WORLD WAR IIOrganized Crime?

Part 2: The Establishment of a ‘New World Order’

By William P. Litynski

Order Out of Chaos: Establishment of a New World Order

The establishment of a “new world order” in the Eternal City: Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson (front row, far left, in blue suit), U.S. Army General Mark Clark (front row, third from left), and other American officers and officials salute to the American flag in the plaza in front of the Piazza Venezia during an official flag lowering ceremony shortly after their arrival in Rome, Italy on July 4, 1944. The city of Rome once served as the capital of the Roman Empire. Henry L. Stimson was a graduate of Yale University (B.A. Yale 1888), a member of the Council on Foreign Relations (1924-1929, 1934-1950), and a member of Skull & Bones. (Photo by Carl Mydans/Time Life)

Federal Reserve bankers, left to right: Beardsley Ruml, Marriner S. Eccles, and Allan Sproul

Beardsley Ruml (left), who created the idea of the pay-as-you-go income tax (also known as withholding tax) in 1943, was the Chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York from 1941 to 1946 and Treasurer of R.H. Macy & Co. (Macy’s department store) from 1934 to 1945. Beardsley Ruml earned a Ph.D. at University of Chicago in 1917. Allan Sproul (right) was the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York from 1941 to 1956. Marriner S. Eccles (center) was the Chairman of the Federal Reserve from 1934 to 1948; Marriner S. Eccles was a member of the board of directors of Planned Parenthood World Population. Beardsley Ruml and Allan Sproul were members of the Council on Foreign Relations.

Graeme K. Howard, the author of America and A New World Order, was the Vice President of General Motors during World War II, a member of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1938 to 1961, and a supporter of Adolf Hitler.

An FBI file on Graeme K. Howard (Source: http://rationalrevolution.net/war/american_supporters_of_the_europ.htm)

U.S. Army Chief of Staff Gen. George C. Marshall (L) reviews a map with Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson in 1942.(Photo: Thomas D. McAvoy/Time Life)

Northwest exposure of the Pentagon's construction underway on July 1, 1942. (Photo: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers)

The United Nations, located in New York City, was established in 1945.

The World Bank, located in Washington D.C., was established in 1944.

International Monetary Fund headquarters, located in Washington D.C., was established in 1944.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), located in Brussels, Belgium, was established in 1949. (NATO Photo)

The European Communities was established after World War II.

The World War II Institutions: United Nations World Bank International Monetary Fund (IMF) North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) European Communities (later European Union) U.S. Department of Defense (Pentagon) Central Intelligence Agency

The modern Department of Defense (The Pentagon), located outside Washington, D.C., was established in 1947.

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), located in Langley, Virginia, was established in 1947.

The Danger of American FascismBy

Vice President Henry A. Wallace

 The New York Times From Henry A. Wallace, Democracy Reborn (New York, 1944),

edited by Russell Lord, p. 259.

Sunday 09 April 1944

On returning from my trip to the West in February, I received a request from The New York Times to write a piece answering the following questions: What is a fascist? How many fascists have we? How dangerous are they?

A fascist is one whose lust for money or power is combined with such an intensity of intolerance toward those of other races, parties, classes, religions, cultures, regions or nations as to make him ruthless in his use of deceit or violence to attain his ends. The supreme god of a fascist, to which his ends are directed, may be money or power; may be a race or a class; may be a military clique or an economic group; or may be a culture, religion, or a political party.

The perfect type of fascist throughout recent centuries has been the Prussian Junker, who developed such hatred for other races and such allegiance to a military clique as to make him willing at all times to engage in any degree of deceit and violence necessary to place his culture and race astride the world. In every big nation of the world are at least a few people who have the fascist temperament. Every Jew-baiter, every Catholic hater, is a fascist at heart. The hoodlums who have been desecrating churches, cathedrals and synagogues in some of our larger cities are ripe material for fascist leadership.

The obvious types of American fascists are dealt with on the air and in the press. These demagogues and stooges are fronts for others. Dangerous as these people may be, they are not so significant as thousands of other people who have never been mentioned. The really dangerous American fascists are not those who are hooked up directly or indirectly with the Axis. The FBI has its finger on those. The dangerous American fascist is the man who wants to do in the United States in an American way what Hitler did in Germany in a Prussian way.

The American fascist would prefer not to use violence. His method is to poison the channels of public information. With a fascist the problem is never how best to present the truth to the public but how best to use the news to deceive the public into giving the fascist and his group more money or more power.

If we define an American fascist as one who in case of conflict puts money and power ahead of human beings, then there are undoubtedly several million fascists in the United States. There are probably several hundred thousand if we narrow the definition to include only those who in their search for money and power are ruthless and deceitful. Most American fascists are enthusiastically supporting the war effort. They are doing this even in those cases where they hope to have profitable connections with German chemical firms after the war ends.

They are patriotic in time of war because it is to their interest to be so, but in time of peace they follow power and the dollar wherever they may lead.

American fascism will not be really dangerous until there is a purposeful coalition among the cartelists, the deliberate poisoners of public information, and those who stand for the K.K.K. type of demagoguery.

The European brand of fascism will probably present its most serious postwar threat to us via Latin America. The effect of the war has been to raise the cost of living in most Latin American countries much faster than the wages of labor. The fascists in most Latin American countries tell the people that the reason their wages will not buy as much in the way of goods is because of Yankee imperialism. The fascists in Latin America learn to speak and act like natives. Our chemical and other manufacturing concerns are all too often ready to let the Germans have Latin American markets, provided the American companies can work out an arrangement which will enable them to charge high prices to the consumer inside the United States. Following this war, technology will have reached such a point that it will be possible for Germans, using South America as a base, to cause us much more difficulty in World War III than they did in World War II. The military and landowning cliques in many South American

countries will find it attractive financially to work with German fascist concerns as well as expedient from the standpoint of temporary power politics.

Fascism is a worldwide disease. Its greatest threat to the United States will come after the war, either via Latin America or within the United States itself.

Still another danger is represented by those who, paying lip service to democracy and the common welfare, in their insatiable greed for money and the power which money gives, do not hesitate surreptitiously to evade the laws designed to safeguard the public from monopolistic extortion. American fascists of this stamp were clandestinely aligned with their German counterparts before the war, and are even now preparing to resume where they left off, after "the present unpleasantness" ceases:

The symptoms of fascist thinking are colored by environment and adapted to immediate circumstances. But always and everywhere they can be identified by their appeal to prejudice and by the desire to play upon the fears and vanities of different groups in order to gain power. It is no coincidence that the growth of modern tyrants has in every case been heralded by the growth of prejudice. It may be shocking to some people in this country to realize that, without meaning to do so, they hold views in common with Hitler when they preach discrimination against other religious, racial or economic groups. Likewise, many people whose patriotism is their proudest boast play Hitler's game by retailing distrust of our Allies and by giving currency to snide suspicions without foundation in fact.

The American fascists are most easily recognized by their deliberate perversion of truth and fact. Their newspapers and propaganda carefully cultivate every fissure of disunity, every crack in the common front against fascism. They use every opportunity to impugn democracy. They use isolationism as a slogan to conceal their own selfish imperialism. They cultivate hate and distrust of both Britain and Russia. They claim to be super-patriots, but they would destroy every liberty guaranteed by the Constitution. They demand free enterprise, but are the spokesmen for monopoly and vested interest. Their final objective toward which all their deceit is directed is to capture political power so that, using the power of the state and the power of the market simultaneously, they may keep the common man in eternal subjection.

Several leaders of industry in this country who have gained a new vision of the meaning of opportunity through co-operation with government have warned the public openly that there are some selfish groups in industry who are willing to jeopardize the structure of American liberty to gain some temporary advantage. We all know the part that the cartels played in bringing Hitler to power, and the rule the giant German trusts have played in Nazi conquests. Monopolists who fear competition and who distrust democracy because it stands for equal opportunity would like to secure their position against small and energetic enterprise. In an effort to eliminate the possibility of any rival growing up, some monopolists would sacrifice democracy itself.

It has been claimed at times that our modern age of technology facilitates dictatorship. What we must understand is that the industries, processes, and inventions created by modern science can be used either to subjugate or liberate. The choice is up to us. The myth of fascist efficiency has deluded many people. It was Mussolini's vaunted claim that he "made the trains run on time." In the end, however, he brought to the Italian people impoverishment and defeat. It was Hitler's claim that he eliminated all unemployment in Germany. Neither is there unemployment in a prison camp.

Democracy to crush fascism internally must demonstrate its capacity to "make the trains run on time." It must develop the ability to keep people fully employed and at the same time balance the budget. It must put human beings first and dollars second. It must appeal to reason and decency and not to violence and deceit. We must not tolerate oppressive government or industrial oligarchy in the form of monopolies and cartels.

As long as scientific research and inventive ingenuity outran our ability to devise social mechanisms to raise the living standards of the people, we may expect the liberal potential of the United States to increase. If this liberal potential is properly channeled, we may expect the area of freedom of the United States to increase. The problem is to spend up our rate of social invention in the service of the welfare of all the people.

The worldwide, agelong struggle between fascism and democracy will not stop when the fighting ends in Germany and Japan. Democracy can win the peace only if it does two things:

* Speeds up the rate of political and economic inventions so that both production and, especially, distribution can match in their power and practical effect on the daily life of the common man the immense and growing volume of scientific research, mechanical invention and management technique

* Vivifies with the greatest intensity the spiritual processes which are both the foundation and the very essence of democracy.

The moral and spiritual aspects of both personal and international relationships have a practical bearing which so-called practical men deny.

This dullness of vision regarding the importance of the general welfare to the individual is the measure of the failure of our schools and churches to teach the spiritual significance of genuine democracy. Until democracy in effective enthusiastic action fills the vacuum created by the power of modern inventions, we may expect the fascists to increase in power after the war both in the United States and in the world.

Fascism in the postwar inevitably will push steadily for Anglo-Saxon imperialism and eventually for war with Russia. Already American fascists are talking and writing about this conflict and using it as an excuse for their internal hatreds and intolerances toward certain races, creeds and classes.

It should also be evident that exhibitions of the native brand of fascism are not confined to any single section, class or religion. Happily, it can be said that as yet fascism has not captured a predominant place in the outlook of any American section, class or religion. It may be encountered in Wall Street, Main Street or Tobacco Road. Some even suspect that they can detect incipient traces of it along the Potomac. It is an infectious disease, and we must all be on our guard against intolerance, bigotry and the pretension of invidious distinction. But if we put our trust in the common sense of common men and "with malice toward none and charity for all" go forward on the great adventure of making political, economic and social democracy a practical reality, we shall not fail.

[END]

From “The Danger of American Fascism”, originally published in The New York Times, 1944; an excerpt from Democracy Reborn, by Henry A. Wallace ( New York, 1944 ), edited by Russell Lord, p. 259

Henry Agard Wallace (October 7, 1888-November 18, 1965) was the 33rd Vice President of the United States (1941-1945), the 11th Secretary of Agriculture (1933-1940), and the 10th Secretary of Commerce (1945-1946).

Source: http://www.masters-of-war.org/friendlyfascism.html

World War II: In Their Own Words

Gen. Smedley D. Butler

“WAR is a racket. It always has been.  It is possibly the oldest, easily the most profitable, surely the most vicious. It is the only one international in scope. It is the only one in which the profits are reckoned in dollars and the losses in lives.  A racket is best described, I believe, as something that is not what it seems to the majority of the people. Only a small “inside” group knows what it is about. It is conducted for the benefit of the very few, at the expense of the very many. Out of war a few people make huge fortunes.”– Smedley D. Butler, Retired Major General of the United States Marine Corps, War is a Racket

Hermann Goering

“Why, of course the people don’t want war.  Why would some poor slob on a farm want to risk his life in a war when the best that he can get out of it is to come back to his farm in one piece?  Naturally, the common people don’t want war; neither in Russia nor in England, nor in America, nor for that matter in Germany.  That is understood. But, after all, it is the leaders of the country who determine the policy and it is always a simple matter to drag the people along whether it's a democracy, a fascist dictatorship, a parliament, or a communist dictatorship. …but voice or no voice, the people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked, and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same way in any country.”– Hermann Goering, in a conversation with U.S. Army Captain Gustave Gilbert in a prison cell during the Nuremberg trials, on April 18, 1946.  from Nuremberg Diary, by Gustave M. Gilbert

John Jay

“But the safety of the people of America against dangers from foreign force depends not only on their forbearing to give just causes of war to other nations, but also on their placing and continuing themselves in such a situation as not to invite hostility or insult; for it need not be observed that there are pretended as well as just causes of war.  It is too true, however disgraceful it may be to human nature, that nations in general will make war whenever they have a prospect of getting anything by it; nay, absolute monarchs will often make war when their nations are to get nothing by it, but for the purposes and objects merely personal, such as thirst for military glory, revenge for personal affronts, ambition, or private compacts to aggrandize or support their particular families or partisans. These and a variety of other motives, which affect only the mind of the sovereign, often lead him to engage in wars not sanctified by justice or the voice and interests of his people.”– John Jay, Federalist No. 4

James Madison

“Of all the enemies to public liberty war is, perhaps, the most to be dreaded, because it comprises and develops the germ of every other. War is the parent of armies; from these proceed debts and taxes; and armies, and debts, and taxes are the known instruments for bringing the many under the domination of the few. In war, too, the discretionary power of the Executive is extended; its influence in dealing out offices, honors, and emoluments is multiplied; and all the means of seducing the minds, are added to those of subduing the force, of the people. The same malignant aspect in republicanism may be traced in the inequality of fortunes, and the opportunities of fraud, growing out of a state of war, and in the degeneracy of manners and of morals engendered by both. No nation could preserve its freedom in the midst of continual warfare.”– U.S. Congressman James Madison, from Political Observations, April 20, 1795

Allied Conferences & Interventions

President Franklin D. Roosevelt meets with King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia on board USS Quincy (CA-71) in the Great Bitter Lake, Egypt, on February 14, 1945. King Ibn Saud is speaking to the interpreter Colonel William A. Eddy, USMC (the man kneeling in front of the King). Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy, USN, the President’s Aide and Chief of Staff, is at left. William A. Eddy was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and the U.S. Minister to Saudi Arabia from 1944 to 1946.

September 1, 1939 – Adolf Hitler and the Nazi German armed forces invade Poland, beginning World War II.May 10, 1940 – Nazi Germany invades France, Belgium, Netherlands, and LuxembourgMay 17, 1940 – Nazi Germany occupies all of NetherlandsMay 27-June 3, 1940 – Great Britain evacuates British and French troops at Dunkirk, FranceJune 22, 1940 – French government under Prime Minister (Marshal) Philippe Pétain signs an armistice ending war with Nazi GermanySeptember 14, 1940 – first peacetime military draft in American history is approvedMarch 11, 1941 – Lend-Lease Act is signed into lawJune 22, 1941 – Nazi Germany invades Soviet UnionMay 2-31, 1941 – Great Britain invades Iraq in the Anglo-Iraqi War and overthrows the pro-Nazi Iraqi Prime Minister Rashid Ali al-GailaniJune 8, 1941 – British and Free French forces invade Syria.August 25 –September 17, 1941 – United Kingdom and Soviet forces invading Iran.September 16, 1941 – Shah Reza Pahlavi of Iran is forced to resign in favor of his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran (“The Shah” who went into exile in America in 1979), under pressure from the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union.December 7, 1941 – Imperial Japanese Navy attacks Pearl Harbor.June 10, 1943 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs pay-as-you-go income tax billJuly 1-22 1944 – Bretton Woods Conference is held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire establishing IMF, World Bank, and GATTAugust 21-October 7, 1944 – Dumbarton Oaks Conference is held in Washington, D.C., establishing the United NationsFebruary 4-11, 1945 – Yalta Conference is held in the Soviet UnionApril 25-June 26, 1945 – United Nations Conference on International Organization is held in San FranciscoJune 26, 1945 – Foreign “dignitaries” sign the United Nations CharterJuly 17-August 2, 1945 – Potsdam Conference is held in Potsdam, Germany, outside Berlin

Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie (left) meets with American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt aboard a ship in February 1945. (© Bettmann/CORBIS)

King Farouk I of Egypt (left) meets with American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt aboard a ship on February 13, 1945.(© Bettmann/CORBIS)

The British War Cabinet poses for a group portrait in London on November 8, 1939, during the beginning of World War II. Left to right, standing: Home Secretary, Sir John Anderson; Minister without Portfolio, Lord Hankey; Secretary of State for War, Mr. Leslie Hore-Belisha; First Lord of the Admiralty, Mr. Winston Churchill; Secretary of State for Air, Sir Kingsley Wood; Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs, Mr. Anthony Eden; and Secretary to the War Cabinet, Sir Edward Bridges. Seated, left to right: Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax; Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir John Simon; Prime Minister, Mr. Neville Chamberlain; Lord Privy Seal, Sir Samuel Hoare; and Minister for Co-ordination for Defence, Lord Chatfield. (Image: © Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS)

The War Cabinet and ministers pose in a special photograph taken at No. 10 Downing Street in London on October 16, 1941. Left to right (Sitting):- Mr. Ernest Bevin, Lord Beaverbrook, Sir Anthony Eden, Major C. Attlee, Sir Winston Churchill, Sir John Anderson, Mr. Arthur Greenwood and Sir Kingsley Wood. (Standing): - Sir Archibald Sinclair, Mr. A V Alexander, Lord Cranbourne, Mr. Herbert Morrison, Lord Moyne, Captain Margesson, and Mr. Brendan Bracken. (Image: © Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS)

The British War Cabinet in the ground of 10 Downing Street, London, the official residence of the Prime Minister, on October 19, 1941. Seated left to right: the Home Secretary, Sir John Anderson, the Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, the Lord Privy Seal Major Clement Attlee, and the Foreign Secretary, Mr. Anthony Eden. Standing left to right: Minister without Portfolio, Mr. Arthur Greenwood, Minister of Labour and National Service, Mr. Ernest Bevin, Minister for Aircraft Production, Lord Beaverbrook and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir Kingsley Wood. (Image: © Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS)

Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill has a dinner with King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia at the Auberge Hotel on Lake Karoun near Cairo, Egypt in February 1945.

Atlantic Charter Conference, 10-12 August 1941. Conference leaders during Church services on the after deck of HMS Prince of Wales, in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. American President Franklin D. Roosevelt (left) and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill are seated in the foreground. Standing directly behind them are Admiral Ernest J. King, U.S. Navy; General George C. Marshall, U.S. Army; General Sir John Dill, British Army; Admiral Harold R. Stark, U.S. Navy; and Admiral Sir Dudley Pound, Royal Navy. American envoy Harry Hopkins (far left) is seen talking with Union Pacific Railroad chairman and special envoy William Averell Harriman in the background.(Donation of Vice Admiral Harry Sanders, USN (Retired), 1969; U.S. Naval Historical Center Photograph)Source: http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/images/h67000/h67209c.htm

“Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. If we can stand up to him all Europe may be freed and the life of the world may move forward into broad, sunlit uplands. But if we fail then the whole world, including the United States, including all that we have known and cared for, will sink into the abyss of a new dark age, made more sinister, and perhaps more protracted, by the lights of perverted science. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duty, and so bear ourselves that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, ‘This was their finest hour.’”– Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of Great Britain, in a speech in the House of Commons on June 18, 1940, the day of the French capitulation to Nazi Germany

Averell Harriman, a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., signs the first Lend-Lease Protocol (Agreement) after negotiating with Josef Stalin in 1941. From left to right: Lord Beaverbrook, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav M. Molotov, Laurence Steinhardt (standing behind Harriman), Admiral William H. Standley, and Charles Thayer.

Lend-Lease Program U.S. planes stand ready to be picked up at Abadan Field, Iran in 1942, which in the rainy season was reported as being the “damnedest gumbo you ever saw.” Five principal types of aircraft were delivered to Russia, three of which are shown here. Of the total, about 20% were P-40s, 25% P-39s, 49% A-20s, 5% B-25s and 1% AT-6s.(U.S. Air Force photo)

British troops observe Baghdad, Iraq on June 11, 1941. The British army invaded Iraq beginning on May 2, 1941 to overthrow the pro-Nazi Iraqi Prime Minister Rashid Ali al-Gailani and to secure the oil fields in Iraq.(Photo: No. E 3464 from the Imperial War Museum collection)

The British army (above) and the Soviet Red Army invade Iran beginning on August 25, 1941, just two weeks after British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met with U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt aboard HMS Prince of Wales in Newfoundland. Britain and Soviet Union proceeded to remove Shah Reza Pahlavi on September 16, 1941 and installed the Shah’s son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (the “Shah” who would evacuate to America in 1979). Britain and Soviet Union invaded Iran to secure a supply line from the Persian Gulf to Soviet Russia and to secure Iran’s oil for Allied military needs. Iran remained neutral at the time of the Anglo-Soviet Invasion of Iran in August 1941.(Source: Catherine Legrand, Jacques Legrand: Shah-i Iran. Creative Publishing International (Farsi edition), Minnetonka, MN 1999, S. 41. IR/RR) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brtitishtroopsiran.jpg

With terrain typical of the region in the background, Maj. Gen. A. S. Allen (center), Commander of the Australian 7th Division, inspects some of his men at Hammana, Lebanon in September 1941. British Commonwealth units garrisoned Lebanon and Syria for several months, following the end of the campaign. (Photographer: Frank Hurley) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AWM_010546_allen_lebanon.jpg

The fall of Damascus (Syria) to the Allies in late June 1941. A car carrying the Free French commanders, General Georges Catroux and Major-General Paul Louis Le Gentilhomme, enters Damascus in June 1941. They are escorted by Vichy French Circassian cavalry (Gardes Tcherkess). Lebanon became an independent state on November 8, 1943; Lebanon declared war on Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan on February 27, 1945. Syria became independent on January 1, 1944; Syria declared war on Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan on February 26, 1945.

