

1 Evaluation of

research methods

Decision on sample

Discussion guide

design

Sample

recruitment

2 Interviews

Transcription of

interviews

3 Analysis of results

Report writing

(Figure 1)

With the permission of the participants, audio equipment and pictorial recordings of

the interviews were preferred to note taking; “some people do appear to relax more in

these situations where there is no overt note-taking going on” (McMillan and Weyers

2011:132. McMillan and Weyers (2011:133) say responses other than words may be of

value, such as facial expressions, eye contact, and tone of voice. In this case, recording

the interviews allowed for an uninterrupted dialog to stimulate a more natural

discussion and observation of body language. This was particularly useful when

observing respondents as they watched the advertisements. The interviews began

with an introduction explaining the purpose of the research (Proctor 2005:190),

confirmation of the length of time envisaged for the activity, followed by inviting the

participants to introduce themselves to put them at ease. The questions throughout

the interviews are defined by the aims and objectives of the project, moving from

general discussions, to the specific topic of Mars and the FA (McMillan and Weyers

2011:132). The research will conclude by thanking the participants for their time and

contribution, finishing with one final question asking what they felt was the most

significant part of the research that they can take away. “If you fail to observe the

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courtesy of thanking your participants, they or others in the target category may be

less enthusiastic about assisting your research in future” (McMillan and Weyers

2011:134).

3.5 Limitations – Ensuring validity and reliability

As convenience sampling was used, for which there is often no formal rationale

(Abrams 2010), it would be naive to not accept it to be subjected to the researcher’s

bias (Christy and Wood 1999). “Critics of qualitative research often refer to the fact

that this type of research does not meet the demands of validity and reliability, criteria

which are generally regarded as the cornerstone of any research” (Ruyter and Scholl

1998). However, Ruyter and Scholl (1998) maintain validity can be assured as

qualitative research can use open research questions, which allow ideas and constructs

to be developed through communication with a specific target group. Moreover,

“there is also the possibility of checking certain facts during the research, to elaborate

on issues that come up and to ask for reasons and arguments that lie behind the facts.

Issues that do not appear to be relevant can be left out or be replaced during the

research” (Ruyter and Scholl 1998). In terms of reliability, Bell (2010) defines it as the

extent to which a test or procedure produces similar results under constant conditions

on all occasions (Bell, 2010). Ruyter and Scholl (1998) state “an in-depth insight into

the motivations and perceptions of respondents requires a feeling for the logic and

psychology of as well as certain ‘drivers’ of consumer behaviour.” It can therefore be

argued that the emphasis in a research project is shifted, and new questions are raised

in the quest to look behind the facts. “This flexibility is a clear advantage of qualitative

research and is rated as more important than reliability” (Ruyter and Scholl 1998).

Also, in qualitative research respondents are often invited to respond in their own

words to the stimuli offered by the researcher. The validity of qualitative research is

primarily related to the fact that constructs are closely aligned to their real-life

context. Results become meaningful in relation to the respondent’s everyday reality,

meaning this type of research method was appropriate for this study.

There is recognition that obtaining and interpreting qualitative information is

belonging to the researcher (McMillan and Weyers 2011:124). To assure quality of

data collection, the interviewer must probe in order to elicit detailed answers to each

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question to uncover hidden motivations (Proctor 2005:234). Furthermore, as the

interviewer, it was important to act in a neutral way to avoid exerting a bias on the

responses to ensure the reliability of the value obtained data. “The accuracy of the

data obtained is influenced by the manner in which the questions are put to the

respondents and the skill with which follow-up and probing questions are handled”

(Proctor 2005:143). Consequently, qualitative research, by its very nature, implies a

degree of bias, and as a result; “maintaining objectivity is as important in the conduct

of the research as it is in reporting findings” (McMillan and Weyers 2011:125).

