World History to 1500 A.D.-Ch3-Ancient_C

7/29/2019 World History to 1500 A.D.-Ch3-Ancient_C

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Ancient China

The Dawn of Civilization
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History and LegendChinese history, as well as the development of Chinese religiousthought, is an amalgamation of both fact and legend, subject to

various interpretations

The first rudiments of Chinese civilization begin approximately fivethousand years ago although early settlements date to the eighthmillennium BC

The national identity of the Chinese people is given over to the

legendary three sovereigns or Sage Emperors who symbolicallyrepresent the defining characteristics of the Chinese civilization: theinteraction between nomadic and agricultural peoples; theimportance of the family unit to Chinese life; and the developmentof an unique system of writing

Fu Xithe ox tamer, who domesticated animals and introducedthe beginning of family life to the people

Shen Nongthe divine farmer, who taught the peopleagriculture

Huang Dithe Yellow Emperor, who developed a system of

writing and introduced the bow and arrow to the people


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Chinese Neolithic CommunitiesModern archaeologists uncovered the remains of two distinctNeolithic period societies that established agricultural settlements

along the fertile valley of the Yellow River (in Chinese - Huang Ho);the Yangshao and the Longshan ( known by their distinctivepottery, painted and black, respectively)

Similar communities have also been found along the Yangtze Rivervalley and are known to have produced rice instead of the smallgrain crops (millet, barley, wheat) grown by the northernsettlements

Archaeology has demonstrated that these agricultural settlementsdeveloped spontaneously in several areas (typically, fertile rivervalleys) rather than radiating out from a core settlement

Settlement patterns indicate that civilization spread from nuclearcommunities in the Yellow and Yangtze river valleys to low-landareas of eastern and central China and gradually grew intosophisticated and complex societies that gave rise to empires,albeit based upon both land and waterhydraulic despotisms


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Geography

Only 12% of modern day China is arable

(food-producing) vs. 23% of the US. Muchof Chinas topography consists ofmountains and deserts that ring itsnorthern and western borders. These

frontiers have often been a barrier thatserved to isolate the Chinese from theiragrarian neighbors to the south or providea haven for nomadic tribes which have

plagued the Chinese through out theirhistory Mongols of the Gobi Desert, Indo-Europeans of Central Asia, and the Turksof the Tibetan Plateau


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The Shang Dynasty

Both legend and history coincide with the recentarchaeological confirmation of the existence of theXia dynasty (2205 -1766 BC) which was foundedmore than 4000 years ago.

Emperor Yu, founder and legendary ruler of theXia dynasty is credited with introducing bothirrigation and drainage systems to control theperiodic flooding and promote agriculture in thenorthern China plains

Eventually corruption and the loss of the mandateof heaven resulted in the rise of a new dynasty,that of the warrior Shang (1766 1045 BC)


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Who were the Shang?

According to Ralph Sawyer, an expert on ancient

China, the Shang dynasty was a theocratic statewhose power arose initially from, and continued todepend upon, the military skills of the nobility, inconjunction with its religious beliefs andinstitutions.

Shang society was divided into four classes: rulingfamilies (family nametsu); royal clan memberswho served as officials and nobility (various family

nameschen, yi, pu); commoners who wereprimarily serfs and artisans; and, slaves whoworked on public projects, served as domesticservants or were victims of ritual sacrifice.
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Shang Socio-Political StructureThe Shang empire was centrally ruled by a king, who governed from acapital city, over an extensive network of individual cities in turn governedby the nobility and owing allegiance to the king. Shang City, the legendary

capital of the Shang was uncovered by archaeologists in 1997

The ruling class and the nobility provided the military leadership as well asthe socio-political structure for the Shang. They were well educated andcultured, living in well-organized walled cities marked by massive complexbuildings, temples and palaces. The commoners, in contrast, lived in semi-earthen huts, farmed or practiced various specialized crafts (pottery making,bronze casting, textile weaving) and were required to provide conscript laborfor public works and to mobilize to assist in military campaigns