Josef Stalin (left), Franklin Delano Roosevelt (center), and Winston Churchill (right) pose for a group portrait during the Tehran Conference held in Tehran, Iran on November 29, 1943. (Photo: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library)

Soviet dictator Josef Stalin, American President Franklin Roosevelt, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill attend the Tehran Conference in Tehran, Iran on November 29, 1943. Standing from left to right: U.S. Secretary of Commerce Harry Hopkins, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, Averell Harriman (U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union), Sir Archibald Clark Kerr (British Ambassador to the Soviet Union), and British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden. (Photo: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library)

Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill’s Descriptionof the Tehran Conference, In His Own Words

“Stalin now asked, “Are there any other questions?” The President replied, “There is the question of Germany.” Stalin said that he would like to see Germany split up. The President agreed, but Stalin suggested that I should object. I said I did not object in principle. Roosevelt said that, so that there could be some discussion, he and his advisers had had a shot at a plan some three months before. This involved the dividing of Germany into five parts. Stalin, with a grin, suggested that I was not listening because I was not inclined to see Germany split up. I said that I considered that the root of the evil lay in Prussia, in the Prussian Army and General Staff. Roosevelt then explained his plan for splitting Germany into live parts: (1) Prussia. (2) Hanover and the northwest part of Germany. (3) Saxony and the Leipzig area. (4) Hesse, Darmstadt, Hesse-Cassel, and the section south of the Rhine. (5) Bavaria, Baden, and Wurttemberg. These five sections would be self-governing, but there were two more that would be governed by the United Nations: (1) Kiel and its canal and Hamburg. (2) The Ruhr and the Saar. These would be under the control of the United Nations as trustees. He was only throwing this out as an idea which might be talked over. “If,” I said, “I might use the American idiom, I would say that the President has 'said a mouthful.' Mr. Roosevelt’s plan is a new one to me. In my opinion there are two things, one destructive and the other constructive. I have two clear ideas in mind. First, the isolation of Prussia. What is to be done to Prussia after that is only secondary. Then I should like to detach Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, the Palatinate, Saxony, and Baden. Whereas I would treat Prussia sternly, I would make things easier for the second group, which I should like to see work in with what I would call a Danubian Confederation. The people of these parts of Germany are not the most ferocious, and I should like to see them live tolerably, and in a generation they would feel differently. South Germans are not going to start another war, and we would have to make it worth their while to forget Prussia. I do not much mind whether there are one or two groups." I asked Marshal Stalin whether he would be prepared to go into action on this front. Stalin said he would, but he preferred a plan for the partition of Germany – something like the President's plan, which was more likely to weaken Germany. When one had to deal with large masses of German troops, one found them all fighting like devils, as the British and American armies would soon learn. The Austrians by themselves were different, and he described the way they surrendered. All Germans were the same. It was the Prussian officers that provided the cement. But fundamentally there was no difference between North Germans and South Germans, for all Germans fought like fierce beasts. We should be careful not to include the Austrians in any kind of combination. Austria had existed independently, and could do so again. So also must Hungary exist independently. After breaking up Germany it would be most unwise to create new combinations, Danubian or otherwise. President Roosevelt agreed warmly. There was no difference between Germans. The Bavarians had no officer class; otherwise they were exactly like the Prussians, as the American troops had already discovered. I said that if Germany were divided into a number of parts as suggested by the President, and these parts were not attached to other combinations, they would reunite. It was not a question of dividing Germany so much as giving a life to the cut-off bits and making them content not to be dependent on the Greater Reich. Even if this were achieved for fifty years, that would be a lot. Stalin said that a Danubian combination would not be able to live, and the Germans would take advantage of this by putting flesh on something that was only a skeleton and thus creating a new great state. Here he asked whether Hungary and Rumania would be members of any such combination. He then reiterated his views about the advantages which it would present to Germany in the future. It was far better to break up and scatter the German tribes. Of course, they would want to unite, no matter how much they were split up. They would always want to reunite. In this he saw great danger, which would have to be neutralised by various economic measures, and in the long run by force if necessary. That was the only way to keep the peace. But if we were to make a large combination with Germans in it trouble was bound to come. We had to see to it that they were kept separate, and that Hungary and Germany should not be coupled. There were no measures possible to exclude a movement towards reunion. Germans would always want to reunite and to take their revenge. It would be necessary to keep ourselves strong enough to beat them if they ever let loose another war. I asked Stalin if he contemplated a Europe of little states, all disjointed, with no larger units at all. He replied that he was speaking of Germany, not Europe. Poland and France were large states. Rumania and Bulgaria were small states. But Germany should at all costs be broken up so that she could not reunite. The President said that what he proposed was a method of doing this. I said that I must make it clear that the present was only a preliminary survey of a vast historical problem. Stalin said that it was certainly very preliminary.”– Closing the Ring (The Second World War) by Winston S. Churchill (1951), Volume 5, Book 2 (Teheran to Rome), Chapter 5, p. 400-403

“I then brought the discussion back to Poland. I said I did not ask for any agreement, nor was I convinced on the matter myself, but I should rather like to get something down on paper. I then produced the following formula: “It is thought in principle that the home of the Polish state and nation should be between the so-called Curzon Line and the Line of the Oder, including for Poland East Prussia (as defined) and Oppeln; but the actual tracing of the frontier line requires careful study, and possibly disentanglement of population at some points." Why not a formula on which I could say something like this to the Poles: "I do not know if the Russians would approve, but I think that I might get it for you. You see, you are being well looked after." I added that we should never get the Poles to say that they were satisfied. Nothing would satisfy the Poles. Stalin then said that the Russians would like to have the warm-water port of Konigsberg, and he sketched a possible line on the map. This would put Russia on the neck of Germany. If he got this, he would be ready enough to agree to my formula about Poland. I asked what about Lvov. Stalin said he would accept the Curzon Line.”– Closing the Ring (The Second World War) by Winston S. Churchill (1951), Volume 5, Book 2 (Teheran to Rome), Chapter 5, p. 403

“The same evening, Roosevelt, Stalin, and I initialled the following document, which sets forth the military conclusions of our Triple Conference.The Conference:(l) Agreed that the partisans in Yugoslavia should be supported by supplies and equipment to the greatest possible extent, and also by Commando operations.(2) Agreed that, from the military point of view, it was most desirable that Turkey should come into the war on the side of the Allies before the end of the year.(3) Took note of Marshal Stalin's statement that if Turkey found herself at war with Germany, and as a result Bulgaria declared war on Turkey or attacked her, the Soviet would immediately be at war with Bulgaria. The Conference further took note that this fact would be explicitly, stated in the forthcoming negotiations to bring Turkey into the war.(4) Took note that Operation "Overlord" would be launched during May 1944, in conjunction with an operation against SouthernFrance. The latter operation would be undertaken in as great a strength as availability of landing-craft permitted. The Conference further took note of Marshal Stalin's statement that the Soviet forces would launch an offensive at about the same time with the object of preventing the German forces from transferring from the Eastern to the Western Front.(5) Agreed that the military Staffs of the three Powers should henceforward keep in close touch with each other in regard to the impending operations in Europe. In particular it was agreed that a cover plan to mystify and mislead the enemy as regards these operations should be concerted between the Staffs concerned. Thus our long and hard discussions at Teheran reached their end. The military conclusions governed in the main the future of the war. The cross-Channel invasion was fixed for May, subject naturally to tides and the moon. It was to be aided by a renewed major Russian offensive.”– Closing the Ring (The Second World War) by Winston S. Churchill (1951), Volume 5, Book 2 (Teheran to Rome), Chapter 5, p. 404

“The political aspects were at once more remote and speculative. Obviously they depended upon the results of the great battles yet to be fought, and after that upon the mood of each of the Allies when victory was gained. It would not have been right at Teheran for the Western democracies to found their plans upon suspicions of the Russian attitude in the hour of triumph and when all her dangers were removed. Stalin's promise to enter the war against Japan as soon as Hitler was overthrown and his armies defeated, was of the highest importance. The hope of the future lay in the most speedy ending of the war and the establishment of a World Instrument to prevent another war, founded upon the combined strength of the three Great Powers whose leaders had joined hands in friendship around the table. We had procured a mitigation for Finland, which on the whole is operative today. The frontiers of the new Poland had been broadly outlined both in the East and in the West. The Curzon Line, subject to interpretation in the East, and the line of the Oder in the West, seemed to afford a true and lasting home for the Polish nation after all its sufferings. At the time the question between the Eastern and Western Neisse, which flow together to form the Oder River, had not arisen. When in July 1945 it arose in a violent form and under totally different conditions at the Potsdam Conference, I at once declared that Great Britain adhered only to the Eastern tributary. And this is still our position.”– Closing the Ring (The Second World War) by Winston S. Churchill (1951), Volume 5, Book 2 (Teheran to Rome), Chapter 5, p. 405-406

T.V. Soong (L), the Foreign Minister of the Republic of China, and U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull sign a lend lease agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of China in 1942. (Photo: Myron Davis/Time Life)

The new Pacific War Council meets at the White House in Washington, D.C., U.S.A. on April 1, 1942 to discuss the strategy of the United Nations to defeat Japan. From left to right: Republic of China’s Foreign Minister T.V. Soong, New Zealand Foreign Minister Walter Nash, Australia’s Minister of External Affairs Herbert Evatt, British Ambassador Lord Edward Halifax, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Canada’s Counselor Hume Wrong, Dutch Foreign Minister Alexander Loudon, and American advisor Harry Hopkins. (© Bettmann/CORBIS)

Left to right: China’s Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill, and Madame Chiang Kai-shek attend the Cairo Conference in Cairo, Egypt in 1943. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

Statesmen and diplomats stand together for a portrait at the Cairo Conference in 1943. Seated from left to right: Chiang Kai-shek, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Madame Chiang Kai-shek. Standing form left to right: Sir Alexander Cadogan, Anthony Eden, Laurence Steinhardt (in hat), John G. Winant, Harold Macmillan, Dr. Wang Chung-hui, R.G. Casey, Lord Killearn, Major Desmond Morton, American Ambassador to Soviet Union W. Averell Harriman, Lewis W. Douglas, Lord Leathers, John McCloy, and Harry Hopkins.(Source: Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin 1941-1946 by W. Averell Harriman and Elie Abel)

Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek (left), American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (2nd left), Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill (2nd right), and Madame Chiang Kai-shek (right) attend the Cairo Conference in 1943 in which officials, military leaders, and heads of the Governments of the United States, Republic of China, and Great Britain confer over the political future of the world. Standing in the rear, from left to right (first two unidentified): Anthony Eden, British Foreign Secretary, John G. Winant, U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain (at Eden's left) Dr. Weng Chung-Hui, Secretary General of the Chinese Supreme National Defence Council, R G Casey, British Minister of State in the Middle East (standing just behind Dr. Weng) Lord Killearn, British Ambassador to Egypt (tallest of the group) Alexander Kirk, U.S. Minister to Egypt (sixth from right), Averell Harriman, U.S. Ambassador to Soviet Russia (fifth from right), and Harry Hopkins, Special Assistant to President Roosevelt (extreme right) all others are unidentified.

Allied leaders sit together for a portrait at the Cairo Conference in 1943. Seated from left to right: Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Madame Chiang Kai-shek (who served as her husband’s interpreter). Back row from left to right: General Chang Chen (China), General Ling Wei (China), U.S. Army General Brehon Burke Somervell, Joe Stilwell, U.S. Army Air Force General Hap Arnold, British Field Marshal Sir John Dill, British Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, and British Major General Carton de Wiart, Viscount. Decisions made at this summit were quickly abandoned after the meeting with Soviet dictator Joe Stalin in Teheran, Iran a few days later. General Joe Stilwell once ordered his subordinate officer to create plans for assassinating Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek during World War II. (U.S. Naval Institute Photo Archive) http://www.honorablesurvivor.com/photosChina1.asp

Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, the President of the Republic of China, and his wife Madame Chiang Kai-shek visit India’s patriot and independence activist Mahatma Gandhi (center) near Calcutta, India on February 18, 1942. Chiang met with Gandhi to ensure that Gandhi would not disrupt China’s supply line with India during World War II and to informally support the independence of India after World War II.

The Second Cairo Conference of December 4–December 6, 1943, held in Cairo, Egypt, addressed Turkey's possible contribution to the Allies in World War II. The meeting was attended by President Franklin Roosevelt of the United States (left), President İsmet İnönü of the Republic of Turkey (center), and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of the United Kingdom. Ismet Inonu was the President of Turkey from 1938 to 1950. Turkey remained neutral throughout most of World War II and declared war on the Axis in early 1945.(Photo: http://forum.paradoxplaza.com/forum/showthread.php?423182-Eurogeddon-Thunderbolts-of-War/page21)

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill secretly meets with Turkey’s President Ismet Inonu inside a train wagon at the Yenice Station 23 kilometers outside of Adana, Turkey on January 30, 1943.

Winston Churchill (right), Prime Minister of Great Britain, shakes hands with American diplomat Edward Stettinius, the United States Under Secretary of State, on April 28, 1944 prior to his return to America. (Photo: Imperial War Museums)http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205196625

Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965), also known as Winston Churchill, served as:Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain (10 May 1940 – 26 July 1945, 26 October 1951 – 7 April 1955),Minister of Defence (10 May 1940 – 26 July 1945, 28 October 1951 – 1 March 1952),Leader of the Opposition (26 July 1945 – 26 October 1951),Leader of the Conservative Party (9 November 1940 – 7 April 1955),Chancellor of the Exchequer (6 November 1924 – 4 June 1929),Home Secretary (19 February 1910 – 24 October 1911), andMember of Parliament (24 October 1900 – 12 January 1906; 8 February 1906 – 24 April 1908; 24 April 1908 – 15 November 1922; 29 October 1924 – 5 July 1945; 5 July 1945 – 15 October 1964).

Joseph C. Grew, Under Secretary of State for the United States and foreign officials and representatives signing the declaration by United Nations and lend-lease agreements in Washington, D.C. in February 1945. Joseph C. Grew was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. (Photo: Farm Security Administration/Office of War Information Photograph Collection/Library of Congress)http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/owi2001043221/PP/?sid=ae127098f5034ff95eb5ddfb89d42b08

Under Secretary of State Joseph C. Grew signs the French lend-lease and reverse lend-lease deal in January 1945. Left to right: Henri Bonnet, French Ambassador, Joseph C. Grew, Undersecretary of State and Jean Monnet.(Photo: Farm Security Administration/Office of War Information Photograph Collection/Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division) http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/owi2001043229/PP/?sid=cc8fe1be2ce5b5278f3a4025638411ac

United States Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius Jr. (left), Soviet diplomat Andrei Gromyko (2nd left), and Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov (center) scan the skies as U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s plane approaches the Soviet Union on February 3, 1945. (Photo: Franklin D. Roosevelt Library)

U.S. Secretary of State Edward Stettinius (left), British diplomat Sir Alexander Cadogan (center), Permanent Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the United Kingdom from 1938 to 1946), and U.S. Ambassador to Soviet Union W. Averell Harriman (right) attend the Yalta Conference in February 1945. (Photo: Franklin D. Roosevelt Library)

Winston Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt, and Josef Stalin meet at Yalta in February 1945. Standing from left to right: Anthony Eden, Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius Jr., Commerce Secretary Harry Hopkins, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, and U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union Averell Harriman.

Original caption: "Conference of the Big Three at Yalta makes final plans for the defeat of Germany. The "Big Three" sit on the patio together during the Yalta conference in February 1945. Left to right: British Prime Minister Winston S. Churchill, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Soviet Premier Josef Stalin. (U.S. Army photo)

Delegates to the Yalta Conference in February 1945 included the "Big Three", British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (in foreground and out of focus, in profile), American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (center right) and Soviet strongman Josef Stalin (far center left). Also present are Anthony Eden (right of Churchill), U.S. Secretary of State James F. Byrnes (one man right of Roosevelt), Adm. William D. Leahy (one person left of Roosevelt), and Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov and Voroshilov (left and right of Stalin, respectively).(Image: © Bettmann/CORBIS)

American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (right) appears with Admiral William D. Leahy and General George C. Marshall at the Yalta Conference in Yalta, Soviet Russia in February 1945. Soviet Russia’s strongman Marshal Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) (left of center at the table) and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874-1965) (with his back to the camera) are also among those present at the Yalta Conference. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

In a triple handshake, President Harry S. Truman (center) holds the hands of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (left) and Soviet Russian dictator Josef Stalin (right) at Cecilienhof Palace during the Potsdam Conference on July 23, 1945.(Photo: Harry S. Truman Presidential Library)

British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, American President Harry S. Truman, and Soviet Russian Commissar Josef Stalin pose for a portrait at the Potsdam Conference in 1945.

President Harry Truman (seated, center) appears with British Prime Minister Clement Attlee (seated, left), Soviet despot Joseph Stalin (seated, right), and Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov (standing, far right) at the Potsdam Conference in July 1945.

Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin meet at the Potsdam Conference on July 18, 1945. From left to right, first row: Stalin, Truman, Soviet Ambassador Andrei Gromyko, Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, and Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov. Second row: Truman confidant Harry Vaughan, Russian interpreter Charles E. Bohlen, Truman naval aide James K. Vardaman, Jr., and Charles Griffith Ross (partially obscured). (Photo: U.S. Army, Harry Truman Presidential Library)http://www.trumanlibrary.org/photographs/view.php?id=392

Charles E. Bohlen is seen standing behind Josef Stalin and President Harry Truman at the Potsdam Conference in 1945.

Gen. Dwight Eisenhower (left) and Gen. Lucius Clay (second from left) laugh as they meet with Soviet generals Georgi Zhukov and Vassily Sokolovsky (right) in 1945. Clay received the Order of Kutuzov from the Soviets during a ceremony before this photo was taken.

U.S. Army General Dwight Eisenhower and Soviet Red Army General Vassily Skolovsky inspect the Soviet Army in Berlin on June 10, 1945.

Left to right: Soviet Red Army General Vassily Sokolovsky, Commissar Sobolov, U.S. Army General Lucius Clay, and American envoy Robert D. Murphy pose for a group portrait at a party. Lucius Clay and Robert D. Murphy were members of the Council on Foreign Relations.

U.S. Army General Dwight Eisenhower rides in the back of a motorcade in Leningrad (St. Petersburg) with Soviet Marshal Georgi Zhukov in August 1945.

Marshal Zhukov decorates Field Marshal Montgomery with the Russian Order of Victory as Allied chiefs who attend the ceremony at Gen. Dwight Eisenhower’s Headquarters at Frankfurt, Germany on June 5, 1945 are about to drink a toast. Center from left to right: Field Marshal Montgomery, Gen. Dwight Eisenhower, Marshal Zhukov, and Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder. (U.S. Office of War Information) http://ww2db.com/image.php?image_id=15443

British Field Marshal Montgomery (center) and Soviet generals Zhukov, Sokolovsky and Rokossovsky walk together in front of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin on July 12, 1945.(Photo: http://www.mixedmartialarts.com/mma.cfm?go=forum.posts&forum=2&thread=2051026&page=1)

Site of the Potsdam Conference in Germany in 1945

Tehran Conference (November 1943)Preparations for trans-Atlantic invasion (Operation Overlord (D-Day/Normandy)) by America and BritainEstablishment of the United Nations

Cairo Conference (December 1943-January 1944)The island of Taiwan returned to China (Republic of China)Eventual restoration of Korea

Yalta Conference (February 4-11, 1945)Surrender and occupation policy for Germany – Four military occupation zonesAdjustment of territories and borders of Poland and GermanySoviet Russian declaration of war against Japan

Potsdam Conference (July 17-August 2, 1945)Adjustment of the territories and borders of Poland and GermanySurrender and occupation policy for JapanSoviet declaration of war against Japan and occupation of ManchuriaPartition of Korea (38th Parallel)

Bretton Woods Conference and The Establishment of The World Bank & IMF

Harry Dexter White (left) talks to British economist John Maynard Keynes (right) at the Bretton Woods Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire in July 1944. Harry Dexter White served as an Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury and a Director of Monetary Research in the Treasury Department under Franklin Delano Roosevelt; White was a known Communist agent. White, Keynes, and other delegates at the Bretton Woods Conference established the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes were the “founding fathers” of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.(Photo: http://www.flickr.com/photos/imfphoto/3577537758/)

American delegates attend the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, also known as the Bretton Woods Conference, in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire on July 2, 1944. The 10 delegates are (left to right, standing): Assistant Secretary of Treasury Harry Dexter White, Fred M. Vinson, Dean Acheson, Edward E. Brown, Federal Reserve Chairman Marriner S. Eccles, and Michigan Congressman Jesse P. Wolcott. Front row, seated left to right: Senator Robert F. Wagner, Kentucky Congressman Brent Spence, Secretary of Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr., and New Hampshire Senator Charles W. Tobey. The conference, which included delegates from 34 nations, resulted in the creation of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

American and Soviet delegations to the Bretton Woods Conference, July 1944. Seated (left to right): Mabel Newcomer (U.S.); Edward E. Brown (U.S.); Fred M. Vinson (U.S.); Henry Morgenthau Jr. (U.S.); M. S. Stepanov (U.S.S.R.); Brent Spence (U.S.); P. A. Maletin (U.S.S.R.); Charles W. Tobey (U.S.). Standing (left to right): E. M. Bernstein (U.S.); A. P. Morazov (U.S.S.R.); Dean Acheson (U.S.); A. A. Arutiunian (U.S.S.R.); Harry D. White (U.S.); Jesse P. Wolcott (U.S.); N. F. Chechulin (U.S.S.R.); F. B. Bystrov (U.S.S.R.); I. D. Zlobin (U.S.S.R.); M. M. Idashkin (U.S.S.R.); Ansel F. Luxford (U.S.).

Dumbarton Oaks Conference & The Establishment of the United Nations

Secretary of State Edward Stettinius Jr., Alger Hiss (sitting to the right of Stettinius), and Nelson Rockefeller were members of the Council on Foreign Relations. Soviet delegates included Vyacheslav Molotov and Andrei Gromyko (second person to the left of Molotov). This photo was published in the book Thy Will Be Done, The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil by Gerard Colby.

Members of the American delegation at luncheon on the Orangery terrace at Dumbarton Oaks. In the foreground (left to right): James Clement Dunn; Admiral Arthur J. Hepburn; Dr. Isaiah Bowman; and Leo Pasvolsky. In the background (left to right): Henry P. Fletcher; Breckinridge Long; and Green H. Hackworth. Dunn, Hepburn, Bowman, Pasvolsky, and Fletcher were members of the Council on Foreign Relations.(Photo: Stettinius Papers [2723], Special Collections Department, University of Virginia Library)http://www.doaks.org/about/the_dumbarton_oaks_conversations.html

Informal meeting in the Study at Dumbarton Oaks. Seated (left to right): Peter Loxley; Sir Alexander Cadogan; Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.; Andrei A. Gromyko; Arkadii A. Sobolev; Valentin M. Berezhkov. Standing (left to right): James Clement Dunn and Leo Pasvolsky.(Photo: National Archives, Washington, D.C.) http://www.doaks.org/about/the_dumbarton_oaks_conversations.html

Leading members of the Chinese delegation at the opening of the second phase of the Dumbarton Oaks Conversations, September 29, 1944, together with the American and British delegations. Left to right: Dr. Wei Tao-ming; Dr. V.K. Wellington Koo; Dr. H.H. Kung; Cordell Hull; the Earl of Halifax; Sir Alexander Cadogan; Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.(Photo: National Archives, Washington, D.C.) http://www.doaks.org/about/the_dumbarton_oaks_conversations.html

Opening session of the Dumbarton Oaks Conversations. Seated in the Music Room are the American, British, and Soviet delegations with, at the center table (left to right), Sir Alexander Cadogan; the Earl of Halifax; Cordell Hull; Andrei A. Gromyko; and Edward R. Stettinius, Jr. (Photo: National Archives, Washington, D.C.) http://www.doaks.org/about/the_dumbarton_oaks_conversations.html

American and Soviet diplomats prepare to establish the United Nations at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in Washington, D.C. on August 21, 1944.

Photograph of Dumbarton Oaks mansion, 3101 R Street, Northwest, Georgetown, Washington, D.C., USA (National Park Service/Library of Congress)

Left to right: Charles Bohlen, Leo Pasvolsky, Secretary of State Edward Stettinius, and Joseph C. Grew meet privately at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944. All four men were members of the Council on Foreign Relations.(Source: Turbulent Era: A Diplomatic Record of Forty Years 1904-1945, Volume 2 by Joseph C. Grew)

Edward Reilly Stettinius, Jr., U.S. Secretary of State, Chairman of the delegation from the United States, signing the UN Charter at a ceremony held at the Veterans’ War Memorial Building in San Francisco on 26 June 1945. At left is President Harry S. Truman.(Photo: UN Photo/Yould http://kotenik.wordpress.com/category/history-of-the-foreign-relations-of-the-republic-of-china/)

Alger Hiss (left), the Secretary General of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, is shown shaking hands with President Harry S. Truman at the UN Conference in San Francisco on June 26, 1945. At the right is Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr. Following the President is Maj. Gen. Harry Vaughan, Truman's military aide. Alger Hiss and Edward Stettinius were members of the Council on Foreign Relations. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

Dr. Herbert V. Evatt (Australia), and Alger Hiss (United States). 25 April 1945. San Francisco, United States.(Photo: UN Photo; http://kotenik.wordpress.com/category/history-of-the-foreign-relations-of-the-republic-of-china/)

San Francisco Conference, last public session: U.S. Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius Jr. (left) and Soviet envoy Andrei A. Gromyko.(Photo: http://kotenik.wordpress.com/category/history-of-the-foreign-relations-of-the-republic-of-china/)

San Francisco Conference, Fifth Plenary Session: Nelson Rockefeller (left), Assistant Secretary of State of the United States, chats with Edward R. Stettinius Jr. (right), United States Secretary of State and Chairman of the delegation of the United States. Both men were members of the Council on Foreign Relations. Edward R. Stettinius Jr. served as U.S. Secretary of State from December 1, 1944 to June 27, 1945.(Photo: http://kotenik.wordpress.com/category/history-of-the-foreign-relations-of-the-republic-of-china/)

(Note: Fritz Wiedemann, one of Hitler’s adjutants, served as Nazi German Consul General in San Francisco, California, U.S.A. from 1938 to 1941.)