McMillan and Weyers (2011:125) continue to say; “it is important, therefore, to

recognise the tensions that can arise between objectivity and bias”. Thus, it was

particularly relevant when reporting findings, and describing observations, as well as

taking, recognising researcher pre-conceptions, value systems, and cultural influences

into account (McMillan and Weyers 2011:125). The method of convenience sampling

allows respondents to decide if they want to respond or not, this meant that there was

a need to avoid questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no. Instead, the

questions asked will be about their experience, feelings, and/or knowledge of the

sponsorship, in order to ensure the final results are valid and reliable (Greenbaum

1998). For this study, the transcriptions have participants described using name tags

such as; ‘M40’, meaning Male, 40 years of age. This approach depersonalises

participants and also helps reduce further risk of bias to increase the reliability and

validity of the results (McMillan and Weyers 2011:133).

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4. ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS

Research participants were subjected to screening questions (Appendix 12) in order to

create a ‘tiered’ scale (Figure 2) with increasing levels of interest in football (d’Astous

and Bitz 1995, Dolphin 2003, and Mohamed et al 2011). The participants fit into this

‘interest scale’ as follows:

Low Interest Respondents High Interest Respondents

Tier 1 Reclusive Spectator

Tier 2 Casual Supporter

Tier 3 Avid Follower

Tier 4 Football Fanatics

Gill, 48 Lilly, 47 Anne, 50 Don, 47 Glen, 44 Andy, 50 Ian, 51 Matt, 46

(Figure 2)

4.1 Evaluating Sponsorships

As an initial task, respondents were shown 5 adverts from the 2010 World Cup to

understand current perceptions of different brands associating with football. These

associations could be considered controversial, and allowed the researcher to compare

the extent of participant’s objections against the perceptions of Mars.

The most successful brand with the higher interest tiers was Carlsberg. Respondents

reacted positively towards the subtlety; not being overexposed to brand images.

Described as a brand that had ‘always been associated with patriotism and national

pride’, the advert featured past and present sporting legends which resonated with

these respondents emotionally. “As an Englishman, it makes the hairs stand up on the

back of your neck” (Andy, 50, Appendix 19). Carlsberg made a similar link with football

fans as Kit Kat, but a far more superior one, effectively appealing to fan mentality. The

most successful brand with the lower interest respondents was Coca-Cola. Although

respondents thought there was a contradiction between promoting a sugary drink and

sport, Coca-Cola was described as being “entertaining”, “not just for football fans”,

“fun”, and “colourful”. These respondents could enjoy the advert more than Carlsberg

because they did not have an emotional connection with the football team.

In contrast to the other brands, all the respondents had similar views towards

McDonalds. Overall, McDonalds was deemed the wrong product to make any

23

connection to football. Respondents affirmed the association between fast food and

sport to be far removed. The key issue was the more direct targeting of children,

referring particularly to the scene where a children’s football team run inside the

restaurant. Respondents were especially cynical of McDonalds, and the need for

regulation of fast food was likened to alcohol. “If alcohol brands have to have ‘drink

responsibly’ on their adverts, should brands like McDonald’s have ‘eat responsibly’ on

theirs?” (Ian, 51 Appendix 20).

4.2 Mars and the FA – Interview Timeline

The interview guide was constructed to take the participants on a consumer journey

from October 2009, when Mars and The FA announced their 5-year sponsorship deal

(Marketing Week 2009), to present day and Mars’ launch of their new Euro 2012

campaign. Respondents were taken through this timeline of events (Figure 3) to fully

engage them with the sponsorship in its entirety, critically assess it, and explain their

overall feelings towards Mars in accordance to the research objectives.

(Figure 3)

24

4.3 1st Cap for Mars

To begin an exploration of the participants’ attitudes towards the Mars sponsorship,

details of the 5-year deal positioning were clarified. Mars became official supporter of

the English national team as well as the official confectionery supplier for Wembley

Stadium until July 2014 (Marketing Week 2009). The higher interest respondents from

Tier 4 demonstrated similar reactions of indifference towards the sponsorship; “It

makes no difference to me who sponsors the team” (Matt, 46, Appendix 21).