Women of the ruling class and nobility often enjoyed the same privileges asmen; they governed cities, led military forces and were well-educated (i.e.,Fu Hao, whose were excavated tomb revealed an amazing assortment ofartifacts)

The Shang were a polytheistic society whose pantheon of gods wereinextricably linked to the genesis and the legitimacy of the state. Ti, the godon high, was superior to all other gods, granting a bountiful harvest andvictory in war. Only the king and his family members could intercede with Tion behalf of the people. The Shang performed ritual sacrifice, includinghuman, and performed divination using a variety of oracle bones (oxshoulder blades, chicken bones, and the plastron and carapace of turtles).These oracle bone artifacts provide an extensive written record of the period


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The Zhou DynastyChinas longest lasting dynasty (1045 256 BC), the Zhou,come to power following a decisive military victory over the

Shang at Mu-yeh after many years of secret preparations,gradually expanding their political power base throughalliances, submission of smaller states, and the subjugationof other peoples and clans in western China. It is quitepossible that the Zhou (or Chou) were descendants of theHsia (or Xia). This ends the political and moral corruption of

the last Shang emperors

The Zhou located their capital near present day Xian and,after the defeat of the Shang, they established an easterncapital near the modern city of Luoyang to administer therecently captured territories. This action established theprecedent in China for eastern and western capitals thatwould last for two thousand years

Essentially, the Zhou kept many of the political institutionsinitiated by the Shang, but developed and bureaucracy whichgrew in size and complexity


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Socio-Political Structure of the Zhou

The bureaucracy of the Zhou included several ministerialpositions to supervise: rites, education, law, and public

works. The king appointed a hereditary aristocracy togovern the many principalities of the empire andtheoretically, these local leaders were subordinated to theking

The Rites of Zhouone of the worlds oldest survivingdocuments on statecraft introduced some innovations byZhou kings. The Zhou king acted as a representative ofHeaven (the Chinese concept as an impersonal law ofnature rather than an anthropomorphic deity) to maintainorder and balance, i.e., the Mandate of Heaven ortienming

The king was selected to rule because of his virtue andtalent

He was expected to rule with compassion and efficiencyIt was his duty to propitiate the gods in order to protectthe people fro natural calamities and bad harvest

If he ruled badly, then, theoretically, he could beoverthrown


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The Six Secret TeachingsThree famous individuals historically have been associatedwith the Zhou ascent and conquest over the Shang

King Wenwho ruled for decades, nurtured the states power,implemented strong economic policies to foster the peopleswelfare, and fashioned a reputation for virtue

King Wuwho succeeded Wen, continued the Zhous

preparations by forming their alliances, subjugating theirpotential enemies, and creating a strong military whichconducted the campaign against the Shang

Tai Kung whose historical authenticity is often questioned, isconsidered in Chinese history to be the first general andprogenitor of strategic thought. The Six Secret Teachings, one

of the Seven Military Classics, is said to contain Tai Kungspolitical and military instructions to Kings Wen and Wu for:preserving state control, attaining national prosperity, andwaging psychological warfare. It is an important discourse onChinese military strategy and tactics of the period
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The Zhou: Economy and SocietyIn general, the Zhou rulers continued the rigid manorial land practices of theShang lords in which the king made land grants to secure the favor andallegiance of the lords; the peasants worked the lands owned by their lords,but unlike under the rule of the Shang, they also had land which theyworked for themselvesa practice known as the well field system

Local lords directly controlled the trade and manufacturing processes whichwere conducted by merchants and artisans who resided within the walledcities ruled by the lords. The merchants and artisans were forbidden tooperate independently and were often considered to be like property and

could be bought and sold by the local lord. Slaves constituted an yetindeterminate part of part the commercial life of the local communitiesperforming menial labor and working on public works projects.