Council on Foreign Relations & World War II

Harold Pratt House, the headquarters of the Council on Foreign Relations, in New York City

Prominent Members of the Council on Foreign Relations during World War II

William PhillipsA.B. Harvard 1900

U.S. Ambassador to Fascist Italy (1936-1941)

Joseph C. GrewA.B. Harvard 1902

U.S. Ambassador to Imperial Japan

(1932-1941)

Henry L. StimsonB.A. Yale 1888

U.S. Secretary of War(1911-1913, 1940-1945)

Hugh Robert WilsonB.A. Yale 1906

U.S. Ambassador toNazi Germany (1938)

W. Averell HarrimanB.A. Yale 1913

U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union (1943-1946)

Winthrop W. AldrichA.B. Harvard 1907LL.B. Harvard 1910

Chairman of the board of Chase National Bank

(1934-1953)

Thomas W. LamontA.B. Harvard 1892

Chairman of the board of J.P. Morgan & Co., Inc.

(1943-1948)

Allan SproulPresident of the Federal Reserve Bank of New

York (1941-1956)

Russell C. Leffingwell B.A. Yale 1899

Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1923-1950)

Frank AltschulB.A. Yale 1908

Partner of Lazard Freres & Co. [Jewish banking firm in New York City]

(1916-1945)

Alfred P. Sloan Jr.Chairman of the board of

General Motors Corp. (1937-1956)

Thomas J. Watson Sr.President of International Business Machines Corp.

(1914-1949)

Henry R. LuceB.A. Yale 1920

Editor-in-Chief of Time magazine (1923-1964)

Eugene MeyerB.A. Yale 1895

Publisher of The Washington Post

(1933-1946)

Arthur Hays SulzbergerPublisher of The New

York Times (1935-1961)

James B. ConantA.B. Harvard 1913;Ph.D. Harvard 1916President of Harvard

University (1933-1953)

Charles SeymourB.A. Yale 1908

President of Yale University (1937-1950)

Isaiah BowmanPresident of Johns Hopkins University

(1935-1948)

Allen W. DullesA.B. Princeton 1914

Member of Sullivan & Cromwell [law firm] (1926-

1951, 1962-1969)

Maj. Gen. William J. “Wild Bill” Donovan

Director, Office of Strategic Services (OSS)

(1942-1945)

Directors of the Council on Foreign Relations before and during World War IIIsaiah Bowman 1921-1950 President of Johns Hopkins University (1935-1948)Archibald Cary Coolidge 1921-1928 Editor of Foreign Affairs magazine (1922-1928)Paul D. Cravath 1921-1940 Chairman of the board of Westinghouse Electric Corp. (1927-1929);

Chairman of The Economic Club of New York (1936-1938)John W. Davis 1921-1955 Member of Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardiner & Reed [law firm] (1921-1955)Norman H. Davis 1921-1944 President of the Council on Foreign Relations (1936-1944);

Chairman of American Red Cross (1938-1944)Stephen P. Duggan 1921-1950 Director of Institute of International Education (1919-1946)John H. Finley 1921-1929 Associate Editor of the New York Times (1921-1937)Edwin F. Gay 1921-1945 Professor of Economic History at Harvard University (1924-1936)David F. Houston 1921-1927 U.S. Secretary of Agriculture (1913-1920); Secretary of the Treasury (1920-1921)Otto H. Kahn 1921-1934 Partner of Kuhn, Loeb, & Co. [banking firm in New York City] (1897-1934)Frank L. Polk 1921-1943 Member of Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardiner & Reed [law firm] (1914-1943)Whitney H. Shepardson 1921-1966 Treasurer of the Council on Foreign Relations (1933-1941)William R. Shepherd 1921-1927 Seth Low Professor of History at Columbia University (1926-1934)Paul M. Warburg 1921-1932 Vice Chairman of the Federal Reserve (1916-1918)George W. Wickersham 1921-1936 Member of Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft [law firm] (1914-1936)Allen W. Dulles 1927-1969 Secretary of the Council on Foreign Relations (1933-1944); OSS agentRussell C. Leffingwell 1927-1960 Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. [banking firm] (1923-1950)George O. May 1927-1953 Senior Partner of Price, Waterhouse & Co. public accountants (1911-1961)Wesley C. Mitchell 1927-1934 Professor of Economics at Columbia UniversityOwen D. Young 1927-1940 Chairman of the board of General Electric Co. (1922-1939, 1942-1944)Hamilton Fish Armstrong 1928-1972 Editor of Foreign Affairs magazine (1928-1972)Charles P. Howland 1929-1931 Member of Howland, Murray & Prentice and Murray, Prentice & Howland [law firm in

New York City] (1900-1921)Walter Lippmann 1932-1937 Columnist for New York Herald TribuneClarence M. Woolley 1932-1935 Chairman of the board of American Radiator CompanyFrank Altschul 1934-1972 Partner of Lazard Freres & Co. [banking firm] (1916-1945)Philip C. Jessup 1934-1942 Professor of International Law at Columbia University (1934-1946)Harold W. Dodds 1935-1943 President of Princeton University (1933-1957)Leon Fraser 1936-1945 Chairman and President of Bank for International Settlements (1933-1935)John H. Williams 1937-1964 Dean of Graduate School of Public Administration at Harvard; Vice President of Federal

Reserve Bank of New York (1936-1947)Lewis W. Douglas 1940-1964 President of Mutual Life Insurance Company of New York (1940-1947)Edward Warner 1940-1949 Member of the Civil Aeronautics Board (1939-1945)Clarence E. Hunter 1942-1953 Treasurer of CFR (1942-1951); Vice President of New York Trust Co.Myron C. Taylor 1943-1959 Personal Representative to the Vatican City (1939-1950)Henry M. Wriston 1943-1967 President of Brown University (1937-1955)Thomas K. Finletter 1944-1967 Secretary of the Air Force (1950-1953); U.S. Representative to NATO (1961-1965)

Council on Foreign Relations Members and Their Occupation during the World War II (1939-1945)Name CFR Membership

(Year)Primary Occupation

Bankers:Thomas H. McKittrick 1944-1968 President of the Bank for International Settlements (1940-1946)Winthrop W. Aldrich 1927-1973 Chairman of Chase National Bank (1934-1953)Thomas W. Lamont  1921-1947 Chairman of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1943-1948)Thomas S. Lamont 1931-1966 Vice President of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1940-1953)Russell C. Leffingwell 1921-1959 Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1923-1950)

Director of the Council on Foreign Relations (1927-1960)President of the Council on Foreign Relations (1944-1946)

Gordon S. Rentschler 1930-1947 Chairman of National City Bank of New York [Citibank] (1940-1948)John L. Simpson 1927-1972 Executive Vice President of J. Henry Schroeder Banking Corp. (1925-1951)Harold Stanley 1925-1959 Partner of Morgan Stanley & Co. (1941-1955)E. Roland Harriman 1933-1969 Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. (1931-1978)Frederick M. Warburg 1933-1970 Partner of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. (1931-1973)John M. Schiff 1938-1986 Partner of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. (1931-1977)Benjamin J. Buttenwieser 1942-1991 Partner of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. (1932-1977)Elisha Walker 1927-1950 Partner of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. (1933-1950)Frank Altschul 1921-1973 Partner of Lazard Freres & Co. (1916-1945)Robert Lehman 1940-1968 Partner of Lehman Brothers (1925-1969)Beardsley Ruml 1927-1959 Chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York (1942-1946)Allan Sproul 1935-1955 President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York (1941-1956)Arthur R. Upgren 1942-1979 Vice President of Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis (1942-1945)Paul G. Hoffman 1942-1972 Class C Director of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago (1942-1949)Charles Gates Dawes 1928-1950 Chairman of the board, City National Bank & Trust Co. [Chicago] (1932-1951)Allan M. Pope 1933-1947 President of The First of Boston Corporation [bank] (1934-1947)Shepard Morgan 1932-1963 Vice President of Chase National Bank (1930-1949)Businessmen:Thomas J. Watson 1924-1955 President of International Business Machines Corp. (1914-1949)Owen D. Young 1921-1940 Chairman of the board of General Electric Co. (1922-1939, 1942-1944)Gerard Swope 1924-1950 President of General Electric Co. (1922-1940, 1942-1945)

Member of the board of directors of National City Bank of New York (1929-1952)George H. Bucher 1939-1947 President of Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co. (1938-1946)Alfred P. Sloan Jr. 1933-1965 Chairman of the board of General Motors Corp. (1937-1956)Donaldson Brown 1933-1946 Vice Chairman of the board of General Motors Corp. (1937-1946)Nicholas Kelley 1924-1965 Vice President and General Counsel of Chrysler Corp. (1937-1957)B. Edwin Hutchinson 1927-1960 Vice President of Chrysler Corp. (1925-1953)Eugene G. Grace 1925-1958 President of Bethlehem Steel Corp. (1916-1945)Irving S. Olds 1935-1962 Chairman of the board of United States Steel Corp. (1940-1952)Juan Terry Trippe 1933-1976 President of Pan American World Airways, Inc. (1927-1964)Francis B. Davis Jr. 1944-1949 Chairman of U.S. Rubber Co. [later Uniroyal] (1929-1949)Lewis W. Douglas 1935-1973 President of Mutual Life Insurance Company of New York (1940-1947)George L. Harrison 1929-1953 President of New York Life Insurance Company (1941-1948)Byron K. Elliott 1944-1992 Vice Pres. and General Counsel of John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Co. (1937-47)Solomon R. Guggenheim 1928-1949 Member of Guggenheim Brothers [mining company]; Director of Utah Copper Co.Percival F. Brundage 1935-1978 Partner of Price, Waterhouse & Co. public accountants [New York] (1930-1954)Jack I. Straus 1942-1985 President of R.H. Macy & Co. [Macy’s department store] (1940-1956)Ellsworth Bunker 1942-1984 President of National Sugar Refining Co. (1940-1948)James D. Mooney 1931-1940,

1946-1956President of General Motors Export Co. (1923-c.1940); Vice President in charge of overseas operations, General Motors Corp. (1923-c.1940)Note: Mooney met with Hitler on March 4, 1940 and with Goering on March 7, 1940

Sosthenes Behn 1930-1953 Member of the board of directors of National City Bank of New York (1925-1956)Cleveland E. Dodge 1931-1982 Member of the board of directors of National City Bank of New York (1926-1960)W. Randolph Burgess 1939-1978 Member of the board of directors of National City Bank of New York (1938-1952)Lawyers (New York City):Allen W. Dulles 1927-1969 Member of Sullivan & Cromwell [law firm in New York City] (1926-1951)

Director (1927-1969) and Secretary (1933-1944) of the Council on Foreign RelationsOSS agent during World War II

John Foster Dulles 1921-1959 Member of Sullivan & Cromwell (1911-1949); brother of Allen W. DullesEustace Seligman 1926-1976 Member of Sullivan & Cromwell (1923-1976)Arthur H. Dean 1938-1987 Partner of Sullivan & Cromwell (1929-1976)John W. Davis 1921-1955 Member of Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardiner & Reed [law firm] (1921-1955)

Director of the Council on Foreign Relations (1921-1955)Frank L. Polk 1921-1943 Member of Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardiner & Reed [law firm] (1914-1943)

Director of the Council on Foreign Relations (1921-1943)Vice President of the Council on Foreign Relations (1940-1943)

Allen Wardwell 1921-1953 Member of Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardiner & Reed [law firm] (1909-1953)Ralph M. Carson 1938-1969 Member of Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardiner & Reed [law firm] (1935-1977)

Henry de Forest Baldwin 1928-1947 Member of Lord, Day & Lord [law firm] (1900-1947)George Roberts 1932-1967 Partner of Winthrop, Stimson, Putnam & Roberts [law firm] (1914-1968)Allen T. Klots 1934-1964 Member of Winthrop, Stimson, Putnam & Roberts [law firm] (1921-1965)Bronson Winthrop 1932-1944 Member of Winthrop, Stimson, Putnam & Roberts [law firm ] (?-1944)Thomas D. Thacher 1935-1950 Partner of Simpson, Thacher & Bartlett [law firm] (1914-1925, 1933-1943)Roland L. Redmond 1924-1963 Member of Carter, Ledyard & Milburn [law firm in New York City] (1925-1955)Jerome S. Hess 1930-1968 Member of Hardin, Hess & Eder [law firm in New York City] (1907-1970)Thomas M. Debevoise 1932-1958 Wall Street lawyer; director of Chase National BankGeorge Rublee 1925-1951 Member of Covington, Burling & Rublee [law firm in Wash., D.C.] (1921-c.1946)Journalists:Arthur Hays Sulzberger 1927-1968 Publisher of The New York Times (1935-1961)Eugene Meyer 1930-1958 Publisher of The Washington Post (1933-1946)William S. Paley 1936-1989 President of Columbia Broadcasting System [CBS] (1928-1946)Henry R. Luce 1934-1966 Editor-in-Chief of Time magazine (1923-1964)Edward R. Murrow 1934-1964 CBS war correspondent (1939-1945)William L. Shirer 1942-1992 CBS war correspondent (1939-1945)Cass Canfield 1923-1985 President of Harper & Brothers [later Harper & Row] (1931-1945)Hamilton Fish Armstrong 1921-1972 Editor of Foreign Affairs magazine (1928-1972)Geoffrey Parsons 1925-1953 Chief Editorial Writer for New York Herald-Tribune (1924-1952)David Lawrence 1931-1970 President and Editor of U.S. News [newspaper in Washington, D.C.] (1933-1948)Organization Executives:Raymond B. Fosdick 1921-1971 President of The Rockefeller Foundation (1936-1948)Norman H. Davis 1921-1944 Chairman of the American Red Cross (1938-1944)

Director of the Council on Foreign Relations (1921-1944)President of the Council on Foreign Relations (1936-1944)

Edward C. Carter 1927-1954 Secretary General of the Institute of Pacific Relations (1933-1946)George H. Blakeslee 1924-1953 President of World Peace Foundation (1930-1946)James R. Angell 1928-1948 President of the English-Speaking Union of the U.S. (1939-1946)Walter H. Mallory 1928-1979 Executive Director of the Council on Foreign Relations (1927-1959)Malcolm W. Davis 1921-1953 Director of European Center of Carnegie Endowment in Paris, France (1935-1947)College Professors:Charles Seymour 1921-1961 President of Yale University (1937-1950)James B. Conant 1934-1976 President of Harvard University (1933-1953)Harold W. Dodds 1934-1968 President of Princeton University (1933-1957)Henry M. Wriston 1926-1978 President of Brown University (1937-1955)Edmund E. Day 1932-1944 President of Cornell University (1937-1949)Isaiah Bowman 1921-1950 President of Johns Hopkins University (1935-1948)Ray Lyman Wilbur 1929-1948 President of Stanford University (1916-1943)Ernest M. Hopkins 1930-1953 President of Dartmouth College (1916-1945)Stanley King 1934-1950 President of Amherst College (1932-1946)Kenneth C.M. Sills 1938-1953 President of Bowdoin College (1918-1952)James P. Baxter III 1938-1971 President of Williams College (1937-1961)Felix M. Morley 1938-1947 President of Haverford College (1940-1945)Karl T. Compton 1936-1953 President of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1930-1948)Harry Woodburn Chase 1938-1950 President of New York University (1933-1951)Arthur A. Hauck 1939-1970 President of University of Maine (1934-1958)Robert L. Johnson 1940-1961 President of Temple University (1941-1959)Everett N. Case 1940-1981 President of Colgate University [New York] (1942-1962)Halford L. Hoskins 1938-1966 Dean of Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University (1933-1944)John H. Williams 1934-1972 Dean of Grad. School of Public Administration at Harvard University (1937-1947)Donald K. David 1942-1975 Dean of Harvard Business School (1942-1955)Carl W. Ackerman 1940-1953 Dean of Graduate School of Journalism at Columbia University (1931-1956)Zechariah Chafee Jr. 1928-1956 Professor of Law at Harvard University (1919-1956)Alvin H. Hansen 1939-1953 Lucius N. Littauer Professor of Political Economy at Harvard University (1937-1958)Clarence H. Haring 1931-1954 Professor of Latin American History and Economics at Harvard University (1923-1953)Manley O. Hudson 1921-1956 Bemis Professor of International Law at Harvard Law School (1923-1960)

Trustee of World Peace Foundation (1923-1960)William L. Langer 1927-1977 Coolidge Professor of History at Harvard University (1936-1964)Carlton J.H. Hayes 1925-1951 Professor of History at Columbia University (1919-1950)

U.S. Ambassador to Fascist Spain (1942-1945)Charles Cheney Hyde 1926-1951 Hamilton Fish Prof. of International Law and Diplomacy at Columbia Univ. (1925-1945)Lindsay Rogers 1927-1970 Burgess Professor of Public Law at Columbia University (1929-1959)Robert L. Schuyler 1928-1949 Professor of History at Columbia University (1924-1951)Philip C. Jessup Sr. 1928-1981 Professor of International Law at Columbia University (1934-1946)Huger W. Jervey 1938-1948 Professor of Law at Columbia University Law School (1924-1949)Wesley C. Mitchell 1924-1948 Professor of Economics at Columbia University (1914-1919, 1922-1944)Leo Wolman 1934-1958 Professor of Economics at Columbia University (1931-1958)Edwin M. Borchard 1926-1950 Professor of Law at Yale Law School (1917-1951)Edwin W. Kemmerer 1927-1945 Walker Professor of International Finance at Princeton Univ. (1928-1943)

Roland S. Morris 1921-1932, 1938-1945

Professor of International Law at University of Pennsylvania (1924-1945)Member of Duane, Morris & Heckscher [law firm in Philadelphia] (1904-1945)

Walter W. McLaren 1926-1954 Professor of Economics at Williams College (1914-1945)Bernadotte E. Schmitt 1927-1953 Professor of History at the University of Chicago (1925-1946)Samuel N. Harper 1929-1942 Professor of Russian Language and Institutions at University of Chicago (1906-1943)Government Officials:Henry L. Stimson 1924-1929,

1934-1950U.S. Secretary of War (May 22, 1911-March 4, 1913; July 10, 1940-Sept. 21, 1945)

John J. McCloy 1940-1989 Assistant Secretary of War (1941-1945)William J. “Wild Bill” Donovan 1932-1957 Director of Office of Strategic Services (OSS) (1942-1945)Sumner Welles 1934-1959 Under Secretary of State (1937-1943)G. Howland Shaw 1938-1965 Assistant Secretary of State (1941-1944)Nelson A. Rockefeller 1938-1978 Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs (1944-1945)William L. Clayton 1935-1965 Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs (1944-1946)

Assistant Secretary of Commerce (1942-1944)Herbert Feis 1930-1971 State Department Adviser on International Economic Affairs (1937-1943)Laurence Duggan 1931-1948 State Department Chief of Division of the American Republics (1935-1944)William A.M. Burden 1938-1984 Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Air (1943-1947)Theodore P. Wright 1940-1969 Administrator of Civil Aeronautics Administration (1944-1948)Edward Warner 1932, 1934-1957 Member of the Civil Aeronautics Board (1939-1945)Heber R. Harper 1932-1940 Regional director, Social Security Board (1936-1948)W. Averell Harriman 1923-1986 U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union (1943-1946)Joseph C. Grew 1928-1959 U.S. Ambassador to Imperial Japan (1932-1941)

Under Secretary of State (1944-1945)William Phillips 1931-1967 U.S. Ambassador to Fascist Italy (1936-1941)William E. Dodd 1936-1939 U.S. Ambassador to Nazi Germany (1933-1937)Alexander W. Weddell 1935-1944 U.S. Ambassador to Fascist Spain (1939-1942)Norman Armour 1938-1977 U.S. Ambassador to Argentina (1939-1944); U.S. Ambassador to Fascist Spain (1945)George S. Messersmith 1938-1959 U.S. Ambassador to Cuba (1940-1942); U.S. Ambassador to Mexico (1942-1946)John Campbell White 1939-1966 U.S. Ambassador to Haiti (1941-1944); U.S. Ambassador to Peru (1944-1945)Spruille Braden 1935-1966 U.S. Ambassador to Colombia (1939-1942); U.S. Ambassador to Cuba (1942-1945)

U.S. Ambassador to Argentina (1945)Arthur Bliss Lane 1936-1955 U.S. Minister to Yugoslavia (1937-1941); U.S. Ambassador to Colombia (1942-1944);

U.S. Ambassador to Poland (1944-1947)Lincoln MacVeagh 1935-1971 U.S. Ambassador to Greece (1933-1941, 1943-1947);

U.S. Minister to Iceland (1941-1942); U.S. Minister to South Africa (1942-1943)Stanley K. Hornbeck 1932-1966 U.S. Ambassador to the Netherlands (1944-1947)

State Department Adviser on Political Relations (1937-1943)William C. Bullitt 1936-1954 U.S. Ambassador to France (1936-1940)Leland Harrison 1935-1950 U.S. Minister to Switzerland (1937-1947)Lithgow Osborne 1942-1976 U.S. Ambassador to Norway (1944-1946)John Van A. MacMurray 1931-1959 U.S. Ambassador to the Republic of Turkey (1936-1941)Charles Evans Hughes 1930-1946 Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1930-1941)Felix Frankfurter 1932-1964 Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1939-1962)Learned Hand 1925-1944 U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit [New York City] (1924-1951)Herbert H. Lehman 1921-1963 Governor of New York (1933-1942)Elliott V. Bell 1944-1968 Superintendent of Banks of the State of New York (1943-1949)Adm. Arthur J. Hepburn 1934-1957 Commander-in-Chief of the United States Fleet (1936-1938);

Commandant of 12th Naval District [San Francisco] (1938-1941)Chairman of the General Board (1942-1945)

Rear Adm. Clark H. Woodward

1938-1958 Commandant of Brooklyn Navy Yard (1937-1941);Commandant of Third Naval District (1937-1941)

Rear Adm. Harry E. Yarnell 1940-1953 Commandant of Pearl Harbor Naval Station (1933-1936);Commander-in-Chief of Asiatic Fleet (1936-1939)

Lt. Gen. Hugh A. Drum 1939-1951 Commander, Hawaiian Department (Honolulu) (1935-1937);Commanding General, Eastern Defense Command (1940-1943)

Maj. Gen. Haywood S. Hansell Jr.