Investment and support for the development of the sport was deemed far more

important than the sponsor. In comparison to the previous brands shown, high

interest respondents believed Mars were a better brand to associate with football. A

negative aspect identified was the potential influence Mars could have on children’s

choice to eat more chocolate; “If you’re a confectionary company, and you sponsor a

sport, it’s more aimed at younger people than adults” (Ian,51, Appendix 20). However,

this was partially overlooked with Mars being described as more of an energy bar than

a typical confectionary.

Like the highest interest respondents, the Avid Followers from Tier 3 found any money

invested into football was helping develop the sport. “It’s always a positive because it

generates money for the sport, or work for people” (Glen, 44, Appendix 18). This is in

agreement with McDonald (1991) who said a consumer’s feel positive towards a

sponsor that is supporting, or even making possible, something that is dear to your

heart. Although, respondents from Tier 3 were more sceptical of Mars, hoping more of

the money would be going to grassroots football. “I’m not sure what that money will

go to, I would be happy to see a lot of that money going into grassroots football”

(Andy, 50, Appendix 19). Mars were again portrayed as a ‘healthier confectionary’. The

old tagline of ‘a Mars a day helps you Work Rest and Play’ had resonated with the

respondents from their youth; “Mars bars, for a chocolate bar, have always been

regarded as reasonably healthy, with the work rest and play thing” (Andy, 50,

Appendix 19). Respondents from the higher interest tiers argued that although Mars

are a confectionary, investment into the sport they enjoy is more important than any

moral issue.

25

The lower interest respondents in Tier 2 and 1 had almost identical responses to the

sponsorship. Mars again was thought of as a somewhat healthier confectionary.

Through tradition and association over the years, Mars was seen as an improvement

compared worth previous brands to be associated with Football; “Mars are one of

those high energy foods that you can eat to boost your energy and perform better”

(Don, 47, Appendix 14). Respondents saw the ‘Work Rest Play’ tagline as, ‘clever

branding’, and Mars should only be eaten in moderation, like any other confectionary.

“Eat a Mars and go out there are perform your best, I guess that’s what they’re

advocating for the football team. I guess that’s why they wanted to associate with

football, whether it’s true or not, I’m not sure” (Don, 47, Appendix 14). Although,

respondents still found the connection between chocolate and football to be

implausible; “Why have they chosen Mars over sports labels like Nike and Adidas?

These are the kind of brands footballers associate with in reality, not chocolate,

burgers, and fizzy drinks” (Gill, 48, Appendix 15).

4.4 Branded Ambassadors

Participants were told that Arsenal’s Theo Walcott would appear in all of the campaign

visuals, alongside some other players from the England squad (Marketing Week 2012).

Matt from Tier 4 enjoys watching the best players in football and believes as

professionals at the peak of physical fitness, they can encourage people to become

more active. “Yes, I think they promote a healthy lifestyle. I enjoy watching these top

players, like Wiltshire, and Lionel Messi, just because they’re promoting Mars bars, or

Pepsi, doesn’t mean it’s being forced on you. People should have these products in

moderation; I don’t see it being a problem” (Matt, 46, Appendix 21). The key issue

identified with using high profile players as brand ambassadors, was the potential

impact it could have on younger consumers. “Younger kids would aspire to be like

these famous players. If they see them eating a Mars bar, then they will be more

influenced to go out and eat a Mars bar, because they think, ‘that’s my hero, that’s

what he does, I’ll do the same” (Ian, 51, Appendix 20). Children were thought to be

more easily manipulated in this way compared to adults. On the other hand, Ian goes

on to say that children are much less active these days, and are more likely to be

playing on games consoles or watching TV than being active and playing football.

26

Therefore, the use of football players, in that respect, could be influential in promoting

participation in the sport.

Respondents in Tier 3 could find fewer positives, the later seen to be a contradiction;

“Footballers would rarely eat chocolate, and what they’re saying is ‘this is a product

that helps me play football’. From a kid’s perspective, they make an association

between chocolate and playing for the England football team. I’m not sure that’s the

right message to be giving out” (Andy, 50, Appendix 19). The respondent believes

everything is okay in moderation, but using someone who is a role model for children

to promote confectionary would impact negatively by showing false images.