The Zhou began several large-scale irrigation projects from the 6 th - 3rd C.BCE to control the Min River (a tributary of the Yangtze R.) Completed inthe early Qin dynasty, the irrigation system is still in use today. Theseprojects helped to stimulate food production. By the mid-6th C the iron plow

had been introduced, which permitted deep-plowing for the first time. Otherinnovations included: use of natural fertilizers, the collar harness, cropmanagement techniques. Wet rice production was introduced by the late-Zhou period, replacing other grain crops

Plentiful food harvests contributed to a rise in population, increasedcommerce and manufacturing. Chinese silk became a commodity ofinternational trade reaching the western world of Greece along the silkroad


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Intra-regional trade under the Shang was typicallyconducted by barter exchange although the Shang

instituted a limited form of money, cowry shells

This continued under the Zhou, but asmanufacturing and commerce continued to growand international trade developed the traditional

barter exchange became insufficient for effectivetrade and the Zhou moved more to a moneyeconomy. They continued the use of cowry shellsfor a limited time, but eventually produced ironcoins with a square hole in the center to allow

coins to be tied or bundled together. Other formsof iron, such as, iron blades would also beacceptable forms of monetary transaction.


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Development of Chinese Philosophy

The Hundred Schoolsof Ancient Philosophy as with otherhydraulic cultures, the Chinese attempted to understand the

nature of the cosmos and the human role within. The Zhoubegan a wide-ranging debate over the nature of humanbeings, society and the universe that culminated at the endof the Zhou era with the hundred schools

The Shang came to believe in in the existence of one

transcendent god, Ti, who presided over all forces of nature.The Zhou concept of religion evolved to a more impersonalconcept of Heaven, Tien.

One of the earliest ideas to emerge was the concept that theuniverse was divided between to opposing forces, yin(the

moon) and yang(the sun). This concept contributed greatlyto Chinese fatalism as humans could not change or interferewith these great cosmic forces. Attempts to understandthese forces of nature divination - resulted in thepublication ofYi Chingor the Book of Changes


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Confucius (orKung Fu-tzua.k.a. Master Kung, 551 479B.C.) a philosopher who not only attempted to explainmetaphysical realities in rational terms, but also introduced asystem of political and social ethics

Confucius believed that each person had their own Dao orthe way and it was their duty to follow their path or choose toignore it at their own peril. This applied to the emperor torule justly or risk loss of the Mandate of Heaven. In manyrespects, this doctrine is very similar to the concept ofdharmain India and played a similar role in society andgovernmental affairs.

Concepts of the DaoDuty each person had the responsibility to

subordinate their own interests and aspirations for

the benefit of the family and communityHumanity involves a sense of compassion andempathy for others; Do not do unto others what youdo not wish done unto you.


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Confucius failed to achieve the attain the position in life to which heaspired and his own teachings were never published in his lifetime,however, he was a revolutionary thinker in his day arguing forsocial justice and government open to all men rather than thehereditary elite. His philosophies contributed greatly to the eventual

dissolution of Chinas feudal system.

One of Confucius disciples later published his teachings in a workentitled the Analectsand yet his ideas were sufficiently vague soas to have a broad interpretation by future philosophers i.e.,Mencius (370 290 BCE) emphasized the humanism of Confucianteachings

Confucians believe that when men do evil their actions destroy theharmony o f the world. Humans, therefore, bring about thedisturbances from which they suffered, whether natural (eclipses,earthquakes, floods) or of human origin (revolutions, publicdisasters, famines). In contrast, neo-Confucians or legalists believethat man lacks moral value, that only the state is capable ofpreserving order and harmony and that man is motivated by thefear of harsh punishment and not the potential reward for doinggood. Because man is essentially corrupt and public officials cannot be trusted to carry out their duties in a fair and balanced way,only a strong central leader could create and maintain a lawfulsociety


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The Way of the Dao (or is it Tao?)Daoism, founded by Lao Tzuor the Old Master, is a popular alternativeto Confucianism. Understanding Daoism is often difficult as the only

text that describes the philosophy is the Dao De Jing(The Way of theDao), an enigmatic book whose translation and interpretation hasbaffled scholars for centuries

Daoists are often juxtaposed to Confucianism, believing that inaction(orwuwei) is often the best course of action just allow nature to takeits course an idea that is contrary to the strict construction of

Confucianism

Daoists often expressed themselves via graphic arts depictingnaturalist scenes waterfalls, mountains, and clouds, underscoring thefragility and insignificance of man