1942-1972 Commander, First Bomb Wing of the Eighth Air Force (1942-1943);Deputy Commander, Allied Expeditionary Air Force (1943);Commander, XXI Bomber Command [Guam] (1944-1945)

Maj. Gen. Sherman Miles 1942-1946 Chief of Military Intelligence (G-2) Division, War Department (1941)Maj. Gen. Frank R. McCoy 1938-1953 Member of the Roberts Commission (1941-1942)Adm. William H. Standley 1938-1947 Member of the Roberts Commission (1941-1942);

U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union (1942-1943)Vice Adm. Adolphus Andrews 1942-1948 Member of the Pearl Harbor Navy Court of Inquiry (1944)Lt. Gen. George Grunert 1944-1945 Member of the Army Pearl Harbor Board (1944)

The War and Peace Studies of The Council On Foreign Relations (1939-1945)

The War and Peace Studies of The Council On Foreign Relations 1939-1945, The Harold Pratt House 58th E. 68th Street, NY, 1946, pg. 2-3; Appendix A (pgs. 19-24) lists the personnel and dates of service of the War and Peace Studies group members as:

STEERING COMMITTEE

Officers:Norman H. Davis, Chairman (December 1939-July 1944)Isaiah Bowman, (December 1939-became Chairman, March 1945)Hamilton Fish Armstrong, Vice Chairman, (December 1939-September 1945)Walter H. Mallory, Secretary (December 1939-September 1945)Paul F. Jones, Administrative Secretary, (January 1940-November 1940)Francis P. Miller, Administrative Secretary, (December 1940-February 1942)Dwight E. Lee, Administrative Secretary, (September 1942-September 1943)Julius W. Pratt, Administrative Secretary, (September 1943-September 1944)Richard C. Snyder, Administrative Secretary, (October 1944-February 1945)William Edwin Diez, Administrative Secretary, (March 1945-September 1945)

Members:Hanson W. Baldwin (July 1940-September 1945)Isaiah Bowman (December 1939-Chairman, March 1945)Allen W. Dulles (December 1939-December 1943) Carter Goodrich (August 1942-September 1945)Alvin H. Hansen (December 1939-September 1945)Whitney H. Shepardson, (December 1939-June 1942)Jacob Viner, (December 1939-September 1945)Edward P. Warner, (January 1944-September 1945)Henry M. Wriston, (June 1942-September 1945)

SECURITY AND ARMAMENTS GROUP:Rapporteurs: Allen W. Dulles, Rapporteur (02/40-06/40); Joint Rapporteur (07/40-12/43)Hanson W. Baldwin, Joint Rapporteur (07/40-09/45)Edward P. Warner, Joint Rapporteur (01/44-09/45)

Research Secretaries:William M. Franklin (02/40-05/41)Grayson Kirk (06/41-09/45)

Members:Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Betts (07/40-12/43)Maj. Gen. Clayton Bissell (01/44-09/45)Rear Adm. Ralph Davison (07/41-12/43)Edward M. Earle (03/45-09/45)Maj. George Fielding Eliot (02/41-09/45)Joseph C. Green (11/43-09/45)Brig. Gen. Haywood S. Hansell (07/41-07/42)Stacy May (07/40-02/45)Maj. Gen. Frank R. McCoy (04/40-09/45)Col. James F. Olive (02/43-02/44)Adm. William V. Pratt, Ret. (04/41-02/45)David N. Rowe (03/45-09/45)Capt. Richard W. Ruble (11/43-05/45)Harold F. Sheets (07/42-09/45)Harold Sprout (02/44-09/45)Adm. William H. Standley, Ret. (02/40-11/40)Maj. Gen. George V. Strong (07/44-09/45)Edward P. Warner (02/40-11/44)Brig. Gen. John Weckerling (01/44-09/45)Hugh R. Wilson (02/41-11/42)Theodore P. Wright (02/41-09/45)

ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL GROUP

Rapporteurs:Alvin H. Hansen, Joint Rapporteur (02/40-09/45)Jacob Viner, Joint Rapporteur (02/40-09/45)

Economic and Financial Group Research Secretaries:Arthur R. Upgren (02/40-07/40)William Diebold Jr. (08/40-09/43)Arthur D. Gayer (10/43-09/45)

Economic and Financial Group Members:Percy W. Bidwell (02/40-09/45)Edwin F. Chinlund (11/43-09/45)Benjamin V. Cohen (09/41-09/45)Lauchlin Currie (02/43-09/45)Ralph E. Flanders (07/42-11/40)Heman Greenwood (03/45-09/45)Leon Fraser (02/40-11(40)Calvin B. Hoover (01/44-09/45)Winfield W. Riefler (02/40-03/42)William H. Schubart (07/42-12/44)Harold F. Sheets (02/40-05/42)Allan Sproul (02/41-12/43)Eugene Staley (02/40-09/45)Arthur R. Upgren (07/40-09/45)Jacob Viner (02/40-09/45)John H. Williams (02/40-11/40)

POLITICAL GROUP

Rapporteurs:Whitney H. Shepardson (02/40-06/42); Henry M. Wriston, Rapporteur, July 1942; Joint Rapporteur (08/42-09/45)Carter Goodrich, Joint Rapporteurs (08/42-09/45)

Research Secretaries: Walter Langsam (02/40-02/41)Walter R. Sharp (02/41-09/45)

Members:Frank Altschul (03/45-09/45)Hamilton Fish Armstrong (02/40-09/45)James P. Baxter III (11/43-02/45)Charles W. Cole (03/45-09/45)John Foster Dulles (02/40-09/40)Maj. George Fielding Eliot (02/40-09/45)Thomas K. Finletter (03/45-09/45)Carter Goodrich (09/41-became Joint Rapporteur 08/42)William Langer (03/45-09/45)Owen Lattimore (03/45-09/45)Dwight E. Lee (03/45-09/45)Francis P. Miller (05/40-05/43)Philip E. Mosely (09/42-02/45)Lindsay Rodgers (02/41-09/45)David N. Rowe (11/43-02/45)James T. Shotwell (02/40-02/43)Arthur Sweetser (02/41-09/45)Payson S. Wild (03/43-09/45)Henry M. Wriston (05/40-became Rapporteur 07/42)

TERRITORIAL GROUP

Rapporteur:Isaiah Bowman (02/40-02/45)

Research Secretaries:Philip E. Mosely (03/40-09/41 & 08/42-02/45)William P. Maddox (09/41-06/42)

Members:Hamilton Fish Armstrong (02/40-02/45)H. Foster Bain (02/44-02/45)Charles H. Behre Jr., (06/42-02/45)Charles W. Cole (05/42-02/45)John C. Cooper Jr., (02/40-11/40)Rupert Emerson (05/43-02/45)A. Whitney Griswold (09/41-01/42)John Gunther (02/41-08/41)Bruce C. Hopper (02/40-02/45)Owen Lattimore (04/40-02/45)Frank W. Notestein (11/43-02/45)Walter H. Voskuil (09/43-02/45)William L. Westermann (02/40-02/45)

PEACE AIMS GROUP

Chairman: Hamilton Fish Armstrong (06/41-02/45)

Research Secretaries:Philip E. Mosely (06/41-09/41)Mose L. Harvey (11/41-05/42)Dwight E. Lee (09/42-02/45)

Members:Jay Allen (11/41-09/42)Frank Altschul (06/41-02/45)Percy W. Bidwell (06/41-02/45)Crane Brinton (09/42-12/42)Allen W. Dulles (06/41-02/45)Frank D. Graham (10/43-02/45)John Gunther (06/41-11/45)Bruce C. Hopper (06/41-02/45)Tracy B. Kittredge (06/41-04/42)William L. Langer (06/41-02/45)James G. McDonald (06/41-02/45)Philip E. Mosely (09/41-02/45)Winfield W. Riefler (06/41-02/45)Lindsay Rodgers (06/41-02/45)Whitney H. Shepardson (06/41-02/45)William L. Shirer (10/43-02/45)George N. Shuster (06/41-02/45)Oscar C. Stine (06/41-02/45)Arthur Sweetser (09/42-02/45)Max W. Thornburg (06/41-11/41)Jacob Viner (10/42-03/43)John K. Wright (11/42-02/45)

American Jewish Lobby & World War II:Organized Crime?

Henry Morgenthau Sr. (left) walks with his son Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. (right) as they arrive at the Willard Hotel in Washington, D.C. on December 13, 1937 for the Gridiron dinner. Henry Morgenthau Sr.’s son Henry Morgenthau Jr. was the Secretary of the Treasury from January 1, 1934 to July 22, 1945. Henry Morgenthau Sr. was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1922 to 1940. (Photo: Harris & Ewing Collection/Library of Congress)

Henry Morgenthau Sr. (left), the former U.S. Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire [Turkey], and Rabbi Stephen S. Wise, the President of World Jewish Congress, leaves the White House on April 13, 1938 after conferring with U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt on plans to assist political refugees from Germany and Austria to find new homes. (Photo: Harris & Ewing Collection, Library of Congress)

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (center) appears with the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. in an automobile in an undated photo. Inscribed in this photo are: “From one of two of a kind.” – Franklin Roosevelt(Photo: Franklin D. Roosevelt Library and Museum, Hyde Park, New York)

Bernard Baruch (left) rides with President Franklin D. Roosevelt (driver’s seat).

Prime Minister of Great Britain Neville Chamberlain meets with Chaim Weizmann, David Ben-Gurion (later Prime Minister of Israel), Moshe Sharrett (later Prime Minister of Israel), and other members of the Jewish Lobby at St. James’s Palace in London in 1939. This photograph was published in Barnet Litvinoff‘s book Weizmann: Last of the Patriarchs.

Left to right: Felix Warburg, Vera Weizmann, Frieda Schiff Warburg, and Chaim Weizmann attend a Boston conference for the United Palestine Appeal in November 1928. Felix Warburg, along with his brother Paul Warburg, was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and a partner of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. banking firm in New York City. (Photo: The Warburgs by Ron Chernow)

“Like his father, [Frank] Altschul had numerous interests outside of Lazard, one of which was international affairs. In 1920, he helped to found the Council on Foreign Relations in New York [City], and from the start he hoped the council would be able to influence U.S. foreign policy – one of the organization’s continuing goals. An indication of how important Lazard and Altschul had become in the world financial markets arose in 1923, when the French occupation of the Ruhr, Adolf Hitler’s failed Beer Hall Putsch, and the resultant international uncertainty led to havoc in the market. France found itself in a full-blown financial crisis. The value of the French franc fell by some 50 percent. In January 1924, the French Ministry of Finance summoned Altschul to Paris to hear his views on solving the French currency crisis. In a carefully prepared speech, which Altschul delivered in Paris on January 24, he called for the French government to undertake what he called an “experiment” designed to stabilize the plunging currency. “This would involve arranging credits for the government in the United States and perhaps in England, in round amounts,” he told the French. “It is felt that a banking group could readily be formed in New York to extend the necessary facilities under appropriate guarantees on reasonable terms. The present ease in the New York money market and the fundamental friendship for and confidence in France make this appear likely.” He averred that with the cooperation of the media – and without being able to judge its political feasibility – “the experiment could be made to succeed.” Altschul, though, was adamant about one thing: that Lazard Freres & Co. be kept out of the press. “As we do not desire publicity for ourselves, it must be understood that our name is not to be mentioned under any circumstances in connection with the following,” he said. “If you care to, you may say that you have been informed by an influential banking house that they have advices from abroad to the effect that steps have been taken in Paris which seem adequate to restore confidence in France and to protect the French exchange, and the situation appears well in hand.” The French government quickly adopted Altschul’s plan…” – The Last Tycoons: The Secret History of Lazard Freres & Co. by William D. Cohan, p. 23-24

Germany Must Perish! by Theodore R. Kaufman, published in 1941

Prominent American Jewish Leaders during World War II

Felix FrankfurterJustice of the U.S.

Supreme Court(1939-1962)

Henry Morgenthau Jr.U.S. Secretary of the

Treasury(January 1, 1934–

July 22, 1945);Author of the proposed

postwar Morgenthau Plan

Bernard BaruchChairman of the War

Industries Board (1918-1919) under U.S.

President Woodrow Wilson

Rabbi Stephen S. WisePresident of World Jewish

Congress (1936-1949)

Henry Morgenthau Sr.U.S. Ambassador to the

Ottoman Empire(1913-1916)

Eugene MeyerPublisher of The Washington Post

(1933-1946)

Arthur Hays SulzbergerPublisher of The New

York Times (1935-1961)

William S. PaleyPresident of Columbia Broadcasting System

[CBS] (1928-1946)

David SarnoffPresident of Radio

Corporation of America [RCA] (1930-1947)

Harry F. GuggenheimPresident of Newsday;

U.S. Ambassador to Cuba (1929-1933)

Frank AltschulPartner of Lazard Freres

& Co. (1916-1945)

Frederick M. WarburgPartner of Kuhn, Loeb &

Co. (1931-1973)

Benjamin J. ButtenwieserPartner of Kuhn, Loeb &

Co. (1932-1977)

Robert LehmanPartner of Lehman

Brothers [bank](1925-1969)

James Paul WarburgChairman of The

Economic Club of New York (1934-1936)

J. Robert OppenheimerDirector of Los Alamos

National Laboratory (1943-1945);

Atomic bomb scientist

Laurence A. SteinhardtU.S. Ambassador to

Soviet Union (1939-1941)U.S. Ambassador to Turkey (1942-1945)

Herbert H. LehmanGovernor of New York

(1933-1942)

David Dubinsky

President of International Ladies’ Garment Workers’

Union (1932-1966)

Abram I. ElkusU.S. Ambassador to the

Ottoman Empire (October 2, 1916-April 20, 1917)

Harvard University Graduates & World War II

Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., near Boston

President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (A.B. Harvard 1904) shakes hands with Henry L. Stimson (M.A. Harvard 1889) at the White House on July 10, 1940 after the Senate confirmed his nomination as Secretary of War. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

Prominent Harvard Students & Their Occupation during World War II

William PhillipsA.B. Harvard 1900

U.S. Ambassador to Fascist Italy (1936-1941)

Joseph C. GrewA.B. Harvard 1902

U.S. Ambassador to Imperial Japan

(1932-1941)

Franklin D. RooseveltA.B. Harvard 1904

President of the United States (1933-1945)

Francis BiddleA.B. Harvard 1909;LL.B. Harvard 1911

U.S. Attorney General(1941-1945)

Sumner WellesA.B. Harvard 1914

Under Secretary of State (1937-1943)

Leland HarrisonA.B. Harvard 1907

U.S. Minister to Switzerland (1937-1947)

Thomas H. McKittrickA.B. Harvard 1911

President of the Bank for International Settlements

(1940-1946)

Joseph P. KennedyA.B. Harvard 1912

U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain (1938-1940)

Lincoln MacVeaghA.B. Harvard 1913

U.S. Minister to Greece (1933-1941, 1943-1947)

Leverett SaltonstallA.B. Harvard 1914

Governor of Massachusetts

(1939-1945)

Cass CanfieldA.B. Harvard 1919

President of Harper & Brothers (1931-1945)

Roger Nash BaldwinA.B. Harvard 1904

Founder and Director of American Civil Liberties

Union (1917-1950)

James B. ConantA.B. Harvard 1913;Ph.D. Harvard 1916President of Harvard

University (1933-1953)

Wallace Brett Donham A.B. Harvard 1898;LL.B. Harvard 1901

Dean of Harvard Business School (1919-1942)

Learned HandA.B. Harvard 1893;LL.B. Harvard 1896

Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second

Circuit (1924-1951)

T.V. SoongA.B. Harvard 1915

Foreign Minister of the Republic of China

(1942-1945)

Shigeaki Ikeda[formerly Seihin Ikeda]

A.B. Harvard 1895Governor of the Bank of Japan (1937); Finance

Minister of Japan(1938-1939)

Ernst “Putzi” HanfstaenglA.B. Harvard 1909

Adolf Hitler’s personal adviser

J. Robert Oppenheimer A.B. Harvard 1925

Director of Los Alamos National Laboratory

(1943-1945);Atomic bomb scientist

Walter S. GiffordA.B. Harvard 1905

President of American Telephone and Telegraph Co. [AT&T] (1925-1948)

James P. WarburgA.B. Harvard 1917

Vice Chairman of the board of Bank of

Manhattan

Frederick M. Warburg A.B. Harvard 1919

Partner of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. (1931-1973)

Winthrop W. AldrichA.B. Harvard 1907LL.B. Harvard 1910

Chairman of the board of Chase National Bank

(1934-1953)

Thomas W. LamontA.B. Harvard 1892

Chairman of the board of J.P. Morgan & Co., Inc.

(1943-1948)

James H. PerkinsA.B. Harvard 1898

Chairman of the board of National City Bank of New

York (1933-1940)

Percival F. BrundageA.B. Harvard 1914

Partner of Price Waterhouse & Co.

[accounting firm in New York City] (1930-1954)

Clarence DillonA.B. Harvard 1905

Chairman of Dillon, Read & Co.

J.P. “Jack” Morgan Jr.A.B. Harvard 1889

Chairman of the board of J.P. Morgan & Co., Inc.

(1913-1943)

Henry S. MorganA.B. Harvard 1923

Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co., Inc. (1928-1935)

Junius S. MorganA.B. Harvard 1914

Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1919-1940)

Peter Goelet GerryA.B. Harvard 1901

U.S. Senator(D-Rhode Island, 1917-

1929; 1935-1947)

Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. A.B. Harvard 1924

U.S. Senator (R-Mass.,1937-1944, 1947-1953)

George Wilhelm Merck A.B. Harvard 1915

President of Merck & Co., Inc. (1925-1950)

Richard B. Wigglesworth A.B. Harvard 1912U.S. Congressman

(R-Mass., 1928-1958)Roger D. LaphamA.B. Harvard 1905

Mayor of San Francisco, California (1944-1948)

Harvard graduate Ernst “Putzi” Hanfstaengl (left) appears with Adolf Hitler

Harvard University Graduates and Their Occupation during World War II (1939-1945)

Government Officials:Franklin Delano Roosevelt (A.B. 1904) – President of the United States (March 4, 1933-April 12, 1945)Francis Biddle (A.B. 1909; LL.B. 1911) – U.S. Attorney General (August 26, 1941-June 26, 1945); Solicitor General of the U.S. (1940-1941)Sumner Welles (A.B. 1914) – Under U.S. Secretary of State (May 21, 1937-September 30, 1943)G. Howland Shaw (A.B. 1915) – Asst. Secretary of State (1941-1944); Chief of State Dept. Division of Foreign Service Personnel (1937-1941)William Phillips (A.B. 1900) – U.S. Ambassador to Fascist Italy (November 4, 1936-October 6, 1941)Joseph C. Grew (A.B. 1902) – U.S. Ambassador to Imperial Japan (June 14, 1932-December 8, 1941)George Anderson Gordon (A.B. 1906) – U.S. Minister to the Netherlands (September 10, 1937-July 16, 1940)Leland Harrison (A.B. 1907) – U.S. Minister to Switzerland (September 10, 1937-October 14, 1947)Joseph P. Kennedy (A.B. 1912) – U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain (March 8, 1938-October 22, 1940)David Gray (A.B. 1892) – U.S. Minister to Ireland (April 15, 1940-June 28, 1947)Lincoln MacVeagh (A.B. 1913) – U.S. Minister to Greece (1933-1941, 1943-1947)Franklin Mott Gunther (A.B. 1907) – U.S. Minister to Romania (Oct. 23, 1937-Dec. 12, 1941); died at Bucharest, Romania on Dec. 22, 1941John Campbell White (A.B. 1907) – U.S. Ambassador to Haiti (1941-1944); U.S. Ambassador to Peru (1944-1945); Counselor at the American Embassy in Berlin, Germany (1933-1935); U.S. Consul General in Calcutta, India (1935-1939); U.S. Consul General in Morocco (1940-1941)R. Henry Norweb (A.B. 1916) – U.S. Ambassador to Peru (1940-1943); U.S. Ambassador to Portugal (1943-1945)Arthur Chester Frost (A.B. 1909) – U.S. Consul General in Zurich, Switzerland (1934-1940); U.S. Consul General in Barcelona, Spain (1940-1943); U.S. Consul General in Toronto, Canada (1944-1947)Richard F. Boyce (A.B. 1918) – U.S. Consul General in Havana, Cuba (1944-1946); Consul at Yokohama, Japan (1933-1940)Irving Nelson Linnell (A.B. 1904; LL.B. 1907) – U.S. Consul General in Yokohama, Japan (December 9, 1940-December 8, 1941); U.S. Consul General in Canton, China (July 1936-November 1938); U.S. Consul General in Prague, Bohemia [Nazi Germany] (March 1939-August 1940); U.S. Consul General in Luanda, Angola (November 1942-September 1943); U.S. Consul General in Cape Town, South Africa (1932-1935, 1943-November 1944)Lynn Ramsay Edminster (A.B. 1916) – Member (1942-1956) and Vice Chairman (1942-1953) of the U.S. Tariff CommissionLaurence Duggan (B.A. 1927) – U.S. State Department Chief of Division of the American Republics (1935-1944)Herbert Feis (A.B. 1916, Ph.D. 1921) – State Department Adviser on International Economic Affairs (1937-1943)David D. Lloyd (B.A. 1931; LL.B. 1935) – Assistant General Counsel of Foreign Economic Administration (1944-1945)Laurence Manuel Lombard (A.B. 1917; LL.B. 1921) – Assistant General Counsel, Solicitor, and General Counsel of War Production Board (1942-1945)

Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. (B.A. 1924) – U.S. Senator (Republican-Massachusetts, 1937-1944, 1947-1953)Hamilton Fish (A.B. 1910) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-New York, 1920-1945)Joseph Clark Baldwin (A.B. 1920) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-New York, 1941-1947); Member of New York City Council (1937-1941)Richard B. Wigglesworth (A.B. 1912) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-Massachusetts, 1928-1958)Thomas H. Eliot (B.A. 1928, LL.B. 1932) – U.S. Congressman (Democrat-Massachusetts (1941-1943); chairman of the appeals committee, National War Labor Board (1943-1944)Lawrence Lewis (A.B. 1901, LL.B. 1909) – U.S. Congressman (Democrat-Colorado, 1933-1943)Robert Winthrop Kean (A.B. 1915) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-New Jersey, 1939-1959)Robert Bruce Chiperfield (A.B. 1922) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-Illinois, 1939-1963)

Learned Hand (A.B. 1893, LL.B. 1896) – Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit [New York City] (1924-1951)Augustus Noble Hand (A.B. 1890, LL.B. 1894) – Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (1928-1953)William Clark (A.B. 1911, LL.B. 1915) – Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit [Philadelphia] (1938-1943)Francis Joseph William Ford (A.B. 1904, LL.B. 1906) – Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts (1938-1972)Charles E. Wyzanski Jr. (B.A. 1927, LL.B. 1930) – Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts (1941-1971)Francis Gordon Caffey (A.B. 1891) – Judge of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York (1929-1947)William Caldwell Coleman (A.B. 1905, LL.B. 1909) – Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Maryland (1927-1955)Leverett Saltonstall (A.B. 1914) – Governor of Massachusetts (1939-1945)Charles Poletti (B.A. 1924, LL.B. 1928) – Governor of New York (1942); Lieutenant Governor of New York (1939-1942); Senior Civil officer, Allied Military Government in Sicily, Italy (July 1943-1944); Senior Civil officer, Allied Military Government in Naples, Italy (1944)Roger D. Lapham (A.B. 1905) – Mayor of San Francisco (1944-1948); Chairman of American Hawaiian Steamship Co. (1938-1943)Sidney St. Felix Thaxter (A.B. 1904; LL.B. 1907) – Justice of the Supreme Judicial Court of Maine (1930-1958)

Bankers:Thomas H. McKittrick (A.B. 1911) – President of the Bank for International Settlements (1940-1946)Thomas W. Lamont (A.B. 1892) – Chairman of the board of J.P. Morgan & Co., Inc. (1943-1948)Thomas S. Lamont (A.B. 1921) – Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1929-1940); Vice President of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1940-1953)James H. Perkins (A.B. 1898) – Chairman of the board of National City Bank of New York (1933-1940)Clarence Dillon (A.B. 1905) – Chairman of Dillon, Read & Co.Winthrop W. Aldrich (A.B. 1907; LL.B. 1910) – Chairman of Chase National Bank (1934-1953); Trustee, Rockefeller Foundation (1935-1951)Junius S. Morgan (A.B. 1914) – Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1919-1940)Paul Myer Mazur (A.B. 1914) – Partner of Lehman Brothers (1927-1969)Walter E. Sachs (A.B. 1904) – Member of Goldman, Sachs & Co. (1910-1959)Frederick M. Warburg (A.B. 1919) – Partner of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. (1931-1973)Henry S. Morgan (A.B. 1923) – Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co., Inc. (1928-1935); Treasurer of Morgan Stanley & Co. (1935-1941)William A. Barron Jr. (A.B. 1914) – Partner of White, Weld & Co. [investment banking firm in New York City] (1914-1945)Harold Tredway White (A.B. 1897) – Partner of White, Weld & Co. (1916-1953)Norwood Penrose Hallowell (A.B. 1897) – Chairman of the board (1940-1942) and President (1942-1948) of Lee, Higginson Corp.Thomas Prince Beal (A.B. 1904) – President of Second National Bank of Boston (1923-1950)