Respondents thought the use of footballers as brand ambassadors contributes

negatively to the promotion of a healthy lifestyle, promoting what is essentially an

unhealthy product. Schroeder and Zwick (2004) describe a brand ambassador to be

specifically designed to be looked at, admired, and worshipped. As the lower interest

respondents found the sponsorship to be somewhat controversial, this was not the

case. Mars were seen as cynical to be using brand ambassadors who children aspire to

be. If it were a sports brand, footballers would be considered a perfect promotion tool

for the sport. “I think it is a bit cynical, it’s an exploitation of the players themselves

and certainly and exploitation of kids who look up to them. If they see them associated

with mars bars then they are more likely to go out and eat them” (Don, 47, Appendix

14).

4.5 3 Lions on our Mars

The first of the adverts show to respondents was Mars’ first World Cup 2010 Advert

featuring John Barns (Appendix 3). In the advert, Mars explain how their packaging is

changing to incorporate the England badge. Mars say England supporter activity led to

a spike in sales, particularly of bars featuring the FA crest, which sold 5.4% more than

standard bars (Marketing Week 2012). The advert resonated with the high interest

respondents, remembering John Barns and the 1990 World Cup song. These feelings of

nostalgia were powerful enough to turn the respondents into brand advocators. “That

reminds me of the 1990 World Cup, if I was speaking to somebody I would have said,

‘have you seen the new Mars advert?’” (Matt, 46, Appendix 21). However, the

respondents felt having the Mars bar wrapped in England colours during a major

27

international tournament would be more appealing to football fans. For this reason,

respondents thought Mars could be exploiting football fans, using the World Cup as a

vehicle to sell more products.

The respondents from Tier 3, found the Mars logo to be overtly used, and felt the

advert reinforced the negative aspect of the sponsorship, associating the football team

with confectionary in its entirety. As a result, respondents thought football fans and

predominantly children, would see the new Mars bars branded with the England badge

and believe it is a product endorsed by the England football team. Overall, 3rd Tier

respondents decided Mars’ tactics were to sell the idea of ‘buy a Mars to support

England’, and the connection between Mars and football had become more distant.

The use of the England badge on the Mars bars was seen by the lower interest tiers to

be a further step in the wrong direction. “It’s not something that belongs to Mars, it’s a

visceral response, it’s your England, your counties branding, the cross and badge is not

something Mars should bastardise and use how they want to sell more product” (Don,

47, Appendix 14). This response, agrees with De Pelsmacker et al (2001) and d’Astous

and Bitz (1995), who positioned a sponsor’s as not acting altruistically, and the main

aim was to increase sales, and ultimately profit. These respondents also thought

children were likely to be affected, wanting to feel more supportive of the national

team by buying chocolate bars branded with the English flag.

4.6 Proud to wear the badge

Mars’ official World Cup 2010 TV Advert (Appendix 2) had a similar message to the

previous featuring John Barns. In this advert, Mars attempts to convey stronger

feelings of English pride and passion for the game. The respondents from Tier 4

connected with the advert more emotionally. Growing up watching these famous

players, respondents regarded them as their childhood heroes. The idea of bringing

fans closer to the team was more evident, and Mars were seen to be more altruistic.

However, respondents brought up their aversion toward Mars being branded with the

England badge, principally influencing children who would be more inclined to buy, or

ask their parents to buy more chocolate in an attempt to be supportive of the team.

28

Comparable to the Tier 4 respondents, Tier 3 believed this Mars advert had taken

some of the same ideals as the Carlsberg advert (Appendix 7). Respondents felt an

increase in positive associations towards Mars, believing the advert would galvanise

support for the team. Although, passion for wearing the England badge seemed to be

unrepresentative of modern day footballers, and the nostalgia made the Glen feel

disappointed that modern day players did not wear the badge with pride like the old

players from his youth. As before, the issue of having the logo on the product

continued to be the consistent negative.