Popular Daoism provided a loose framework for the spiritualistic and

animistic beliefs of the people. Practitioners devised various mind- andbody-training exercises in an effort to achieve power, sexual prowess,and long life

Neither Confucianism or Daoism successfully displaced populist beliefsin ancestor worship or age-old superstitions that have been inexistence since before the founding of the Shang dynasty


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The Chinese Empire: the Qin and the Han

During the final two centuries of the Zhou dynasty, powerful locallords challenged the authority of the central government throughoutwhat was known as the Spring and Autumn Period(722 481BC).Among these were Qu(Chu) in the central Yangtze valley, Wuinthe fertile Yangtze delta region, and the Yue(Yueh)along thesoutheastern coast. Although the Zhou rulers were able to holdthese competing factions in check for some period, the intenserivalries erupted into a civil war giving rise to the historical period ofthe Warring States (403 221 BC).

This period is noted for its many innovations and radical newdirections in philosophy; government administration; militaryorganization, training, strategy, and tactics; and, the establishmentof economic policies to stimulate the states material wealth. Theintroduction of iron weapons forced a dramatic change in bothmilitary organization, enhancing the role of both infantry and cavalryin warfare. The most well-known military writer of the day is SunTzu, author ofThe Art of War.

Constant warfare displaced populations

Liberalized land use policies attracted newcomers to certainregions

Iron farm implements improved agricultural production

Trade and commerce increased and the merchant class rose in

influence


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A Brief History of the Qin (Chin)The Qin dynasty (221 206 B.C.E.), under the rule of Qin ShiHuangdi (Chin Shih Huang Ti), gradually subdued their main rivalsthrough conquest or diplomatic maneuvering and established the

first truly unified government in Chinese history.

Qin Shi Huangdi prohibited all of the philosophical doctrines thatdeveloped during the Zhou dynasty with the exception of legalism(a.k.a. neo-Confucianism). Those that disobeyed were punished,sometimes executed and books espousing ideas contrary to theruling orthodoxy were burned

The Qin established a highly centralized bureaucracy divided intothree primary ministries: a civil authority, a military authority, and acensorate whose inspectors surveyed the efficiency of officialsthroughout the system. This system lasted until 1911 AD.

Below the central government there were two levels ofadministration: provinces and counties. Unlike the Zhou, theselocal leaders were appointed and dismissed from service by theemperor these were not hereditary appointments! A merit systemwas used and appointments made on the basis of officialrecommendation. A strict penal code often called for death forthose convicted of malfeasance.


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Qin Shi Huangdi had a passion for centralizationand exerted power in many ways:

He unified the system of weights and measure ensuringfairer trade and commerce practices

He standardized the monetary system and written formsof Chinese characters

He ordered the construction of an extensive system ofroad networks extending throughout the empire

He reduced the power of the landed aristocracy bydividing their estates among the peasants who were notaxed directly by the state. By these means of

redistribution of land he eliminated potential rivals andexpanded the tax base for the state.

He required members of the aristocracy to live in thecapital city ofXianyangwhere their activities could beclosely monitored by the court


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The central apparatus of the Qin empire was thearmy, warfare continued on an unprecedentedscale to extend the limits of the empire, whichreached as far south as the Red River Valley in

modern day Vietnam.

Internal lines of communication, for the movementof troops and to supply their needs, were improvedby the construction of a canal system that

extended from the Yangtze River to Guangzhou(Canton) in the south.

Peasants, who now owned their lands for the firsttime in Chinese history, not only were being taxed

directly by the state on those lands, they werebeing levied (drafted, if you will) for both militaryservice in these wars of empire and for the vastconstruction projects, such as, the canal and theGreat Wall, in the expansion and defense of theempire.


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Is this Chinese Marxism?The Qins desire to make every entitywithin reach a servant to the stateextended to the merchant class whose newfound freedoms and influence achievedduring the Warring States Period came toan abrupt end under Qin Shi Huangdi

The emperor considered merchants to beparasites on society.