Guy Emerson (A.B. 1908, LL.B. 1911) – Vice President of Bankers Trust Company (1923-1947)John L. Loeb Sr. (B.S. 1924) – Partner of Loeb, Rhoades & Co. [New York City brokerage firm] (1931-1955)Francis Calley Gray (A.B. 1912; LL.B. 1915) – Vice President of Fiduciary Trust Co. [Boston] (1932-1944); President of Fiduciary Trust Co. [Boston] (1944-1957)Leo H. Leary (A.B. 1905, LL.B. 1908) – Vice President of Boston Mutual Life Insurance Co. (1940-1966)Henry S. Dennison (A.B. 1899) – Deputy Chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston (1938-1945)Allan Forbes (A.B. 1897) – Class A Director of the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston (1938-1950)

Businessmen:Harry Bertram Higgins (A.B. 1904) – Executive Vice President (1942-1944) and President (1944-1955) of Pittsburgh Plate Glass CompanyWalter S. Gifford (A.B. 1905) – President of American Telephone and Telegraph Co. [AT&T] (1925-1948), Trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation (1936-1950)Arthur W. Page (A.B. 1905) – Vice President of American Telephone and Telegraph Co. [AT&T] (1927-1947)Samuel A. Welldon (A.B. 1904, LL.B. 1908) – Director of American Telephone and Telegraph Co. [AT&T] (1931-1959)Nicholas Kelley (A.B. 1905, LL.B. 1909) – Vice President and General Counsel of Chrysler Corp. (1937-1957)Percival F. Brundage (A.B. 1914) – Partner of Price Waterhouse & Co. [accounting firm in New York City] (1930-1954)Walter H. Wheeler Jr. (A.B. 1918) – President of Pitney-Bowes, Inc. (1938-1960)Cass Canfield (A.B. 1919) – President of Harper & Brothers [later Harper & Row] (1931-1945)Jack I. Straus (A.B. 1921) – President of R.H. Macy & Co. [Macy’s Department Store] (1940-1956)Amory Houghton (A.B. 1921) – Chairman of the board of Corning Glass Works (1941-1961)John A. Payne (A.B. 1921, M.B.A. 1925) – President of Consolidated Coppermines Corp. [New York City] (1940-1947)Oscar Gottfried Mayer (A.B. 1909) – President of Oscar Mayer & Co. [meatpacking company in Chicago] (1928-1955)George Wilhelm Merck (A.B. 1915) – President of Merck & Co., Inc. [pharmaceutical company] (1925-1950)Edward Dana (A.B. 1908) – President of Boston Elevated Railway (1937-1947)William Grace Holloway (A.B. 1908) – Treasurer of W.R. Grace & Co. (1936-1948); Vice President of W.R. Grace & Co. (1922-1945)Merrill Griswold (A.B. 1907, LL.B. 1911) – Chairman of the Massachusetts Investors Trust (1932-1953); Chairman of Massachusetts Investors Growth Stock Fund, Inc. (1934-1953); director of John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Co.; director of Pan-American World AirwaysHarry Louis Frevert (A.B. 1905, Ph.D. 1908) – President (1931-1943) and Chairman of the board (1943-1944) of Midvale Co. [steel company]Pearson E. Neaman (B.A. 1924, LL.B. 1927) – Secretary of Freeport Sulphur Co. (1930-1947)James F. Brownlee (A.B. 1913) – President of Frankfort Distilleries, Inc. (1935-1943); Deputy Administrator of Office of Price Administration (1943-1945); Director of Pillsbury Mills, Inc.; Director of R.H. Macy & Co.; Director of American Express Co.; Director of Gillette Safety Razor Co.; Director of Bank of Manhattan

Lawyers:George A. Brownell (A.B. 1919, LL.B. 1922) – Partner of Davis, Polk & Wardwell [law firm in New York City] (1930-1972)Frederick August Otto Schwarz (B.A. 1924; LL.B. 1927) – Partner of Davis, Polk & Wardwell [law firm in New York City] (1935-1974)Sanford H.E. Freund (A.B. 1901, LL.B. 1903) – Member of Shearman & Sterling [law firm in New York City] (1923-1954)Paul G. Pennoyer (A.B. 1914, LL.B. 1917) – Partner of White & Case [law firm in New York City] (1928-1971)Robert David Steefel (A.B. 1922, LL.B. 1924) – Partner of Stroock & Stroock & Lavan [law firm in New York City] (1937-1979)Alan Maxwell Stroock (A.B. 1929) – Partner of Stroock & Stroock & Lavan [law firm in New York City] (1939-1983)Roland L. Redmond (A.B. 1915, LL.B. Columbia 1917) – Member of Carter, Ledyard & Milburn [law firm in New York City] (1925-1955)Charles Oliver Pengra (A.B. 1912; LL.B. 1914) – Member of Choate, Hall & Stewart [law firm in Boston] (1920-1960)Charles Moorfield Storey (A.B. 1912; LL.B. 1915) – Partner of Peabody, Brown, Rowley & Storey [law firm in Boston] (1920-1979); Overseer of Harvard University (1945-1951); Appeal Agent of Selective Service (1941-1947, 1962-1969)George Philip Davis (A.B. 1914, LL.B. 1917) – Partner of Nutter, McClennan & Fish [law firm in Boston] (1929-1983)Harold T. Davis (A.B. 1918, LL.B. 1921) – Partner of Nutter, McClennan & Fish [law firm in Boston] (1929-1976)Walter H. Moses (A.B. 1918; LL.B. 1921) – Member of Moses, Bachrach & Kennedy [law firm in Chicago] (1925-1930, 1939-1959)Goldthwaite H. Dorr (A.B. 1897) – Special Assistant to the Secretary of War during World War II; Wall Street lawyerGeorge Rublee (A.B. 1890, LL.B. 1895) – Member of Covington, Burling & Rublee [law firm in Washington, D.C.] (1921-c.1946); Overseer of Harvard University (1938-1944)

College Administrators and Professors:Harrison Clifford Dale (A.B. 1907) – President of University of Idaho (1937-1946)James B. Conant (A.B. 1913; Ph.D. 1916) – President of Harvard University (1933-1953)Wallace Brett Donham (A.B. 1898; LL.B. 1901) – Dean of Harvard Business School (1919-1942)Dugald Caleb Jackson Jr. (A.B. 1917) – Dean of the College of Engineering at University of Notre Dame [South Bend, Indiana] (1939-1945)William L. Langer (A.B. 1915; Ph.D. 1923) – Coolidge Professor of History at Harvard University (1936-1964)Arthur Stanley Pease (A.B. 1902, A.M. 1903, Ph.D. 1905) – Professor of Latin at Harvard University (1932-1950)Walter Barton Leach (B.A. 1921, LL.B. 1924) – Professor of Law at Harvard Law School (1931-1969)Abbott Payson Usher (A.B. 1904, A.M. 1906, Ph.D. 1910) – Professor of Economics at Harvard University (1936-1949)David A. McCabe (A.B. 1904, Ph.D. Johns Hopkins 1909) – Professor of Economics at Princeton University (1919-1952)Eliot G. Mears (A.B. 1910; M.B.A. 1912) – Professor of Geography and International Trade at Stanford University (1925-1946); Bohemian ClubGilbert Newton Lewis (A.B. 1896; Ph.D. 1899) – Professor of Physical Chemistry at University of California at Berkeley (1912-1946)Alain LeRoy Locke (A.B. 1907, Ph.D. 1918) – Professor of Philosophy at Howard University (1917-1953)Mitchell Franklin (A.B. 1922, LL.B. 1925) – W.R. Irby Professor of Law at Tulane University (1930-1967)Marshall Harvey Stone (A.B. 1922; M.A. 1924; Ph.D. 1926) – Professor of Mathematics at Harvard University (1937-1946)

Miscellaneous:Henry James (A.B. 1899; LL.B. 1904) – Chairman of the board of Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association [TIAA] (1934-1947)Edward C. Carter (A.B. 1900) – Secretary General of Institute of Pacific Relations (1933-1946); President of the Russian Relief (1941-1950)Roger Nash Baldwin (A.B. 1904) – Founder and Director of American Civil Liberties Union (1917-1950)

Laird Bell (A.B. 1904, J.D. Univ. of Chicago 1907) – President of Chicago Council on Foreign Relations (1937-1939); President of Commercial Club of Chicago (1943-1944)Walter Taylor Fisher (A.B. 1913, LL.B. 1917) – President of the Chicago Council on Foreign Relations (1944-1946)Gilbert V. Seldes (A.B. 1914) – Director of television programs at Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) (1937-1945)J. Robert Oppenheimer (A.B. 1925; Ph.D. Gottingen University [Germany] 1927) – Director of Los Alamos National Laboratory (1943-1945); Atomic bomb scientistDavid Mordecai Levy (A.B. 1914, M.D. University of Chicago 1918) – consulting psychiatrist in personnel, Office of Strategic Services (1944-1945); Director of Information Control Division, Screening Center in Germany (1945-1946)Alex Small (A.B. 1917) – Foreign and War Correspondent at the Chicago Tribune [newspaper] (1934-1965)Singleton Peabody Moorehead (A.B. 1922) – Designer of Colonial Williamsburg, Inc. (1928-1964)Ernst Franz “Putzi” Hanfstaengl (A.B. 1909) – Adolf Hitler’s personal adviserEdmund Maurice Burke Roche (A.B. 1909) – British Member of Parliament (1924-1935, 1943-1945); grandfather of Princess Diana of WalesShigeaki Ikeda [formerly Seihin Ikeda] (A.B. 1895) – Governor of the Bank of Japan (1937); Japanese Minister of Finance (1938-1939); Member of the Imperial Privy Council (1941)

Edmund E. Day (Ph.D. 1909) – President of Cornell University (1937-1949)Franklyn Bliss Snyder (Ph.D. 1909; A.M. 1907) – President of Northwestern University (1939-1949)Ernest H. Wilkins (Ph.D. 1910) – President of Oberlin College (1927-1946)Cloyd Heck Marvin (Ph.D. 1919; A.M. 1917) – President of George Washington University (1927-1958)Henry M. Wriston (Ph.D. 1922) – President of Brown University (1937-1955)James P. Baxter III (Ph.D. 1926; A.M. 1923) – President of Williams College (1937-1961)Samuel S. Stratton (Ph.D. 1930) – President of Middlebury College (1943-1963)Gordon Keith Chalmers (Ph.D. 1933) – President of Kenyon College (1937-1956)Edwin DeWitt Dickinson (Ph.D. 1918) – Dean of University of California at Berkeley School of Law (1936-1948)Lauchlin Currie (Ph.D. 1931) – Assistant Director of Research and Statistics, Federal Reserve Board (1934-1939)Harry Dexter White (Ph.D. 1935) – Co-Founder of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund

Allen Wardwell (LL.B. 1898) – Member of Davis, Polk & Wardwell [law firm in New York City] (1909-1953)Felix Frankfurter (LL.B. 1906) – Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1939-1962)Wallace Trevor Holliday (LL.B. 1908) – President of Standard Oil Co. of Ohio (1928-1949)Irving S. Olds (LL.B. 1910) – Chairman of the board of United States Steel Corp. (1940-1952)Charles Tilford McCormick (LL.B. 1912) – Dean of University of Texas Law School (1940-1949)George L. Harrison (LL.B. 1913) – President of New York Life Insurance Co. (1941-1948)Robert A. Taft (LL.B. 1913) – U.S. Senator (Republican Party-Ohio, 1939-1953)Alexander C. Kirk (LL.B. 1914) – U.S. Minister to Egypt (1941-1944); U.S. Ambassador to Italy (1945-1946)John J. McCloy (LL.B. 1921) – Assistant U.S. Secretary of War (1941-1945)James L. Fly (LL.B. 1926) – Chairman of Federal Communications Commission (1939-1944)William Henry Hastie (LL.B. 1930) – Dean of Howard University School of Law (1939-1946)

Prominent Harvard University Graduates and Their Occupation during World War II

Augustus Noble Hand (A.B. 1890, LL.B. 1894) – Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (1928-1953)Francis Gordon Caffey (A.B. 1891) – Judge of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York (1929-1947)Thomas W. Lamont (A.B. 1892) – Chairman of the board of J.P. Morgan & Co., Inc. (1943-1948); Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1911-1948)David Gray (A.B. 1892) – U.S. Minister to Ireland (1940-1947)Learned Hand (A.B. 1893, LL.B. 1896) – Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (1924-1951)George H. Tinkham (A.B. 1894) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-Massachusetts, 1915-1943)Shigeaki Ikeda [formerly Seihin Ikeda] (A.B. 1895) – Governor of the Bank of Japan (1937); Finance Minister of Japan (1938-1939)Allan Forbes (A.B. 1897) – Class A Director of the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston (1938-1950)Wallace Brett Donham (A.B. 1898; LL.B. 1901) – Dean of Harvard Business School (1919-1942)James H. Perkins (A.B. 1898) – Chairman of the board of National City Bank of New York (1933-1940)Henry James (A.B. 1899; LL.B. 1904) – Chairman of the board of Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association [TIAA] (1934-1947)Edward C. Carter (A.B. 1900) – Secretary General of Institute of Pacific Relations (1933-1946); President of the Russian Relief (1941-1950)William Phillips (A.B. 1900) – U.S. Ambassador to Fascist Italy (1936-1941)Peter Goelet Gerry (A.B. 1901) – U.S. Senator (Democrat-Rhode Island, 1917-1929; 1935-1947)Lawrence Lewis (A.B. 1901, LL.B. 1909) – U.S. Congressman (Democrat-Colorado, 1933-1943)Joseph C. Grew (A.B. 1902) – U.S. Ambassador to Imperial Japan (1932-1941); Under Secretary of State (1944-1945)Arthur Stanley Pease (A.B. 1902, A.M. 1903, Ph.D. 1905) – Professor of Latin at Harvard University (1932-1950)George Robb Ellison (A.B. 1903) – Justice of the Supreme Court of Missouri (1931-1957)Franklin Delano Roosevelt (A.B. 1904) – President of the United States (1933-1945)Irving Nelson Linnell (A.B. 1904; LL.B. 1907) – U.S. Consul General in Yokohama, Japan (December 9, 1940-December 8, 1941)Walter E. Sachs (A.B. 1904) – Member of Goldman, Sachs & Co. (1910-1959)Roger Nash Baldwin (A.B. 1904) – Founder and Director of American Civil Liberties Union (1917-1950)Francis Joseph William Ford (A.B. 1904, LL.B. 1906) – Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts (1938-1972)Harry Bertram Higgins (A.B. 1904) – Executive Vice President (1942-1944) and President (1944-1955) of Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.Laird Bell (A.B. 1904) – President of Chicago Council on Foreign Relations (1937-1939); President of Commercial Club of Chicago (1943-44)Walter S. Gifford (A.B. 1905) – President of American Telephone and Telegraph Co. [AT&T] (1925-1948)Arthur W. Page (A.B. 1905) – Vice President of American Telephone and Telegraph Co. [AT&T] (1927-1947)Nicholas Kelley (A.B. 1905, LL.B. 1909) – Vice President and General Counsel of Chrysler Corp. (1937-1957)Clarence Dillon (A.B. 1905) – Chairman of the board of Dillon, Read & Co. [bank in New York City]Roger D. Lapham (A.B. 1905) – Mayor of San Francisco, California (1944-1948)George Anderson Gordon (A.B. 1906) – U.S. Minister to the Netherlands (1937-1940)Winthrop W. Aldrich (A.B. 1907; LL.B. 1910) – Chairman of Chase National Bank (1934-1953); Trustee, Rockefeller Foundation (1935-1951)Clarence H. Haring (A.B. 1907; Ph.D. 1916) – Robert Woods Bliss Prof. of Latin American History and Economics at Harvard Univ. (1923-53)John Campbell White (A.B. 1907) – U.S. Consul General in Morocco (1940-1941); U.S. Ambassador to Haiti (1941-1944)Leland Harrison (A.B. 1907) – U.S. Minister to Switzerland (1937-1947)Ernst Franz “Putzi” Hanfstaengl (A.B. 1909) – Adolf Hitler’s personal adviserEdmund Maurice Burke Roche (A.B. 1909) – British Member of Parliament (1924-1935, 1943-1945); grandfather of Princess Diana of WalesFrancis Biddle (A.B. 1909; LL.B. 1911) – U.S. Attorney General (1941-1945)Arthur Chester Frost (A.B. 1909) – U.S. Consul General in Zurich, Switzerland (1934-40); U.S. Consul General in Barcelona, Spain (1940-43)Oscar Gottfried Mayer (A.B. 1909) – President of Oscar Mayer & Co. [meatpacking company in Chicago] (1928-1955)Hamilton Fish (A.B. 1910) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-New York, 1920-1945)Thomas H. McKittrick (A.B. 1911) – President of the Bank for International Settlements (1940-1946)William Clark (A.B. 1911, LL.B. 1915) – Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit (1938-1943)Philip C. Nash (A.B. 1911) – President of University of Toledo [Ohio] (1933-1947)Richard B. Wigglesworth (A.B. 1912) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-Massachusetts, 1928-1958)Joseph P. Kennedy (A.B. 1912) – U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain (1938-1940)Lincoln MacVeagh (A.B. 1913) – U.S. Minister to Greece (1933-1941, 1943-1947)James B. Conant (A.B. 1913; Ph.D. 1916) – President of Harvard University (1933-1953)Leverett Saltonstall (A.B. 1914) – Governor of Massachusetts (1939-1945)Sumner Welles (A.B. 1914) – Under Secretary of State (1937-1943)Junius S. Morgan (A.B. 1914) – Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1919-1940)Paul Myer Mazur (A.B. 1914) – Partner of Lehman Brothers [banking firm in New York City] (1927-1969)Percival F. Brundage (A.B. 1914) – Partner of Price Waterhouse & Co. [accounting firm in New York City] (1930-1954)Robert Winthrop Kean (A.B. 1915) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-New Jersey, 1939-1959)William L. Langer (A.B. 1915; Ph.D. 1923) – Coolidge Professor of History at Harvard University (1936-1964)George Wilhelm Merck (A.B. 1915) – President of Merck & Co., Inc. [pharmaceutical company] (1925-1950)T.V. Soong (A.B. 1915) – Foreign Minister of the Republic of China [Nationalist China] (1942-1945)R. Henry Norweb (A.B. 1916) – U.S. Ambassador to Peru (1940-1943); U.S. Ambassador to Portugal (1943-1945)George A. Brownell (A.B. 1919, LL.B. 1922) – Partner of Davis, Polk & Wardwell [law firm in New York City] (1930-1972)Cass Canfield (A.B. 1919) – President of Harper & Brothers [later Harper & Row] (1931-1945)Frederick M. Warburg (A.B. 1919) – Partner of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. [banking firm in New York City] (1931-1973)Joseph Clark Baldwin (A.B. 1920) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-New York, 1941-1947); Member of New York City Council (1937-1941)Thomas S. Lamont (A.B. 1921) – Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1929-1940); Vice President of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1940-1953)Amory Houghton (A.B. 1921) – Chairman of the board of Corning Glass Works (1941-1961)Jack I. Straus (A.B. 1921) – President of R.H. Macy & Co. [Macy’s Department Store] (1940-1956)Robert Bruce Chiperfield (A.B. 1922) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-Illinois, 1939-1963)Henry S. Morgan (A.B. 1923) – Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co., Inc. (1928-1935); Treasurer of Morgan Stanley & Co. (1935-1941)Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. (A.B. 1924) – U.S. Senator (Republican-Massachusetts, 1937-1944, 1947-1953)J. Robert Oppenheimer (A.B. 1925; Ph.D. Gottingen University [Germany] 1927) – Director of Los Alamos National Laboratory (1943-1945)Charles E. Wyzanski Jr. (A.B. 1927, LL.B. 1930) – Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts (1941-1971)

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (left) and Harvard President James B. Conant are seen wearing cap and gown at Harvard University in 1943. (Photo: Ralph Morse/Life Magazine)

Yale University Graduates & World War II

Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. banking partners (from left to right) Thatcher M. Brown, Ray Morris, H. D. Pennington, Prescott S. Bush, Thomas McCance, and Knight Woolley pose for the camera at their office in New York City in July 1945.(Photo: Herbert Gehr/Time Life)

Ray Morris, Prescott S. Bush, and Knight Woolley were members of Skull & Bones at Yale University.Thatcher M. Brown and Thomas McCance were members of Wolf’s Head at Yale University.

Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. partner Averell Harriman appears with J.P. Morgan & Co. banker Thomas W. Lamont (left) and Wall Street attorney Allen Wardwell (right) at a Russian War Relief dinner in 1941. Averell Harriman and Allen Wardwell were Yale graduates; Thomas W. Lamont was a Harvard graduate.(Source: The Ambassador from Wall Street: The Story of Thomas W. Lamont, J. P. Morgan’s Chief Executive by Edward M. Lamont)

Prominent Yale University Graduates and Their Occupation during World War II

Frank AltschulB.A. Yale 1908

Partner of Lazard Freres & Co. [Jewish banking firm in New York City]

(1916-1945)

Russell C. Leffingwell B.A. Yale 1899

Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1923-1950)

Henry L. StimsonB.A. Yale 1888

U.S. Secretary of War(1911-1913, 1940-1945)

Hugh Robert WilsonB.A. Yale 1906

U.S. Ambassador to Nazi Germany (1938)

W. Averell HarrimanB.A. Yale 1913

U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union (1943-1946)

B. Brewster JenningsB.A. Yale 1920

President of Socony-Mobil Oil Co. (1944-1955)

Juan Terry TrippePh.B. Yale 1921President of Pan

American World Airways, Inc. (1927-1964)

Dean G. AchesonB.A. Yale 1915

Under Secretary of State (1945-1947)

Eugene MeyerB.A. Yale 1895

Publisher of The Washington Post

[newspaper] (1933-1946)

Alfred L. AikenB.A. Yale 1891

Chairman of the board (1940-42) and President (1936-1940) of New York

Life Insurance Co.

Henry Waters TaftB.A. Yale 1880

Partner of Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft

[law firm in New York City] (1899-1945)

Frank L. PolkB.A. Yale 1894

Member of Davis, Polk, Wardwell [law firm in New

York City] (1914-1943)

Allen WardwellB.A. Yale 1895

Member of Davis, Polk, Wardwell (1909-1953)

Charles M. SpoffordB.A. Yale 1924

Member of Davis, Polk & Wardwell [law firm]

(1940-1950, 1952-1973)

Thomas D. ThacherB.A. Yale 1904

Partner of Simpson, Thacher & Bartlett

[law firm in New York City](1933-1943)

Charles SeymourB.A. Yale 1908

President of Yale University (1937-1950)

Robert Maynard Hutchins B.A. Yale 1921

President of the University of Chicago (1929-1945)

Robert A. TaftB.A. Yale 1910U.S. Senator

(R-Ohio, 1939-1953)

James W. Wadsworth Jr.B.A. Yale 1898

U.S. Congressman(R-New York, 1933-1951)

John Martin VorysB.A. Yale 1918

U.S. Congressman(R-Ohio, 1939-1959)

George L. HarrisonB.A. Yale 1910

President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New

York (1928-1940);President of New York

Life Insurance Co.(1941-1948)

Prescott S. BushB.A. Yale 1917

Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. (1931-

1972); U.S. Senator(R-Conn., 1952-1963)

E. Roland HarrimanB.A. Yale 1917

Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.

(1931-1978)

Knight WoolleyB.A. Yale 1917

Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.