The nostalgia and subtlety of this Mars advert made respondents in Tier 2 feel more

positive towards Mars, as now they were focusing on rallying support for the English

football team. Less mention of Mars bars or constant images of the brand logo made

the advert more enjoyable, although respondents still believed Mars had an ulterior

motive. “I’m sure they did galvanise the country, they did bring people together

making them feel patriotic. Associating Mars with all these soccer stars means they’ve

achieved their aim both bringing people together to support England but also selling

more Mars bars” (Don, 47, Appendix 14). The respondents from Tier 1 were far more

sceptical of Mars. The advert did not resonate with them and therefore thought the

advert would not encourage support for the team, it was purely for selling purposes.

4.7 Another Mars project kicks off

After the World Cup in 2010, Mars’ launched their TV advert called, 'Make it Better'

(Appendix 1), promoting their work in the community. As well as rejuvenating local

football facilities, Mars launched the ‘Just Play’ programme, a grassroots initiative that

aims to encourage thousands of adults to play more football. Although the

respondents fro Tier 4 reacted positively towards the advert, believing Mars had truly

got behind encouraging participation in the sport, there were no illusions that Mars

had an ulterior motive. These findings expand on McDonald (1991) who said

sponsorships without a significant link to the event will seem to have ulterior motive.

The higher interest respondents believed there was a justified motive, and Mars were

in their right to want to sell more products; it’s their investment so they should be

allowed to see a return in profits. This sentiment was brought on because Mars had

shown their interest and commitment at a grassroots level where respondents

29

believed Mars could make a real positive impact. Respondents affirmed that this

community work should have been the key feature of the sponsorship; “I would buy a

Mars bar and be quite happy with myself, thinking some of the money is going into

grassroots football to build club houses and improve facilities, that would strike accord

with me, and make me feel better about myself” (Ian, 51, Appendix 51). Furthermore,

being heavily targeted at adults, the advertisement was thought to have less of an

impact on children, with no use of famous footballers “it would be less likely to

capture a child’s imagination” (Ian, 51, Appendix 20). These sentiments were shared by

the Tier 3 respondents, who also felt positive toward Mars’ help in grassroots football

and the local community. It was at this amateur level that Mars’ sponsorship money

could make a real difference, and in doing this, the fact that Mars are a confectionary,

became irrelevant. “The fact that it is Mars bar was irrelevant in that case, it was great

to see they’re putting their money into grassroots level, rather than an environment

where there is already multi-millions of pounds” (Andy, 50, Appendix 19).

Mars were seen to be altruistic by respondents from Tier 2 and 1 who although felt it

would have been better had it not been a chocolate bar, investing money into the

community was seen as a positive move for Mars. As the initiative was aimed at

improve adult facilities, not children’s, Mars were thought to be making an ethical

stand against promoting confectionary to children. “It’s good to see Mars are giving

something back to local community... It would be good to see them doing more of this

kind of thing, its local football that needs this investment” (Don, 47, Appendix 14).

McDonald (1991) also found that consumers are happier when they see a company

promoting itself in ways which do good. Respondents believed that work in the

community would have galvanised support for England more effectively than

packaging promotions or football players, and the imitative promotes football and

personal wellbeing.

4.8 Check Your Code

Mars launched an on-pack promotion encouraging consumers to purchase special

packs of Mars with the chance of finding and entering a code online to win special

edition England shirts. The high interest respondents from Tier 4 and 3 had a

continued feeling of being unconcerned. The promotion was thought to be justified,

30

after investing money into grassroots football, it was deemed acceptable for Mars to

benefit from more profit. Respondents did maintain the view, however, that Mars bars

branded with the England badge, during the on pack promotion would have a direct

impact on children. Children would push their parents to buy more Mars bars for them

in the expectation of winning the special edition prizes.