Private commercial activities were severely

restricted and heavily taxedVital manufactures were placed undergovernment monopolies and included: mining,the distribution of salt, and wine-making


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Han: The State of Confucius

The failure of the Qin state apparatus to achieve itsprimary goals of maximum efficiency and total security

combined with the tremendous loss of life involved inwarfare and public construction projects and theresentment of the weakened aristocracy resulted in thedownfall of Qin Shi Huangdi.

Following Qins death in 210 B.C.E., the empire that heruthlessly created fractured as aspiring successorscompeted for hegemony and control. The Qin aredefeated by the forces led by Liu Bang, a prince of theHan, in the 206 B.C.E. Battle of the Valley of Wei

By 202 B.C.E., a new dynasty emerges, one that willbe the most enduring in Chinese history an done thatthe Chinese people most closely align themselves with,even in modern times, calling themselves people ofthe Han.


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Historically, Lui Bang, a commoner of peasantorigin, assumes the title, Han Gaozu(ExaltedEmperor of the Han) and establishes the Handynasty (202 B.C.E. 221 C.E.).

Han moves quickly to exert his authority over theempire and consolidate his control over a vastarea.

He maintains the strong central political institutionsestablished by the Qin, but gradually promotes thewelfare of his subjects and moves away from thestrict legalism of his predecessors.

He reverses the neo-Confucian ideology of the Qinand finds Confucian principles to be more suitablein guiding the direction of his empire


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The Han maintained and improved upon the civilservice system set up by the Zhou. EmperorGaozu decreed local officials to recommend

promising candidates for government servicebased on merit and not birth

By 165 B.C.E., the government incorporated thefirst known civil service exam, based on Confucianprinciples, to be administered to candidatesseeking official positions

The Han established the first known academy totrain candidates for government service, againbased upon Confucian principles. The first

candidates were from wealthy or aristocraticfamilies and not the population-at-large. The Handynasty had been dominated by the hereditaryelite who thought to re-establish their influence
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25/27

Economic policies of the Han began to limit thenew found freedoms of the peasant classes andrestore the influence of the hereditary elite.

Commoners were limited to approximately oneacre per person for individual farms, too small forsubsistence, they were often forced to sell theirproperties and become tenant farmers to new

larger landholders.

As land became concentrated in the hands offewer landowners, those landowners would hire

private armies to bully free farmers intosubmission by forcing them to sell their lands andbecome tenant farmers once again


26/27

Merchants suffered as much under the Han as they didunder the Zhou. The state controlled much of the trade andcommerce, taxing private enterprise heavily. And yet, theHan dynasty was marked by unparalleled productivity andprosperity.

The period witnessed dramatic growth in trade, both foreignand domestic. Chinese goods sold at markets as far awayas India and the Mediterranean. Commerce was conductedby overland routes, such as the Silk Road, and also by seafrom port cities such as Guangzhou.

The state controlled weapons production, operatedshipyards, granaries, and mines. The government establishforeign trade treaties, some of which was conducted fortribute or to maintain political alliances

Advances were made in textile manufacturing, water mills,iron casting, and the development of both writing paper andshipbuilding, to include both the rudder for steering and fore-and-aft rigging that allowed ships to sail into the wind


27/27

Decline and Fall

The fact that power corrupts and absolute power corruptsabsolutely holds true for the Han as it does for all otherpolitical systems. Frivolous rulers bemused themselves withself indulgent pleasures of court life and extravagantexpenditures of treasury resources, amassing huge estates,and forcing the individual free farmers into land tenancy

In 9 CE, Wang Mang, a reformist official, seized power

(ending what became called the Former Han Period), anddeclare a new Xin dynasty. He tried to confiscate the landsof the aristocracy and redistribute title among the peasantry.However, by 23 CE., Mang was killed in a coup detat.

Some land reforms were instituted and taxes reduced. Food

production of nutritious crops increased, including: rice,wheat, and soybean, along with newly introduced crops suchas, alfalfa and grapes. Peasant unrest, official corruption,and ineffective government brought the Later Han period toa close and China would witness more than four hundredyears of friction.

Documents

World History to 1500 A.D.-Ch3-Ancient_C