(1931-1982)

Harold StanleyB.A. Yale 1908

Partner of Morgan, Stanley & Co.(1941-1955)

Robert A. LovettB.A. Yale 1918

Assistant Secretary of War for Air (1941-1945)

Artemus L. GatesB.A. Yale 1918

Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air (1941-1945)

Harvey H. BundyB.A. Yale 1909

Special Assistant to the Secretary of War

(1941-1945)

William Vincent Griffin B.A. Yale 1912

Assistant Administrator of Lend-Lease Admin.

(1942-1944)

Archibald MacLeishB.A. Yale 1915

Librarian of Congress (1939-1944)

W. Stuart SymingtonB.A. Yale 1923

Chairman of the board of the Emerson Electric Manufacturing Co.

(1938-1945)

Henry John Heinz IIB.A. Yale 1931

President of H.J. Heinz Company (1941-1959)

Henry R. LuceB.A. Yale 1920

Editor-in-Chief of Time magazine (1923-1964)

Robert LehmanB.A. Yale 1913

Partner of Lehman Brothers [Jewish banking

firm in New York City] (1925-1969)

Stanley F. ReedB.A. Yale 1906

Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court

(1938-1957)

Yale University Graduates and Their Occupation during World War II (1939-1945)

Government Officials:*Henry L. Stimson (B.A. 1888, S&B 1888) – Secretary of War (July 10, 1940-September 21, 1945); U.S. Secretary of State (1929-1933)Homer S. Cummings (Ph.B. 1891, LL.B. 1893) – U.S. Attorney General (1933-1939)*W. Averell Harriman (B.A. 1913, S&B 1913) – U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union (October 23, 1943-January 24, 1946)*Hugh R. Wilson (B.A. 1906, S&B 1906) – U.S. Ambassador to Nazi Germany (March 3, 1938-November 16, 1938); U.S. Minister to Switzerland (1927-1937)*William Christian Bullitt (B.A. 1912, S&K 1912) – U.S. Ambassador to France (1936-1940); U.S. Ambassador to Soviet Union (1933-1936)*Spruille Braden (Ph.B. 1914) – U.S. Ambassador to Colombia (1939-1942); U.S. Ambassador to Cuba (1942-1945); U.S. Ambassador to Argentina (1945)*Arthur Bliss Lane (B.A. 1916) – U.S. Minister to Yugoslavia (1937-1941); U.S. Minister to Costa Rica (1941-1942); U.S. Ambassador to Colombia (1942-1944); U.S. Ambassador to Poland (1944-1947)Louis Goethe Dreyfus Jr. (B.A. 1910) – U.S. Minister to Iran (1940-1943); U.S. Minister to Afghanistan (May 19, 1941-July 2, 1942); U.S. Minister to Iceland (1944-1946)Alexander C. Kirk (B.A. 1909) – Chargé d’Affaires ad interim to Nazi Germany (May 1939-Oct 1940); U.S. Minister to Egypt (1941-1944); U.S. Minister to Saudi Arabia (1942-1943); U.S. Ambassador to Greece (1943); U.S. Ambassador to Italy (1945-1946)*Robert A. Lovett (B.A. 1918, S&B 1918) – Assistant Secretary of War for Air (1941-1945)*Artemus L. Gates (B.A. 1918, S&B 1918) – Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air (1941-1945)*Harvey H. Bundy (B.A. 1909, S&B 1909) – Special Assistant to the Secretary of War (1941-1945)*Archibald MacLeish (B.A. 1915, S&B 1915) – Asst. Sec. of State for Public and Cultural Relations (1944-45); Librarian of Congress (1939-44)*Dean G. Acheson (B.A. 1915, S&K 1915) – Under Secretary of State (1945-1947)John W. Hanes (B.A. 1915, S&K 1915) – Under Secretary of the Treasury (1938-1939)*Wayne Chatfield-Taylor (B.A. 1916, S&K 1916) – Asst. Secretary of the Treasury (1936-1939); Under Secretary of Commerce (1940-1945)Stanley Woodward (B.A. 1922, S&B 1922) – Chief of Protocol for the White House (1944-1950)Arthur B. Van Buskirk (B.A. 1918) – Deputy Administrator of Lend-Lease Administration (1942-1943)*William Vincent Griffin (B.A. 1912, S&K 1912) – Assistant Administrator of Lend-Lease Administration (1942-1944)Elbridge Durbrow (Ph.B. 1926) – Chief of Eastern European Division at the U.S. State Department (1944-1946); Counselor of the U.S. Embassy in Moscow, Soviet Union (1946-1948)J. Graham Parsons (B.A. 1929) – Vice Consul at U.S. Consulate General in Mukden, Manchuria (1938-1940)Harold H. Tittmann Jr. (B.A. 1916) – Secretary of the U.S. Embassy in Rome, Italy (1925-1936); U.S. Consul-General in Geneva, Switzerland (1939-1940); State Department Assistant Chief of Division for European Affairs (1936-1939)George Kenneth Donald (B.A. 1912) – U.S. Consul General in Southampton, England (1937-1941); U.S. Consul General in Windsor, Canada (1941-1945); U.S. Consul General in Lourenco Marques, Mozambique [Portugal] (1945-1946)Howard Donovan (Ph.B. 1920) – U.S. Consul in Kobe, Japan (1929-1936); U.S. Consul in Hong Kong (1936-1939); U.S. Consul in Bombay, India (1939-1946)

Robert A. Taft (B.A. 1910, S&B 1910) – U.S. Senator (R-Ohio, 1939-1953)John Anthony Danaher (B.A. 1920) – U.S. Senator (R-Connecticut, 1939-1945)John Taber (B.A. 1902) – U.S. Congressman (R-New York, 1923-1963)James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr. (B.A. 1898, S&B 1898) – U.S. Congressman (R-New York, 1933-1951)James Andrew Shanley (B.A. 1920) – U.S. Congressman (D-Connecticut, 1935-1943)Horace Jeremiah (Jerry) Voorhis (B.A. 1923) – U.S. Congressman (D-California, 1937-1947)John Martin Vorys (B.A. 1918, S&B 1918) – U.S. Congressman (R-Ohio, 1939-1959)John Crain Kunkel (B.A. 1916) – U.S. Congressman (R-Pennsylvania, 1939-1951, 1961-1966)Charles S. Dewey (B.A. 1904) – U.S. Congressman (R-Illinois, 1941-1945)Richard Pillsbury Gale (B.A. 1922) – U.S. Congressman (Republican-Minnesota, 1941-1945)Stanley F. Reed (B.A. 1906) – Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1938-1957)Thomas Walter Swan (B.A. 1900) – Judge of U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (1926-1953)Charles Edward Clark (B.A. 1911, LL.B. 1913) – Judge of U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (1939-1963)John Munro Woolsey (B.A. 1898, S&K 1898) – Judge of U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York (1929-1943)Alfred Conkling Coxe Jr. (B.A. 1901) – Judge of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York (1929-1951)Carroll Clark Hincks (B.A. 1911) – Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Connecticut (1931-1953)John Joseph Smith (B.A. 1925, LL.B. 1927) – Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Connecticut (1941-1960)John Foster Symes (Ph.B. 1900) – Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Colorado (1922-1950)William Josiah Tilson (B.A. 1894) – Judge of the U.S. Customs Court (1928-1949)

James Lawrence Houghteling (B.A. 1905) – U.S. Commissioner of Immigration and Naturalization (1937-1940); Division Director of War Finance Division, U.S. Treasury Department (1941-1946); Assistant to the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury (1941)John Harold Ryan (B.A. 1908) – Secretary of The Standard Tube Co. (1928-1961); Assistant Director in charge of broadcasting, U.S. Office of Censorship (1941-1944); President of National Association of Broadcasters (1944-1945)Morris Hadley (B.A. 1916, S&B 1916) – Deputy Director of Office of War Information (1941-1942)Richard K. Sutherland (B.A. 1916) – U.S. Army Lieutenant General during World War II; Chief of Staff to Gen. Douglas MacArthur (1939-1945)Ernest Knaebel (B.A. 1894, LL.B. 1896) – U.S. Supreme Court Reporter of Decisions (1916-1944)Prentiss Bailey Gilbert (B.A. 1907) – State Department Chief of Division of Western European Affairs (1924-1929); U.S. Consul in Geneva, Switzerland (1930-1937); Counselor at U.S. Embassy in Berlin, Nazi Germany (1937-1939)Wilmarth Sheldon Lewis (B.A. 1918, S&K 1918) – Chief of information division, Office of Strategic Services (1942-1943)Thomas Irwin Emerson (B.A. 1928, LL.B. 1931) – Associate General Counsel, Office of Price Administration (1941-1943); Deputy Administrator for Enforcement, Office of Price Administration (1943-1945); General Counsel, Office of Economic Stabilization (April-August 1945); General Counsel, Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion (August 1945-June 1946)

William M. Maltbie (B.A. 1901, LL.B. 1905) –Chief Justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (1930-1950)

Patrick Brett O’Sullivan (B.A. 1908) – Judge of the Connecticut Superior Court (1931-1950)Kenneth O’Brien (B.A. 1917) – Justice of the Supreme Court of New York (1934-1954)Mortimer R. Proctor (B.A. 1912, S&K 1912) – Governor of Vermont (1945-1947); Lieutenant Governor of Vermont (1941-1945)[Augustus] Newbold Morris (B.A. 1925; LL.B. 1928, S&K 1925) – President of the New York City Council (1938-1946)Morgan Bulkeley Brainard Jr. (B.A. 1927) – Member (1938-1944) and President (1942-1944) of the Board of Police Commissioners of the City of Hartford, ConnecticutRobert Moses (B.A. 1909, Ph.D. Columbia 1914) – Secretary of State of New York (1927-1928); Member of New York City Planning Commission (1942-1960)

Businessmen:*Alfred L. Aiken (B.A. 1891) – Chairman of the board (1940-1942) and President (1936-1940) of New York Life Insurance Co.Morgan B. Brainard (B.A. 1900, LL.B. 1903) – President of Aetna Life Insurance Co. [Hartford, Connecticut] (1922-1957)*Irving S. Olds (B.A. 1907) – Chairman of the board of United States Steel Corp. (1940-1952)*W. Averell Harriman (B.A. 1913, S&B 1913) – Chairman of Union Pacific Railroad Co. (1932-1946)Henry Stuart Hotchkiss (Ph.B. 1900) – Chairman of the board of General Latex and Chemical Company (1940-1947)*Morehead Patterson (B.A. 1920, S&B 1920) – Chairman (1943-1962) and Pres. (1941-1943, 1947-1958) of American Machine & Foundry Co.*W. Stuart Symington (B.A. 1923) – Chairman of the board of the Emerson Electric Manufacturing Co. (1938-1945)H. Neil Mallon (B.A. 1917, S&B 1917) – President of Dresser Industries, Inc. (1929-1958)*Frank Ford Russell (B.A. 1926, S&B 1926) – President of National Aviation Corp. (1939-1954)H. Mansfield Horner (B.S. 1926) – President of United Aircraft Corporation (1943-1956)*Juan Terry Trippe (Ph.B. 1921) – President of Pan American World Airways, Inc. (1927-1964)Leroy A. Lincoln (B.A. 1902) – President of Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. (1936-1951)*Ellsworth Bunker (B.A. 1916) – President of National Sugar Refining Co. (1940-1948)*Henry John Heinz II (B.A. 1931, S&B 1931) – President of H.J. Heinz Company (1941-1959)Louis F. Watermulder (B.A. 1923) – Treasurer of Quaker Oats Co. (1942-1949); Assistant Treasurer of Quaker Oats Co. (1939-1942)Francis Fitz Randolph (B.A. 1911, S&B 1911) – Senior Partner of J&W Seligman & Co. (1940-1973)George Herbert Walker Jr. (B.A. 1927, S&B 1927) – General Partner of G.H. Walker & Co. (1929-1974)*J. Irwin Miller (B.A. 1931) – Executive Vice President of Cummins Engine Co. (1944-1947)Louis S. Rothschild (Ph.B. 1920) – President of Rothschild & Sons, Inc. [Kansas City, Missouri] (1942-1955)Robert Upjohn Redpath Jr. (B.A. 1928) – life underwriter for Lawyers Mortgage Co. [New York City] (1933-1987)Reuben Buck Robertson (B.A. 1900) – Executive Vice President of Champion Papers, Inc. (1935-1946)Frederick E. Weyerhaeuser (B.A. 1896, S&B 1896) – President of Weyerhaeuser Timber Co. (1937-1945)Robert W. Huntington Jr. (B.A. 1889, S&K 1889) – Chairman of the board of Connecticut General Life Insurance Co. (1936-1949)Ashbel Barney Newell (B.A. 1890, S&K 1890) – President of Toledo Terminal Railroad Company (1914-1950)Walter Paul Paepcke (B.A. 1917) – President of Container Corp. of America (1926-1946)Solomon Albert Smith (B.A. 1899) – President of Northern Trust Co. of Chicago (1914-1957)Howard MacGregor Tuttle (B.A. 1904) – President of National Casket Company, Inc. [Boston] (1943-c.1958)Henry Eldredge Perry (B.A. 1912) – Vice President of Commercial Solvents Corp. [New York City] (1938-1946)Charles Lanier Lawrance (B.A. 1905) – Founder and President of Lawrance Aero Engine Corp. [New York City] (1917-1923); President and Chief Engineer of Lawrance Engineering & Research Corp. (1930-1944)Carle C. Conway (B.S. 1899) – Chairman of the board of Continental Can Company, Inc. during World War II; Class B Director of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York (1942-1948)Willard Deere Hosford (B.A. 1906) – Vice President and General Manager of John Deere Plow Co. [Omaha, Nebraska] (1906-1950); Class B Director of the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City (1930-1951)Robert George Wiese (B.A. 1925) – Partner of Scudder, Stevens & Clark [investment firm in Boston] (1936-1978)Allan A. Ryan (B.A. 1924) – Director of Royal Typewriter Company, Inc. (1932-1954); New York State Senator (1938-1942)F. Thatcher Lane (B.A. 1917) – President of Seamless Rubber Co. (1933-1954); Vice President of Rexall Drug & Chemical Co., Inc. (1942-54)Leslie Morgan Johnston (B.A. 1902) – President of Cement Stone Corp. [Pittsburgh] (1938-1941); President of Insulmastic Corp. of American [New York City] (1941-1944)Frank Courtenay Dodd (B.A. 1897) – Chairman of the board of Dodd, Mead & Co., Inc. [publishing company in New York City] (1942-1968); President of Dodd, Mead & Co., Inc. [publishing company in New York City] (1931-1942)

Bankers:*Russell C. Leffingwell (B.A. 1899) – Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1923-1950)*Frank Altschul (B.A. 1908) – Partner of Lazard Freres & Co. [Jewish banking firm in New York City] (1916-1945)Alfred Ernest Hamill (B.A. 1905) – Partner of Goldman, Sachs & Co. [Jewish banking firm in New York City] (1932-1948)*Elisha Walker (B.A. 1900) – Partner of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. [Jewish banking firm in New York City] (1933-1950)*John M. Schiff (B.A. 1925) – Partner of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. [Jewish banking firm in New York City] (1931-1977)*Robert Lehman (B.A. 1913) – Partner of Lehman Brothers [Jewish banking firm in New York City] (1925-1969)Joseph Albert Thomas (B.A. 1928, S&K 1928) – Partner of Lehman Brothers [Jewish banking firm in New York City] (1937-1977)*George L. Harrison (B.A. 1910, S&B 1910) – President of Federal Reserve Bank of New York (1928-1940); President of New York Life Insurance Co. (1941-1948)Walter Seth Logan (B.A. 1910, S&B 1910) – Vice President and General Counsel of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York (1928-1953)Roger B. Shepard (B.A. 1908, S&B 1908) – Chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis (1940-1953)Ross P. Wright (Ph.B. 1896) – Class B Director of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland (1917-1949)Chester Arthur Phillips (B.A. 1908, Ph.D. 1919) – Economist at the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago (1937-1942)*Harold Stanley (B.A. 1908, S&B 1908) – President of Morgan, Stanley & Co. (1935-1941); Partner of J.P. Morgan & Co. (1928-1935)*Harry [Henry] P. Davison Jr. (B.A. 1920, S&B 1920) – Partner (1929-1940) and Vice President (1940-1942) of J.P. Morgan & Co.*Pierre Jay (B.A. 1892, S&B 1892) – Chairman of the board of Fiduciary Trust Company [New York City] (1930-1945)Mortimer Norton Buckner (B.A. 1895, S&B 1895) – Chairman of the board of New York Trust Company (1921-1942)Samuel Sloan Colt (B.A. 1914, S&K 1914) – President of Bankers Trust Co. (1931-1957); Class A Director of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York (1944-1946)

*Artemus L. Gates (B.A. 1918, S&B 1918) – President of New York Trust Co. (1929-1941)*John E. Bierwirth (B.A. 1917) – President of New York Trust Co. (1941-1949)Charles Jacob Stewart (B.A. 1918, S&B 1918) – Vice President of New York Trust Co. (1935-1949)*Frank P. Shepard (B.A. 1917, S&B 1917) – Vice President of Bankers Trust Co. (1934-1960)*Boylston Adams Tompkins (B.A. 1915, S&K 1915) – Vice President of Bankers Trust Co. (1921-1955)*Charles Albert Wight (B.A. 1922, S&K 1922) – Vice President of Bankers Trust Co. (1936-1948)*Harry E. Ward (B.A. 1901) – President of Irving Trust Co. (1919-1942); Chairman of Irving Trust Co. [New York City] (1942-1949)Wentworth Paul Johnson (Ph.B. 1917) – Vice President of Irving Trust Co. (1923-1948)*W. Averell Harriman (B.A. 1913, S&B 1913) – Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. (1931-1946)*E. Roland Harriman (B.A. 1917, S&B 1917) – Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. (1931-1978)Prescott S. Bush (B.A. 1917, S&B 1917) – Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. (1931-1972)*Knight Woolley (B.A. 1917, S&B 1917) – Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. (1931-1982)*Robert A. Lovett (B.A. 1918, S&B 1918) – Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. (1931-1940, 1946-1947, 1949-1950, 1953-1986)*Ray Morris (B.A. 1901, S&B 1901) – Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. (1931-1956)Thacher M. Brown (B.A. 1897) – Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. (1931-1954)Moreau Delano Brown (B.A. 1926) – Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. (1939-1974)*Charles S. McCain (B.A. 1904) – Senior Partner of Dillon, Read & Co. (1939-1951)James Stillman Rockefeller (B.A. 1924, S&K 1924) – Vice President of National City Bank of New York [Citibank] (1940-1948)Frederic Augustus Potts (B.A. 1926) – Vice President of Philadelphia National Bank (1942-1947)Gardner Dominick Stout (B.A. 1926) – Partner of Dominick & Dominick [investment firm in New York City] (1926-1968)Everett Smith (B.A. 1915) – Fiscal agent for Federal Home Loan Banks (1937-1962)Edward Howard York Jr. (B.A. 1912) – Vice President and Partner of Morgan, Stanley & Co. (1935-1943); Partner of Drexel & Co. [investment bank in Philadelphia] (1931-1935, 1943-1961)Edward Starr, Jr. (B.A. 1922, S&K 1922) – Partner of Drexel & Co. [investment bank in Philadelphia (1937-c.1966)Robert James Lewis (B.A. 1921) – Partner of Estabrook & Co. [banking firm in New York City] (1931-1968)Wirt Davis (B.A. 1897) – Vice Chairman (1925-1934) and Chairman (1934-1945) of Republic National Bank in Dallas, TexasEdward McCrady Gaillard (B.A. 1919) – President of Union & New Haven Trust Co. [bank in New Haven, Connecticut] (1943-1962)

Lawyers:*Henry Waters Taft (B.A. 1880, S&B 1880) – Partner of Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft (1899-1945)*Henry DeForest Baldwin (B.A. 1885, S&B 1885) – Member of Lord, Day & Lord (1900-1947)Allen Evarts Foster (B.A. 1906) – Partner of Lord, Day & Lord (1919-c.1970)Sherman Baldwin (B.A. 1919, S&B 1919) – Member of Lord, Day & Lord (1929-1969)*Frank L. Polk (B.A. 1894, S&K 1894) – Member of Davis, Polk, Wardwell, Gardiner & Reed (1914-1943)*Allen Wardwell (B.A. 1895, S&K 1895) – Member of Davis, Polk, & Wardwell (1909-1953)Otis Treat Bradley (B.A. 1915; LL.B. Harvard 1919) – Partner of Davis, Polk & Wardwell (1930-1950)Graham Sumner (B.A. 1897, S&B 1897) – Member of Simpson, Thacher & Bartlett (1904-1946)*Thomas D. Thacher (B.A. 1904, S&B 1904) – Partner of Simpson, Thacher & Bartlett (1933-1943)*George Roberts (B.A. 1905, LL.B. Harvard 1908) – Partner of Winthrop, Stimson, Putnam & Roberts (1914-1968)*Allen T. Klots (B.A. 1909, S&B 1909) – Member of Winthrop, Stimson, Putnam & Roberts (1921-1965)James William Husted (B.A. 1918) – Partner of Winthrop, Stimson, Putnam & Roberts (1930-1969)*Charles M. Spofford (B.A. 1924, S&B 1924) – Member of Davis, Polk & Wardwell (1940-1950, 1952-1973)*Douglas Maxwell Moffat (B.A. 1903, LL.B. Harvard 1907) – Partner of Cravath, Swaine & Moore [law firm in New York City] (1913-1956)Chauncey Brewster Garver (B.A. 1908, S&K 1908) – Partner of Shearman & Sterling (1917-1973)Allen Skinner Hubbard (B.A. 1911, S&K 1911) – Partner of Hughes, Hubbard & Reed [law firm in New York City] (1937-1981)John Archer Gifford (B.A. 1922, S&K 1922) – Partner of White & Case [law firm in New York City] (1937-1972)Frederick Trowbridge Kelsey (B.A. 1907) – Member of Kelsey, Waldrop & Spalding [law firm in New York City] (1941-1957)Lee James Perrin (B.A. 1906, S&B 1906) – Partner of Appleton, Perrin & Hoyt [law firm in New York City] (1916-1946)Edward Bancroft Twombly (B.A. 1912, S&B 1912) – Partner of Putney, Twombly, Hall & Skidmore [law firm in New York City] (1919-1966)Sidney Wetmore Davidson (B.A. 1916; J.D. 1918) – Member of Carter, Ledyard & Milburn [law firm in New York City] (1929-1945)*Jerome S. Hess (B.A. 1903) – Member of Hardin, Hess & Eder [law firm in New York City] (1907-1970); Member of Hardin, Hess & Suarez [law firm in Mexico City] (1921-1970); President of American Foreign Law Association (1944-1947)

Isaac Henry Mayer (B.A. 1884) – Senior Member of Mayer, Meyer, Austrian & Platt [law firm in Chicago] (1922-1967)Frederic Burnham (B.A. 1902) – Partner of Mayer, Meyer, Austrian & Platt [law firm in Chicago] (1917-1942)Richard Bentley (B.A. 1917, S&K 1917) – Member of Cassels, Potter & Bentley [law firm in Chicago] (1923-1951)Merrill Shepard (B.A. 1925) – Partner of Pope, Ballard, Kennedy, Shepard & Fowle [law firm in Chicago] (1936-c.1986)Anthony Lee Michel (B.A. 1926, S&B 1926) – Partner of Gardner, Carton, Douglas, Chilgren & Waud [law firm in Chicago] (1942-1966)Norman Waite (B.A. 1927; LL.B. Harvard 1930) – Partner of Schiff Hardin & Waite [law firm in Chicago] (1940-c.1976)George Alfred Ranney (B.A. 1934, LL.B. 1939, S&B 1934) – Member of Sidley, Austin, Burgess & Smith [law firm in Chicago] (1939-1962)