The participants from the lower interest tiers were adamant the promotion would

have a negative impact on children’s health, dramatically increasing demand for Mars

products and the promotion was likened to the Willy Wonka Golden Tickets (Gill, 48,

Appendix 15). Consequently, Mars were seen to be undoing their constructive work in

the community, and promotion of the sport. “This is purely a promotion to sell more

Mars bars. Children are going to see this and want these shirts to be like their favourite

players. Very contradictory to the money invested in local football facilities” (Don, 47,

Appendix 14).

4.9 Work Rest Play Your Part for England

In April 2012, Mars launched a £4.3m multimedia marketing campaign for the UEFA

Euros 2012. A 70% increase in marketing spends compared to the 2010 World Cup

campaign. Mars’ long-running strapline “Work Rest Play” was extended to “Work Rest

Play Your Part for England” (Appendix 10). The high interest respondents found the

Euro 2012 advert to have taken on some of the key issues previous adverts contained.

Described as ‘poor’ and ‘cheap’, the respondents did not connect with the advert

emotionally. Mars were thought to have tried to connect with every football fan and

child’s dream of playing for England. Coupled with the use of famous footballers, the

advert was seen to be cynical, promoting the idea of eating a confectionary and

becoming a hero for England. Respondents felt the advert would directly impact on

children’s attitudes towards Mars. Seeing their heroes, who they aspire to be,

associated so heavily with Mars would encourage children to consume more Mars

products. Respondents of Tier 3 showed a similar response, losing all affection with the

brand; the advert did not evoke any feelings of patriotism or galvanisation for of the

team, it was purely centred on the product. “The main issue with the being the

connection between eating a Mars bar and playing for England, in reality, this would

never happen” (Glen, 44, Appendix 18). The little resonation with these respondents

31

may have been because the brand ambassadors were not the same heroes from the

participants’ childhood. As a result, they had no nostalgic or emotional connection,

and therefore chose the influence these players have on children as the focal point for

their negative comments.

Respondents from Tiers 2 and 1 identified the same issues. “It’s just like Popeye eating

spinach and becoming stronger, but instead it’s not a vegetable, its chocolate bar”

(Gill, 48, appendix 15). Respondents said the advert shows every child’s dream, being

an England hero, and all they have to do is eat a Mars bar. “I’m sure if children see this,

they see their role models celebrating with the person who won the match by eating a

Mars bar. The man in goal who saves the day does what I imagine every young person

dreams of doing” (Don, 47, Appendix 14). Mars’ sponsorship was described as ‘too

inconsistent’, a confectionary and a sport have two differing ideals. According to Tiers

2 and 1, the Euro 2012 advert saw Mars’ agenda focused on selling product. The

England team have been used simply for brand awareness.

32

5. Conclusion

Objective 1: To explore parents’ feelings towards the association of Mars with football

5.1 Guilty by Association?

Compared with competing confectionary brands, Mars was described as a ‘healthier’

option. The tagline ‘Work Rest Play’ was prominent, and respondents understood why

Mars would want to make a connection with football. The high interest respondents

from Tier 4 believed investment and development of the sport was far more important

than any supposed ethical concern. However the association between a physical sport

and a confectionary, whether it was deemed an energy bar or not, was considered to

be contradictory. The conflicting messages created a perception of an ulterior motive

to sell more products and make more profit. As a result, respondents from the lower

interest tiers in particular, were far more cynical of Mars, and thus thought the

sponsorship was a hindrance to the promotion of a healthy lifestyle and physical

wellbeing.

At certain stages of the sponsorship, Mars were portrayed as altruistic. Their work at

grassroots level and in local communities made respondents feel positive towards the

brand, and the relationship between the brand and football became a minor issue.

However, ‘heavy branding’ and “bastardisation” of the England badge branded on the

Mars bars consistently produced negative feelings. Parents felt strongly that children

would be heavily influenced by what would be seen as an England endorsed chocolate

bar, which ultimately would encourage more children to buy. Thus, the association

between Mars and the England football team was most often seen as a distant one.