John Loomer Hall (B.A. 1894, LL.B. 1896, S&B 1894) – Member of Choate, Hall & Stewart [law firm in Boston] (1904-1960)Marcien Jenckes (B.A. 1921, S&B 1921) – Member of Choate, Hall & Stewart [law firm in Boston] (1927-1971)George Frederick Baer Appel (B.A. 1924, S&B 1924) – Partner of Townsend, Elliott & Munson [law firm in Philadelphia] (1938-1970)John Herron More (B.A. 1924) – Partner of Taft, Stettinius &Hollister [law firm in Cincinnati] (1935-1970)John Bourne Dempsey (B.A. 1911, S&B 1911) – Partner of Squire, Sanders & Dempsey [law firm in Cleveland, Ohio] (1935-1963)Henry Cornick Coke (B.A. 1926, LL.B. 1929, S&B 1926) – Member of Coke & Coke [law firm in Dallas, Texas] (1930-1977)Alvin Huey Lane (B.A. 1915; LL.B. Harvard 1920) – Partner of Lane & Savage (and predecessor) [law firm in Dallas, Texas] (1936-1957); Co-General Counsel of the Republican Party of Texas (1942-1952)Cornelius E. Lombardi (B.A. 1911, S&B 1911) – Partner of Lombardi, Robertson, Fligg & McLean [law firm in Kansas City] (1936-1956)Richard Marden Davis (B.A. 1933, S&B 1933) – Partner of Davis, Graham & Stubbs [law firm in Denver] (1937-c.1982)John Thomas Pigott (B.A. 1908) – Partner of McCutchen, Thomas, Matthew, Griffiths & Greene [law firm in San Francisco] (1923-1946)

John Caldwell Parsons (B.A. 1922; LL.B. 1926) – Partner of Robinson, Robinson & Cole [law firm in Hartford, Connecticut] (1931-1973)Pomeroy Day (B.A. 1928; LL.B. 1931) – Member of Robinson, Robinson & Cole [law firm in Hartford, Connecticut] (1936-1958)

Howard Tallmadge Foulkes (B.A. 1911) – Partner of Wickham, Borgelt, Skogstad and Powell [law firm in Milwaukee] (1913-1973)James Earnest Cooper (B.A. 1895) – General Counsel of Stanley Works [hardware, tool, steel manufacturers in New Britain, CT] (1921-1943)Darius Edward Peck (B.A. 1898) – Vice President and General Counsel of General Electric Company (1929-1944)Roger Benton Hull (B.A. 1907) – Managing Director and General Counsel of The National Association of Life Underwriters (1927-1942)Louis S. Weiss (B.A. 1915, LL.B. Columbia 1920) – Partner of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison [and predecessor firms] (1927-1950); General Counsel of Chicago Sun-Times (1941-1948)Leonard Bacon Smith (B.A. 1894) – General Counsel of American Can Company (1933-1946)

College Administrators and Professors:*Charles Seymour (B.A. 1908, Ph.D. 1911, S&B 1908) – President of Yale University (1937-50); Trustee of World Peace Foundation (1939-45)Robert M. Hutchins (B.A. 1921) – President of University of Chicago (1929-1945)Robert L. Johnson (B.A. 1918) – President of Temple University (1941-1959)Paul Dwight Moody (B.A. 1901) – President of Middlebury College (1921-1942)Ashbel Green Gulliver (B.A. 1919) – Dean of Yale Law School (1940-1946)August Sidney Lovett (B.A. 1913, S&B 1913) – Chaplain of Yale University (1932-1958)Roland George Dwight Richardson (B.A. 1903, Ph.D. 1906) – Dean of the Graduate School at Brown University (1926-1948)George Hoyt Whipple (B.A. 1900) – Dean of the School of Medicine and Dentistry at University of Rochester (1921-1953); Trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation (1927-1943)Paul Shipman Andrews (B.A. 1909, LL.B. Columbia 1912) – Dean of Syracuse University College of Law (1927-1952)

Ralph Henry Gabriel (B.A. 1913, M.A. 1915, Ph.D. 1919) – Professor of History at Yale University (1928-1958)*Charles Cheney Hyde (B.A. 1895) – Hamilton Fish Professor of International Law and Diplomacy at Columbia University (1925-1945)Karl N. Llewellyn (B.A. 1915, LL.B. 1918) – Betts Professor of Jurisprudence at Columbia University (1930-1951)Stanley Morrison (B.A. 1915) – Professor of Law at Stanford University (1929-1955); Member of the Bohemian Club in San FranciscoAlexander Hamilton Frey (B.A. 1919, LL.B. 1921) – Professor of Law at University of Pennsylvania Law School (1932-1968)Alfred Newton Richards (B.A. 1897, Ph.D. Columbia 1901) – Professor of Pharmacology at University of Pennsylvania (1910-1946)Walter Freeman (B.A. 1916, M.D. U.Penn. 1920) – Professor of Neurology at George Washington University (1927-1954)Kan’ichi Asakawa (Ph.D. 1902) – Professor of History of Japanese Civilization at Yale University (1937-1942)

Journalists:*Eugene Meyer (B.A. 1895) – Publisher of The Washington Post (1933-1946)*Henry R. Luce (B.A. 1920, S&B 1920) – Editor-in-Chief of Time, Inc. (1923-1964); founder of Time and Life magazinesCharles Latimer Stillman (B.A. 1926) – Treasurer (1930-1960) and Vice President (1939-1949) of Time, Inc. [Time magazine]*Charles Merz (B.A. 1915) – Editor of The New York Times (1938-1961)*Walter Millis (B.A. 1920) – staff writer for New York Herald Tribune (1924-1954)Ogden Mills Reid (B.A. 1904, LL.B. 1907) – Editor of New York Herald Tribune (1913-1947)Joseph Medill Patterson (B.A. 1901, S&K 1901) – Publisher of New York Daily News (1919-1946)William H. Cowles (B.A. 1887, S&B 1887) – Publisher of Spokane Spokesman-Review (1893-1946)George Henry Soule Jr. (B.A. 1908) – Editor of The New Republic (1924-1947)

Organization Executives:*Russell C. Leffingwell (B.A. 1899) – President of the Council on Foreign Relations (1944-1946)*Frank L. Polk (B.A. 1894, S&K 1894) – Vice President of the Council on Foreign Relations (1940-1943)*Percy W. Bidwell (B.A. 1910, Ph.D. 1915) – Director of Studies at the Council on Foreign Relations (1937-1953)Edwin R. Embree (B.A. 1906) – President of Julius Rosenwald Fund (1928-1948)Barry Congar Smith (B.A. 1899) – General Director of The Commonwealth Fund (1921-1947)Malcolm W. Davis (B.A. 1911) – Director of European Center of Carnegie Endowment in Paris, France (1935-1947)*Charles Reinold Noyes (B.A. 1905) – Vice President (1942-1944); President (1946-1948), and Chairman (1948-1950) of National Bureau of Economic Research in New York CityJohn Williams Andrews (B.A. 1920; LL.B. 1926) – Chief of Federal State Relations Section at the U.S. Department of Justice (1942-1948)Walbridge Smith Taft (B.A. 1907) – Chairman of the board of Salvation Army Association in New York (1940-1951); member of the national board of director of United Service Organizations during World War IINicholson Joseph Eastman (B.A. 1916) – Obstetrician-in-Chief at Johns Hopkins Hospital (1935-1960)Lewis Hill Weed (B.A. 1908, S&K 1908) – Director of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine (1929-1946); Trustee of Carnegie Institution of Washington (1935-1952)Charles Larrabee Street (B.A. 1914) – Priest-in-charge of Christ Church in Dallas, Texas (1941-1945)Warren Wheeler Pickett (B.A. 1917) – Pastor of First Church in Detroit (1932-1944)Edwin Carlyle Lobenstine (B.A. 1895) – President of Yale-in-China Association (1935-1944)Edward V. Gulick (B.A. 1937, M.A. 1942, Ph.D. 1947) – English Teacher at Yale-in-China in Changsha, China (1937-1939)William Payne Roberts (B.A. 1909) – Pastor of St. Paul’s Church in Nanking, China (1923-1937); Bishop of the Missionary District of Shanghai of the American Church Mission in China (1937-1950)William Reginald Wheeler (B.A. 1911) – Executive Secretary of Yale-in-China (1947-1949); Secretary of Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions (1938-1942); Executive Secretary of Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions (1923-1932)Y.C. James Yen (B.A. 1918) – Founder and General Director of Chinese National Association of Mass Education Movement in Peiping [Beijing], China (1924-1951)Albert Billings Ruddock (B.A. 1907) – Trustee of Occidental College (1926-1948); President of Pasadena War Chest (1942-1944); Member of the Bohemian Club in San Francisco, California

Note: *=Member of the Council on Foreign Relations; S&B = Skull & Bones; S&K = Scroll & Key

Skull & Bones and World War II

Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson (left) entertains his assistants John J. McCloy (center), the Assistant Secretary of War (1941-1945) and Robert A. Lovett (right), the Assistant Secretary of War for Air (1941-1945), in 1941. Henry L. Stimson and Robert A. Lovett were members of Skull & Bones at Yale University. (Photo: Time Magazine/The Wise Men by Walter Isaacson and Evan Thomas)

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON (left) and Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall examine a globe in December 1944.(Photo by George Skadding, Time Life Pictures/Getty Images)

Note: CAPS=Member of Skull & Bones

American ambassadors to major European countries held another conference with President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at the White House in Washington, D.C. on December 6, 1938. The subject discussed was not made public by the White House. Left to right: William C. Bullitt, U.S. Ambassador to France; Under U.S. Secretary of State Sumner Welles; former U.S. Ambassador to Nazi Germany HUGH R. WILSON, and William Phillips, U.S. Ambassador to Fascist Italy. All four men were members of the Council on Foreign Relations. Hugh R. Wilson was a member of Skull & Bones, a secret society at Yale University.(Photo: Harris & Ewing Collection/Library of Congress)

Reichsbank President and Nazi German Economics Minister Hjalmar Schacht (left), former U.S. President Herbert Hoover (center), and American Ambassador to Nazi Germany HUGH R. WILSON (right) dress for the occasion at a reception held in Berlin on March 8, 1938. Herbert Hoover and Hugh R. Wilson were members of the Council on Foreign Relations. HUGH R. WILSON was a member of Skull & Bones at Yale University; Herbert Hoover was a member of the Bohemian Grove in California. (Austrian Archives/CORBIS)

While U.S. Secretary of State HENRY L. STIMSON looks on, Japanese Ambassador Katsuji Debuchi (left) signs the Kellogg-Briand Pact an hour prior to the ratification ceremony on July 24, 1929. (CORBIS)

Benito Mussolini (left), the dictator of Fascist Italy, rides in a motorboat with U.S. Secretary of State HENRY L. STIMSON in Italy in January 1931. (Photo by New York Times Co./Getty Images)

Secretary of State HENRY L. STIMSON (left) visits Benito Mussolini, the dictator of Fascist Italy, in Rome in 1931.(Source: Turmoil and Tradition: A Study of the Life and Times of Henry L. Stimson by Elting E. Morison)

Secretary of State HENRY L. STIMSON (right) appears with President Herbert Hoover (left) and Fascist Italy’s Foreign Minister Dino Grandi. (Source: Turmoil and Tradition: A Study of the Life and Times of Henry L. Stimson by Elting E. Morison)

Members of the United States delegation on board the passenger liner George Washington while en route to the London Naval Conference in January 1930. Those present are (from left to right): Admiral William V. Pratt, Secretary of State HENRY L. STIMSON, Senator David A. Reed, George Washington's Master, and Secretary of the Navy Charles Francis Adams.(U.S. Navy photo)

British Foreign Secretary Sir John Simon speaks with Secretary of State HENRY L. STIMSON in Geneva, Switzerland in 1932. (Lucien Aigner/CORBIS)

Government officials from England, the United States of America, and France meet in Paris on July 16, 1931 for the Anglo-Franco American Conference. L-R: Andre Francois Poncet, Walter Edge, Secretary of State HENRY L. STIMSON, Aristide Briand, Arthur Henderson, Pierre Laval, Pierre-Etienne Flandin, and William Tyrrell. (Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS)

U.S. Secretary of State HENRY STIMSON (right) visits British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald (2nd right) in Great Britain. On the far left is Henry Stimson’s wife Mabel Stimson, and the woman next to her is Ramsay MacDonald’s wife Ishbel MacDonald.(Source: Turmoil and Tradition: A Study of the Life and Times of Henry L. Stimson by Elting E. Morison)

Secretary of State HENRY STIMSON (left) meets with Prime Minister of France Pierre Laval (center) in a railroad car in France. Laval would go on to serve as Prime Minister of Vichy France during World War II and would be executed by the French for collaborating with the Nazis.(Source: Turmoil and Tradition: A Study of the Life and Times of Henry L. Stimson by Elting E. Morison)

Stimson appears before Senate Military Affairs Committee. Washington, D.C., July 2, 1940. Henry L. Stimson (left) appears with U.S. Senator Morris Sheppard, chairman of the Senate Military Affairs Committee, before whom Stimson testified regarding his qualifications to be Secretary of War in Washington, D.C. on July 2, 1940.(Photo: Harris & Ewing Collection/Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/hec2009015561/?sid=56a382a3cb0e9d907875c500bb239a85

United States President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (left) shakes hands with HENRY L. STIMSON at the White House on July 10, 1940 after the Senate confirmed his nomination as Secretary of War. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON (far left) and Army Gen. George C. Marshall (second from right) watch as President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the Draft Bill in the Oval Office in Washington, D.C. on September 16, 1940. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

(From left to right) Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON, Chairman of the House Military Affairs Committee Andrew J. May, U.S. Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, and Chairman of the Senate Military Affairs Committee Morris Sheppard watch as President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the Conscription Bill at the White House on October 23, 1940. (Photo by Topical Press Agency/Getty Images)

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON picks a draft number from a container on October 29, 1940.

Colonel William J. “Wild Bill” Donovan (left) sits beside Librarian of Congress ARCHIBALD MacLEISH in 1941.(Photo: John Phillips/Time Life)

HENRY L. STIMSON is seen testifying at the Neutrality Hearing in Congress in 1939. (Photo: Thomas D. McAvoy/Time Life)

HENRY L. STIMSON is seen laughing at the Neutrality Hearing in Congress in 1939. (Photo: Thomas D. McAvoy/Time Life)

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON meets with other Cabinet members in August 1941.

AVERELL HARRIMAN, a partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., signs the first Lend-Lease Protocol (Agreement) after negotiating with Josef Stalin in 1941. From left to right: Lord Beaverbrook, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav M. Molotov, Laurence Steinhardt (standing behind Harriman), Admiral William H. Standley, and Charles Thayer.

AVERELL HARRIMAN (second from left), the Chairman of the board of Union Pacific Railroad and Partner of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., sits next to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (left) and Soviet Commissar Josef Stalin in 1942. Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov is seated on the far right. (Photo: Library of Congress)

AVERELL HARRIMAN sits next to Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall.

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON (left), Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau Jr. (center), and Secretary of State Cordell Hull meet privately.

U.S. Navy Admiral Dewitt Ramsey (left), IBM President Thomas J. Watson Sr. (center), and Ray Plunkett watch Under Secretary of the Navy for Air ARTEMUS L. GATES shoot objects on a screen at a laboratory in 1944. (Photo by Eileen Darby//Time Life Pictures/Getty Images)

Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov (left) talks to Josef Stalin while AVERELL HARRIMAN is seen chatting with an unidentified dignitary.

PRESCOTT S. BUSH (far right) was the chairman of the executive committee of the National War Fund in the spring of 1945 during World War II. From left to right: unknown, unknown, unknown, Bernard Baruch, unknown, unknown, National City Bank Chairman Gordon Rentschler, unknown, unknown, National City Bank banker William G. Brady Jr., Brown Brothers Harriman partner ROLAND HARRIMAN, Chase National Bank Chairman Winthrop Aldrich, John D. Rockefeller Jr., and Brown Brothers Harriman partner PRESCOTT S. BUSH.

Time Editor-in-Chief HENRY LUCE (above) and H. H. Kung attend the opening of China House. H. H. Kung was the Nationalist Chinese Minister of Finance and the Governor of the Central Bank of China during World War II. Kung was married to Soong Ai-ling; Kung’s brother-in-laws were Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek. (Photo: Luce and His Empire by W.A. Swanberg)

Time Editor-in-Chief HENRY LUCE appears with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek (left), the President of the Republic of China.(Photo: Luce and His Empire by W.A. Swanberg)

President Harry S. Truman greets Nationalist China’s Foreign Minister T. V. Soong. From left to right: Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON, Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal, Truman, Soong, and Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Stimson, Forrestal, and Stettinius were members of the Council on Foreign Relations.

HARVEY H. BUNDY (left, wearing glasses) and Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON talk to Major General C. R. Huebner in France in July 1944 during World War II. Harvey H. Bundy was the father of McGeorge Bundy and William P. Bundy. (Photo: The National Archives)

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON watches British Prime Minister Winston Churchill deliver a speech at Fort Jackson, South Carolina. From left to right: Field Marshal Sir John Dill, General Sir Hastings Ismay, Gen. George C. Marshall, HENRY STIMSON (wearing a safari hat), and General Sir Alan Brooke (the Chief of Imperial Staff of Great Britain). (U.S. Army Photo)(Source: Turmoil and Tradition: A Study of the Life and Times of Henry L. Stimson by Elting E. Morison)

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON (right) visits Gen. Omar Bradley (left) and other soldiers in France during World War II.(U.S. Army Photo; Source: Turmoil and Tradition: A Study of the Life and Times of Henry L. Stimson by Elting E. Morison)

McGEORGE BUNDY receives a badge from Admiral Alan G. Kirk. (Photo: The National Archives)

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON (front row, center, in suit) marches with U.S. Army General Mark Clark (front row, right) in Rome on July 4, 1944. (Photo: Carl Mydans/Time Life)

President Franklin D. Roosevelt (left) delivers a speech at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in 1944. Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON (center) and Herbert H. Lehman (right) are seen applauding.

State Department officials stand in front of a camera in December 1944. From left to right: Will L. Clayton, Dean G. Acheson, Joseph C. Grew, Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ARCHIBALD MacLEISH, Nelson Rockefeller, and James C. Dunn. All seven men in this photo were members of the Council on Foreign Relations. (Photo: Library of Congress)(Source: Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War by Robert L. Beisner)

Ambassador Joseph C. Grew (left) and Ambassador W. AVERELL HARRIMAN (right, U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union) meet outside the White House on April 20, 1945 (Adolf Hitler’s birthday). (Photo: Harry S. Truman Presidential Library)

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON (left), Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius Jr. (center), and Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal meet at the White House in Washington, D.C. in April 1945. All three men were members of the Council on Foreign Relations. (Photo by George Skadding, Time Life Pictures/Getty Images)

American and Soviet diplomats meet in January 1945. Second from left is Vishinsky, fourth from left is U.S. Ambassador to Soviet Union AVERELL HARRIMAN, fifth from left is Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, sixth from left is British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden, seventh from left is U.S. Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius Jr., eighth from left is Cadogan, and on right (wearing a bow tie) is Alger Hiss.(Photo: Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library)

President Franklin D. Roosevelt meets with his Cabinet in early 1945. From left to right around the table: Secretary of Agriculture Claude Wickard, Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins, Secretary of Commerce Henry A. Wallace, unidentified, Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes,

unidentified, Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON, Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius Jr., President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr., Attorney General Francis Biddle, unidentified.

Generals reviewing troops during the Potsdam Conference on July 20, 1945. John McCloy, Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON, and U.S. Army General George S. Patton. On December 9, 1945, a day before he was due to return to the United States, General George S. Patton was severely injured in a road accident. General Patton died on December 21, 1945. (Harry S. Truman Presidential Library photo)

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON talks to Assistant Secretary of War John McCloy (left), HARVEY H. BUNDY (center), and U.S. Army General George S. Patton at the Potsdam Conference in Germany on July 20, 1945. (Harry S. Truman Presidential Library photo)

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON (left) greets U.S. Army General Dwight D. Eisenhower at Frankfurt, Germany on July 27, 1945. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was involved in Operation Keelhaul, an operation in which anti-Communist Russian soldiers were forcibly repatriated to the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republic. (Photo: National Archives)

AVERELL HARRIMAN appears with Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov (left) and Winston Churchill.

Charles Bohlen (left) watches U.S. Ambassador to Soviet Union AVERELL HARRIMAN shake hands with Soviet despot Josef Stalin during a meeting at Yalta in 1945.

U.S. Army General Dwight Eisenhower, Soviet dictator Josef Stalin, and U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union AVERELL HARRIMAN receive a “hero’s welcome” as they review a Soviet Red Army parade from a platform on top of Lenin’s tomb in Moscow, Soviet Russia on August 12, 1945.

U.S. Ambassador to Soviet Union AVERELL HARRIMAN (right) appears with Soviet despot Josef Stalin review a Soviet Red Army parade from a platform on top of Lenin’s tomb in Moscow, Soviet Russia on August 12, 1945.

Secretary of War HENRY STIMSON (center), Assistant Secretary of War John McCloy (right), and Soviet diplomat Andrei Gromyko stand together on an airport runway during the Potsdam Conference held near Berlin in July-August 1945.(Source: America’s Germany: John J. McCloy and the Federal Republic of Germany by Thomas Alan Schwartz)

President Harry S. Truman rewards outgoing Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON on September 21, 1945. Henry L. Stimson advised Truman to use the atomic bombs against the Japanese in the final days of World War II. The woman in the middle is Henry Stimson’s wife Mabel Stimson. (Source: Turmoil and Tradition: A Study of the Life and Times of Henry L. Stimson by Elting E. Morison)

Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson observes a globe.

Secretary of War HENRY L. STIMSON (seated, third from left) appears with Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy (seated, second from left) during World War II.(Photo: http://consecratedeminence.wordpress.com/2012/04/23/mccloy-diaries/)

U.S. Ambassador Hugh R. Wilson’s Letter to U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt

Memorandum of the Conversation between U.S. Ambassador Hugh R. Wilson and Joseph Goebbels

AMERICAN POLITICS DURING WORLD WAR II

Former President Herbert C. Hoover visits Herbert H. Lehman (left), former Governor of New York, in December 1942. Both men were members of the Council on Foreign Relations at the time this photo was taken. (Photo: William C. Shrout/Time Life)

Former Governor of New York Herbert H. Lehman talks to Dean Acheson at the First Council Session of UNRRA in Atlantic City, New Jersey in November 1943.

Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and his wife Madame Chiang Kai-shek welcome Clare Boothe Luce, the wife of Time Editor-in-Chief Henry Luce, in April 1942. (Library of Congress)

U.S. Vice President Henry A. Wallace, Owen Lattimore, John Carter Vincent, and John N. Hazard visit Nationalist China in June 1944. Lattimore and Hazard were members of the Council on Foreign Relations.

Sumner Welles (left), U.S. Undersecretary of State, shown with George F. Kennan, attaché at the U.S. Embassy at Berlin, during Welles' European tour on March 22, 1940. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

Army General Dwight Eisenhower talks to President Franklin Roosevelt on December 8, 1943.

Secretary of State Cordell Hull (left) and Under Secretary Sumner Welles arrive at the White House on May 9, 1940 for a luncheon with the President. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was continuing his intensive study of the latest foreign developments and is believed to have discussed the European situation with Secretary Hull and Under Secretary Welles. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

Nelson Rockefeller, U.S. Vice President Henry A. Wallace, U.S. Senator William Smathers, and Percy Douglas prepare to play tennis during World War II. Rockefeller and Douglas were members of the Council on Foreign Relations.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt examines the globe in 1942. (Photo: George C. Marshall Research Library)

President Franklin D. Roosevelt smiles for the camera at a party.