This key issue with Mars is in accordance with d’Astous and Bitz (1995:19) who state a

good perceived link between the sponsor and the event is thought to have positive

effects on the sponsor’s image, a weak link between the two might affect the image

negatively. Respondents, particularly from the lower interest tiers, found Mars’

sponsorship to be controversial with conflicting ideals. Consequently, respondents felt

Mars’ attempt to promote their sponsorship through their media campaigns was

irrelevant if there was no genuine connection.

33

Objective 2: To examine parents’ feelings towards Mars’ use of famous footballers as brand ambassadors

5.2 Impact on Children

The high interest respondents thought having the most talented players in football and

professionals at the peak of their physical form could encourage people to be more

actively participating in the sport. Participation in football would be considerably more

valuable among younger consumers, as respondents believed child obesity was

becoming problematic. However, respondents affirmed that sporting brands such as;

Lucozade or Adidas, would be able to harness the use of famous footballers more

effectively. As Mars is a confectionary, promoting participation in football was under

constant criticism for being conflicting. There was a trend throughout which was

expressed in more depth by the lower interest respondents who believed children are

more easily manipulated. Mars’ use of children’s role models was seen as a cynical

approach. Respondents recognised that, in reality, footballers do not become top

athletes by eating chocolate, but Mars make this association and consequently will

encourage children to buy more of its products. When targeting adults, past players

creates nostalgia, and resonates more effectively. However, the emotional connection

was lost. Respondents had no affection for modern day footballers, who respondents

believe children aspire to be, and consequently the advert was thought to be directly

influencing their choices.

Objective 3: To investigate the relationship between interest in Football and scepticism towards the sponsor

5.3 Passion vs. Principles

When Mars used nostalgia, patriotism, and passion in its media, it encapsulated

English fandom, and was able to make an emotional connection with the respondents

with a greater interest in football. This connection occurred when Mars had images of

past footballers that were once regarded as the respondent’s childhood heroes.

Respondents believed Mars’ heavy involvement proved their committed to promoting

support for the team, and for the Euro 2012 tournament. This was seen as a positive in

helping improve the countries chances of success in the competition. Another key

34

positive was Mars’ investment at grassroots level; where respondents thought Mars

missed an opportunity to focus their campaign. In doing this, Mars could have further

detracted from the controversial association between a confectionary and a physical

sport.

With no emotional connection to the team or the players, lower interest respondents

were able to be far more cynical towards Mars. The dominant aim of the sponsorship

was seen to be ‘sell more products’, particularly to children because of the use of

footballers. Mars’ community work was a positive, and respondents felt Mars had

been somewhat successful in promoting participation in football and increasing

support for the national team. There were, however, continued objections to the

controversial nature of the sponsorship, with objections also being aimed towards the

FA. Sponsorship of the England football team provides mass brand awareness,

especially during a major tournament; therefore the sponsor can have a considerable

influence on consumer buying habits. Thus, respondents felt sporting bodies should

have an obligation to choose a sponsor that is related to football, promotes a healthy

lifestyle, and can provide significant investment into the game.

These findings are in accordance with Pham (1992) who found when consumer

involvement in a sponsorship was high it lead to more active processing and

presumably greater interest towards the sponsorship. Extending this further, the lower

interest respondents did in fact feel more positive towards Mars when they had shown

commitment in at a local level. Thus, social responsibility and giving back to

community can also be an effective way for Mars to reduce scepticism among

consumers with a lesser interest in football. Overall, these findings suggest that lesser

interest consumers are more sceptical of a controversial or unrelated sponsor.

Whereas consumers with a greater interest in the sport, emotionally connect with the

sponsorship, and therefore are more sympathetic, and therefore Mars were more

effective in building a relationship with these respondents.

5.4 Recommendations for Mars

Appreciate the fact that the product is a confectionary, associating with football may

be judged as controversial. Ensure this perception is lessened through:

35

Subtle branding; do not heavily brand adverts with the Mars logo, particularly

when using England footballers as brand ambassadors.

Continue to invest at a local grassroots level; this affects your audience directly

and can encourage consumer advocacy.

Understand the target audience in its entirety. Explore what is most important to them

to ensure campaign relevance and increase chances of building positive associations

with the brand. Nostalgia, passion, and patriotism encapsulate English fandom. Use

this to make an emotional connection with key demographics.

5.5 Limitations

With regards to convenience sampling, for which there is often no formal rationale

(Abrams 2010), it is subject to researcher bias (Christy and Wood 1999) and therefore

both validity and reliability becomes questionable. This is due to a lack of random

selection and possible subjective bias. As the interviews were semi-structured,

respondents were asked different questions depending on their answers to gain an in-

depth insight into the motivations and perceptions of respondents as well as ‘drivers’

of consumer behaviour (Ruyter and Scholl 1998). Although necessary to elaborate on

issues that arise during interviews (Ruyter and Scholl 1998), the flexibility of interview

questions meant reliability was debatable. In addition, it is important for researchers

to remain neutral to avoid exerting a bias on the responses (Proctor 2005, McMillan

and Weyers 2011). The researcher had a high interest in football and a team bias,

consequently, the reliability of the research may have been further influenced by his

beliefs.

5.6 Recommendations for future research

To ensure neutrality, it would be judicious for future researchers in this field to have

less interest in the sport, and have no team bias. There is potential for future research

on a larger scale, with an enlarged sample, in order to gain more representative

findings. An advanced exploration of consumer attitudes towards competing brands

from different product categories associating with football would also be useful to

understand which brand types achieve the best connection with football from a

consumers’ perspective. This could include an examination of the perceptual change of

consumers after a brand has sponsored a high profile event.

36

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FURTHER READING

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Gilbert, N., 2008. Researching social life. 3rd ed. London: Sage

Scott Jones, J. and Watt, S., 2010. Ethnography in social science practice. London and

New York: Routledge.

41

APPENDIX

1. Mars 'Make it Better' TV Advert - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oi3UX6YOOiM

2. Mars Official World Cup 2010 TV Advert -

http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&feature=endscreen&v=O6FuBe_Q0Jc

42

3. Mars World Cup 2010 Packaging TV Advert -

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yV2AtpPris0

4.

43

5. Kit Kat 'Cross Your Fingers' World Cup 2010 TV Advert -

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89MsXbQVfWY

6. Coca-Cola ‘Roger Milla’ TV Advert - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6C4g60-45Kc

44

7. Carlsberg ‘Team Talk’ World Cup 2010 TV Advert -

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ox1rhlQ2VoU

8. Budweiser World Cup 2010 TV Advert -

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3M7FjiS8HDQ

45

9. McDonalds ‘just passing by’ World Cup 2010 TV Advert -

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtfJqbswdHI

10. Mars Bar TV advert 2012 - Work Rest Play Your Part for England -

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y3hvQjGwN2s

46

11. UK Leading brands purchased in the UK chocolate market, 2008-10

2008

2009

2010

% change % change

£m % £m % £m % 2008-10 2009-10

Cadbury Dairy Milk 431 13 433 12 475 13 10.3 9.8

Mars Galaxy 219 6 222 6 258 7 17.7 16.2

Mars Maltesers 152 4 157 4 165 4 9.0 5.4

Mars 122 4 118 3 111 3 -8.3 -5.6

Nestlé Kit Kat 108 3 120 3 120 3 10.6 -0.3

Nestlé Aero 85 2 81 2 91 2 6.2 12.0

Cadbury Wispa 13 0 68 2 66 2 417.8 -2.4

Masterfoods Snickers 73 2 71 2 72 2 -0.8 2.0

Nestlé Milky Bar 58 2 51 1 53 1 -7.6 4.9

Cadbury Twirl 54 2 56 2 59 2 9.2 5.3

Mars Twix 52 2 51 1 50 1 -2.2 -1.0

Green & Black’s 47 1 48 1 51 1 9.1 6.6

Others including own-label 2,006 59 2,099 59 2,198 58 9.6 4.7

Total 3,419 100 3,575 100 3,772 100 10.3 5.5