America During and After World War II

A demonstration against Nazi Germany takes place at Madison Square Garden in New York City on March 15, 1937.(Gelatin silver print. New York World-Telegram & Sun Newspaper Collection. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)(Photo: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/haventohome/haven-home.html)

U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt greets Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. at a press conference in 1941.(Photo: http://historysideshow.blogspot.com/2008_03_01_archive.html)

President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the joint congressional resolution declaring that a state of war exists between the United States and Japan in the executive office of the White House at 4:10 p.m. on December 8, 1941. (Photo: © Bettmann/CORBIS)

President Franklin D. Roosevelt holds the resolutions that put America at war with Italy and Germany, which he signed late this afternoon at the White House on December 11, 1941. They were both made laws only one minute apart, with the one for war with Germany being signed first. (Photo: © Bettmann/CORBIS)

U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill are shown as they sat on the big forward deck of H.M.S. Prince of Wales to relax, chat and breathe a bit of salt air during their Atlantic meeting on August 10, 1941. Behind the two at right are: Admiral E.J. King, U.S. Atlantic Fleet Commander, and Gen. George C. Marshall (extreme right). In the more distant background (center) stands Sumner Welles, U.S. Under Secretary of State and a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. (© Bettmann/CORBIS)

Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill and President Franklin D. Roosevelt hold the first joint press conference of the heads of the two nations at the White House in Washington, D.C., U.S.A. on December 23, 1941. (Photo: © Bettmann/CORBIS)

President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's special board of inquiry to investigate the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor meets in full for the first time in Washington, D.C. on December 18, 1941. Left to right: Brigadier General Joseph T. McCarney, Admiral William H. Standley, Supreme Court Justice Owen J. Roberts, Chairman of the Board; Rear Admiral Joseph M. Reeves, Major General Frank B. McCoy and Walter Bruce Howe, recorder for the board. Standley and McCoy were members of the Council on Foreign Relations. (© Bettmann/CORBIS)

The third day of the trial of 8 Nazi saboteurs opened on the fifth floor in the Department of Justice Building in Washington, D.C. on July 11, 1942. The officers seated on the seven-man commission trying the Nazis. From left to right they are: Brig. Gen. John T. Lewis; Maj. Gen. Lorenzo D. Gasser; Maj. Gen. Walters S. Grant; Maj. Gen. Frank R. McCoy, President of the commission; Maj. Gen. Winship; Brig. Gen. Guy V. Henry and Brig. Gen. John T. Kennedy. Major General Frank R. McCoy was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations.(© Bettmann/CORBIS)

President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered Americans of Japanese ancestry to move to concentration camps in 1942.

Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument No. 160, located in Inyo County, CA. One of ten WWII relocation centers for Japanese-Americans, Manzanar held 10,000 people beginning in March 1942. The inscription reads, "Memorial to the Dead." (Flickr)

Armed with clubs, pipes and bottles, this self-appointed posse of uniformed U.S. Navy sailors was all set to settle the Zoot Suit War in Watts, California near Los Angeles on June 11, 1943 when the Navy Shore Patrol stepped in and broke it up. The angry servicemen were out to get all wearers of oversize clothing to avenge buddies who were attacked. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

Police officers take this zoot suit clad youngster into custody on June 11, 1943 after the sixth day of undeclared war on the zoot suit in Los Angeles. More than 112 persons have been injured, some of them seriously, in the frequent clashes between wearers of the zoot suit and servicemen. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

An angry white mob surrounds a street car with African American passengers stopped due to the race riots in Detroit on June 20-22, 1943. The mob assaults an African American man who attempts to leave the street car near the front of the trolley. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

A mob of angry rioters topple an automobile owned by a black man during a race riot in Detroit, Michigan on June 1, 1943. The riot was sparked when a black man reportedly slapped a white woman. The violence had claimed 25 lives by the time the military entered the scene. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

A black man (center) has just been slugged by young white hoodlums, in Detroit's race riot on June 22, 1943 and is frantically trying to escape before they hit him again. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

An African American man, the victim of assault during Detroit's race riot, tries to escape from a mob on June 22, 1943 before further violence ensues. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

An overturned car, owned by a Negro, blows up and showers burning gasoline on a passenger-packed trolley car in Detroit, Michigan on June 21, 1943 during the race riot which still continues in spite of armed troops ordered to assist police. A "state of emergency" has been declared in hopes of quelling the fierce mob fighting between Negroes and whites. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

Two gun bearing M.P.'s offer protection to a workman cleaning up the window of a store wrecked during the rioting of whites and blacks in Detroit on June 23, 1943. This store was located in the black district of the motor city. Twenty nine persons lost their lives and hundreds of others were injured in one of the nation's worst race riots. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

Madame Chiang Kai-Shek, visiting Los Angeles during her Chinese War Relief fundraising tour, sits with dignitaries at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, California, U.S.A. in 1943 following her speech on the subject of Congress's Chinese Exclusion laws.(Photo: Department of Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, U.C. Los Angeles)http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/hb4v19p0d5/?layout=metadata&brand=calisphere

Madame Chiang Kai-shek gives a speech at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, California, U.S.A. in 1943. (Source: Daily News (Los Angeles, Calif. : firm), Publisher/Dept of Special Collections/UCLA Library) http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/hb7v19p20v/

Left photo: Madame Chiang Kai-shek appears on the rostrum of the U.S. House of Representatives in Washington, D.C. on January 18, 1943. Seated behind her is Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

Right photo: Soong Mei-ling, right, the wife of Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, and Eleanor Roosevelt, wife of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, sit on the White House lawn in Washington, D.C. circa 1945. Soong Mei-ling was raised in Macon, Georgia and was educated at Wellesley College. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

Soong May-ling (right) [Madame Chiang Kai-shek], wife of China's Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, conveys her thanks at the White House in Washington, D.C., on August 29, 1945 to U.S. President Harry S. Truman (left) for the hospitality she received while she underwent eleven months of medical treatment in the United States of America during World War II. She left America one day later to be reunited with her husband in Nanking, China. Madame Chiang Kai-shek would spend the remaining years of her life at an apartment in New York City after her husband’s death in 1975. Madame Chiang Kai-shek died at the age of 105 in 2003. (Photo: AFP/Getty Images)

Averell Harriman (left) and John McCloy (center) meet West Germany’s Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.

President Dwight Eisenhower shakes hands with French President Charles de Gaulle at Rambouillet Castle.

President Dwight D. Eisenhower (second from left) walks with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek (right) and Madame Chiang Kai-shek during his visit to Taiwan, Republic of China in June 1960. Council on Foreign Relations member Henry Kissinger and George H.W. Bush would abandon the Republic of China and give aid and comfort to the Chinese Communists in Beijing. The United States government maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China during World War II and after World War II until President Jimmy Carter severed diplomatic relations with the Republic of China in 1978. (Photo by Hank Walker/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images)

An Anglo-American meeting takes place aboard USS Williamsburg in January 1952. Seated from left to right: British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden, Winston Churchill, President Harry Truman, Secretary of State Dean Acheson, Treasury Secretary John W. Snyder, and Defense Secretary Robert Lovett. Standing from left to right: Ambassador to Great Britain Walter Gifford, Gen. Omar N. Bradley, Sir Oliver Franks, Lord Cherwell, Lord Ismay, and Averell Harriman. Acheson, Gifford, Lovett, and Harriman were members of the Council on Foreign Relations. (Photo: Truman Library)

Eugene Meyer, President of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development [also known as The World Bank], confers with President Harry S. Truman at the White House in Washington, D.C. on June 19, 1946. (© Bettmann/CORBIS)

U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signs the G.I. Bill of Rights at the White House in Washington, D.C. on June 22, 1944, which provides broad benefits for veterans of World War II. The ceremony was witnessed by members of the Senate and House and members of the American Legion and Veterans of Foreign Wars. Left to right, front row in rear of President: Senator Bennett Champ Clark of Missouri; Congressman J. Hardin Peterson of Florida; Congressman John Rankin of Mississippi; and Edith Nourse Rogers of Massachusetts. Leaning back over the President: Senator Walter F. George of Georgia. In back of Mrs. Rogers, Senator Robert F. Wagner Sr. of New York, and Senator Alben Barkley of Kentucky. (© Bettmann/CORBIS)

A group of ex-soldier college students wait in line to collect their GI Bill of Rights benefits on January 28, 1945. Books and notebooks, as well as tuition and other fees, up to a total of $500 for an ordinary school year, were furnished to the veterans under the GI Bill of Rights passed by Congress in1944. (© Bettmann/CORBIS)

A “Levittown” suburb in the United States of America. Modern American suburbs and the urban sprawl began after World War II. Modern American families who live in the suburbs usually borrow money from the local banks (which borrow money from the Federal Reserve) and make a typical 30-year mortgage payment, including interest, on their houses. The 30-year mortgage plan was developed during the Great Depression and expanded after World War II.

Fast-food restaurants such as McDonald’s were established throughout the United States of America after World War II.

American War Bonds Posters during World War II

Post-World War II Conflicts & Warfare: Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace?

Nuclear tests in Nevada, U.S.A.: BADGER was a 23 kiloton tower shot that was fired on April 18, 1953 at the Nevada Test Site, as part of the Operation Upshot-Knothole nuclear test series. (http://picdit.wordpress.com/2008/07/21/8-insane-nuclear-explosions/)

Truman and Eisenhower administrations authorized nuclear tests in the Pacific Ocean in the late 1940s and early 1950s.(Photo: http://picdit.wordpress.com/2008/07/21/8-insane-nuclear-explosions/)

Allied Occupation Zones of Germany and Austria in 1945

German children wave to an airplane as the airplane prepares to land at Tempelhof Airport in West Berlin. The American military delivers food and supplies to the German people living in West Berlin during the Berlin Airlift and the Soviet blockade of West Berlin from June 1948 until May 1949.

Map of NATO and Warsaw Pact nations

Independence of Indonesia: Indonesian nationalist leader Sukarno (June 6, 1901-June 21, 1970), accompanied by Mohammad Hatta, declares the independence of Indonesia, a former Dutch colony known as the Dutch East Indies, at 10:00 A.M. on Friday, August 17, 1945, at Pegangsaan Timur 56 (now Jalan Proklamasi) in Jakarta, Indonesia. Sukarno was the President of Indonesia from August 18, 1945 until his “resignation” on March 12, 1967. (Photo: Wikipedia)

Independence of Vietnam & Vietnam War: Vietnamese communists Vo Nguyen Giap (left) and Ho Chi Minh (right, formerly Nguyễn Ái Quốc, May 19, 1890-September 3, 1969) pose for a portrait in Hanoi, Vietnam [Indochina] in 1945. Ho Chi Minh declared the independence of Vietnam shortly after the end of World War II despite the French government’s attempt to reestablish its colonial rule in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh was the President of “North” Vietnam from September 2, 1945 until his death on September 3, 1969.

Skulls and bones of Dutch civilians murdered during Indonesian Independence Day celebrations at Balapoelang, Indonesia on August 17, 1946. (Government Institute for War Documentation, The Hague)

Indonesians remove portraits of their former Dutch governors from the Djakarta palace in Djakarta, Indonesia in 1948. The Indonesian War of Independence lasted from August 17, 1945 to December 31, 1949. The Netherlands recognized Indonesia’s independence on December 27, 1949. (Jeffrey Blankfort/Jereboam)

Dutch soldiers search Indonesian civilians at a checkpoint in Djakarta (later Jakarta) in circa 1945-1949.(Dutch Institute for Military History)

United Nations military observers check up on an UN-sponsored cease-fire in 1948. (National Archives)

Chinese Civil War and the Establishment of Communist China: U.S. Ambassador to the Republic of China Patrick J. Hurley (front row, left) appears with Republic of China’s President Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek (front row, center), Communist terrorist Mao Tse-tung (front row, right), and Chiang Kai-shek’s son Chiang Ching-kuo (back row, left) in Chungking, China in September 1945 during the failed American attempt to negotiate between the Chinese Nationalists and the Communist terrorists. (Photo: Jack Wilkes/Time Life)

Korean War: A group of American U.S. Army infantrymen march into the Naktong River region on August 11, 1950, as they pass a line of fleeing Korean refugees. The North Korean army under the command of North Korea’s “Dear Leader” Kim Il Sung invaded South Korea (Republic of Korea) on June 25, 1950 and overran the capital city of Seoul three days later. (Bettmann/CORBIS)

Arab-Israeli Wars and the Establishment of the State of Israel: Arab terrorists wage war on Israel and Israeli civilians in 1948.

Indo-Pakistani Wars and the establishment of India and Pakistan: Indian Muslim leader Mohammad Ali Jinnah (left, December 25, 1876-September 11, 1948) appears with his political rival Indian Hindu leader Mohandas K. “Mahatma” Gandhi (right, October 2, 1869 – January 30, 1948) in Bombay, British India in September 1944. Jinnah would serve as the first “President” (Governor-General) of Pakistan when Pakistan became independent on August 15, 1947. Jinnah favored a separate state for the Muslims living in British India; India and Pakistan has waged war over Kashmir on three separate occasions (1947, 1965, 1971). Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated in India on January 30, 1948. Both India and Pakistan became independent on August 15, 1947. Jawaharlal Nehru was the Prime Minister of India from August 15, 1947 until his death on May 27, 1964.

The stand-off between U.S. Army M48 tanks and Soviet T55 tanks at Checkpoint Charlie in Berlin during the border dispute of late October 1961. (Photo: http://warandgame.wordpress.com/2007/12/05/checkpoint-charlie-october-1961/)

Vietnam War (1954-1975): South Vietnam’s General Nguyen Ngoc Loan (left), South Vietnam’s Chief of National Police, executes Viet Cong terrorist and suspected child-killer Captain Nguyen Van Lem (right) in Saigon during the Tet Offensive on February 1, 1968. General Loan would later move to Virginia after the Vietnam War; General Loan died of cancer in Virginia in 1998. (Eddie Adams, Associated Press/Wide World Photos)

Lebanese Civil War (1958, 1976-1990): Between 800 (according to the Kahane commission) and 1500 (according to Palestine Liberation Organization) Palestine Arab refugees were massacred by the Christian Lebanese Forces between September 14 and 17, 1982. The Israeli army, positioned around the two camps, did not react. Corpses of refugees lie in their blood. Lebanon is a former French trustee colony and a former province of the Ottoman Empire. (© Michel Philippot/Sygma/Corbis)

The Korean De-Militarized Zone at Panmonjoum. The division of Korea into two countries began at the Potsdam Conference during World War II. (Photo: http://www.ndu.edu/CAPSTONE/)

Germans in West Berlin destroy the infamous Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989. The division of Germany into two countries during the Cold War began during the Yalta and Potsdam conferences during World War II. Germany has since been reunified.

EXTRA WORLD WAR II PHOTOS

Field Marshal Erwin Rommel is seen standing with captured British soldiers in France in 1940.(Photo: http://historyimages.blogspot.com/2009/12/fall-of-france-may-1940.html)

Nazi German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel (left) speaks with Fascist Italy’s dictator Benito Mussolini at the Italian Government Headquarters in January 1944. (Source: Wikimedia)

Minister President of Norway Vidkun Quisling (left) meets with Adolf Hitler, circa 1942-1945.

Left photo: Vidkun Quisling (center), the Minister President of Norway, visits Nazi SS chief Heinrich Himmler (left) and Albert Viljam Hagelin (Secretary of State for the Home Office 1940-1944) in Berlin on February 14, 1942.

Right photo: Adolf Hitler visits Vidkun Quisling. (Source: http://ivarfjeld.wordpress.com/category/vatican-and-fascism/)

Heinrich Himmler visits Norway in 1941. Seated (from left to right) are Quisling, Himmler, Josef Terboven, the Nazi gauleiter who was the effective ruler of Norway during the occupation, and General Nikolaus von Falkenhorst, the commander of the German forces in Norway. Vidkun Quisling was the Minister President of Norway from February 1, 1942 to May 9, 1945 and Norway’s Minister of Defense from 1931 to 1933. (German Federal Archive)

Celebration in the Vatican. Italy’s fascist dictator Benito Mussolini appears with a Cardinal and their staff. (Photo: http://ivarfjeld.wordpress.com/category/vatican-and-fascism/)

Dead civilians killed by German artillery are seen lying in the streets of Leningrad [St. Petersburg] in late 1941.(Photo: Hassadar. http://www.olive-drab.com/od_history_ww2_ops_battles_1941leningrad.php)

Left: Adolf Hitler meets with Finland's Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim and Finland’s President Risto Ryti in Imatra, Finland, 200 km north-west of Leningrad, on June 4, 1942. (Published in Suomen Kuvalehti 1942, republished 2006)

Right: Captured German soldiers under Red Army guard are escorted through the streets of Leningrad in August 1942.(Photo: Hassadar. http://www.olive-drab.com/od_history_ww2_ops_battles_1941leningrad.php)

Russian POW's on the way to German prison camps. Image printed in the 60's from Polish Archive negative, now in Marek Tuszyński's collection of WWII prints. Most likely photo taken by Germans which was latter acquired by documentation cell of Armia Kraj. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russian_POW_(1941).jpg

A column of Soviet Red Army prisoners-of-war captured near Minsk [Belarus] is marched to a prison camp on July 2, 1941.(German Federal Archives)

Soviet ski troops advance to the front lines as they visit Leningrad [St. Petersburg], Soviet Russia in 1943.

Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus (left), with his chief of staff, Generalleutnant Arthur Schmidt (middle) and his aide, Wilhelm Adam (right), after their surrender on January 31, 1943. Paulus surrendered to Soviet forces in Stalingrad on January 31, 1943, a day after he was promoted to the rank of Generalfeldmarschall by Adolf Hitler. Hitler expected Paulus to commit suicide, citing the fact that there was no record of a German field marshal ever surrendering to enemy forces. Whilst in Soviet captivity during the war he became a vocal critic of the Nazi regime and joined the Russian-sponsored National Committee for a Free Germany. He was not released until 1953. (German Federal Archives)

Surrender of Major-General Alfons Hitter and Lieutenant-General Friedrich Gollwitzer to Marshal of the Soviet Union Aleksandr Vasilevsky and Field Marshal Ivan Chernyakhovsky after the battle of Vitebsk during Operation Bagration on June 28, 1944. (Russian State Archive)

From left to right: General K. Rokossovsky, Marshal of Artillery N. Voronov, translator captain Diatlenko, and Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus, who was taken prisoner by the troops of 64th army under General N. Shumilov on January 31, 1943.

Members of the NKFD in 1943, from the left: Col. van Hooven, Lt. Graf Einsiedel, Maj. Hetz, Gen. von Seydlitz, Prv. Zippel, Erich Weinert, Col. Steidle, Gen. Lattmann. The National Committee for a Free Germany (German: Nationalkomitee Freies Deutschland, or NKFD) was a German anti-Nazi organization that operated in the Soviet Union during World War II. (Photo: German Federal Archives)

The anti-Nazi NKFD Headquarters in Russia during World War II

Nazi German prisoners from the Fourth Army are marched through the streets of Moscow on July 17, 1944 after their capture in Minsk. An assassination attempt on Adolf Hitler occurred inside Wolf’s Lair in East Prussia (Germany) on July 20, 1944.(Russian State Archive) http://victory.rusarchives.ru/index.php?p=31&photo_id=258

The Dates of Withdrawal (or Surrender) from Major Cities by the Nazi German Army in the Western Front:June 4, 1944: Rome, ItalyAugust 4, 1944: Florence, ItalyAugust 23, 1944: Marseille, FranceAugust 25, 1944: Paris, FranceSeptember 4, 1944: Antwerp, BelgiumSeptember 5, 1944: Brussels, BelgiumSeptember 9, 1944: Luxembourg City, LuxembourgOctober 21, 1944: Aachen, GermanyFebruary 20, 1945: Saarbrucken, GermanyMarch 7, 1945: Cologne, GermanyMarch 29, 1945: Frankfurt am Main, GermanyApril 10, 1945: Hanover, GermanyMay 3, 1945: Hamburg, GermanyMay 9, 1945: Copenhagen, Denmark (and all of Denmark)May 11, 1945: Oslo, Norway (and all of Norway)

The Dates of Withdrawal (or Surrender) from Major Cities by the Nazi German Army in the Eastern Front:November 6, 1943: Kiev, UkraineJuly 27, 1944: Lvov, Poland (Lviv, Ukraine)October 14, 1944: Athens, GreeceOctober 20, 1944: Belgrade, Yugoslavia (later Belgrade, Serbia)January 17, 1945: Warsaw, PolandJanuary 27, 1945: Auschwitz Concentration Camp, PolandFebruary 13, 1945: Budapest, HungaryMarch 30, 1945: Danzig, Germany (Gdansk, Poland)April 9, 1945: Konigsberg, Germany (Kaliningrad, Russia)April 13, 1945: Vienna, AustriaMay 2, 1945: Berlin, GermanyMay 6, 1945: Breslau, Germany (Wroclaw, Poland) (following an 82-day siege)May 11, 1945: Prague, Czechoslovakia (later Prague, Czech Republic)

Nazi German soldiers occupy Theater Square (with the National Theater visible in the back) in Warsaw, Poland in September 1944 during the Warsaw Uprising of 1944. (Photo: German Federal Archives)

Soldiers of Polish Home Army surrender to Nazi German Wehrmacht at a checkpoint in Warsaw, Poland on October 5, 1944.

German civilians escape from Danzig, Germany (later Gdansk, Poland) in February 1945 to avoid being captured or killed by the invading Soviet Red Army. (Photo: German Federal Archives)

Delegation of Nazi German officers walk for negotiations before the capitulation of the city of Breslau, Germany on May 6, 1945.

Soviet Red Army soldiers march through Budapest, Hungary in March 1945. The Soviet Red Army looted Budapest, attacked foreign embassies, raped women, and killed civilians after they defeated the Nazi German army in Budapest. The Siege of Budapest lasted from December 29, 1944 to February 13, 1945, when the Nazi German army withdrew from the city on February 13, 1945.

Soviet soldiers hosting the Soviet flag on the balcony of Hotel Adlon in Berlin, Germany in May 1945 after the Battle of Berlin. The Battle of Berlin lasted from April 16, 1945 until May 2, 1945, when the Nazi German army capitulated the city. (Photo: German Federal Archives)

Soviet Red Army troops advance upon the Reichstag in Berlin, Germany in April-May 1945.(Photo: http://www.mixedmartialarts.com/mma.cfm?go=forum.posts&forum=2&thread=2051026&page=4)

Residents and defenders of the Prague Uprising greet the Soviet Red Army in Prague in May 1945.

A defeated German soldier sits in front of the burning Reichstag in Berlin in 1945. (Photo: Mark Redkin)

German prisoners of war stand in front of the King’s Gate in Konigsberg, Germany (later Kaliningrad, Russia) on April 12, 1945, three days after the Nazi German army surrendered the city to the Soviet Red Army.

A map of Nazi Germany (territory in gray) on May 8, 1945 (V-E Day). Norway and Denmark were under complete Nazi German occupation on May 8, 1945. Nazi Germany surrendered Amsterdam, Netherlands on May 5, 1945.

Military route of the 1st Polish Armoured Division during World War II. The 1st Polish Armoured Division seized the Kriegsmarine naval base in Wilhelmshaven, Germany on May 6, 1945; the 1st Polish Armoured Division liberated the Belgian city of Ghent in 1944

The Mayor of Breda, Netherlands (Van Slobbe) gives a welcome speech to the soldiers of the 1st Polish Armoured Division in late 1944, after the Polish soldiers had liberated Breda from the Nazi German army.

American invasion troops of the 7th Infantry Division approach a landing area code-named Beach Red in the western arm of Holtz Bay, on Japanese-occupied Attu Island in Alaska on May 11, 1943. (AP Photo)

April 18, 1942: A B-25 Mitchell bomber takes off from the USS Hornet's flight deck for the initial air raid on Tokyo, Japan, a secret military mission U.S. President Roosevelt referred to as Shangri-La. (AP Photo)

June 4, 1942: The U.S. aircraft carrier Yorktown, left, and the other fighting ships of a United States task force in the Pacific, throw up an umbrella of anti-aircraft fire to beat off a squadron of Japanese torpedo planes attacking the carrier during the battle of Midway. (AP Photo)

June 1942: The USS Lexington, U.S. Navy aircraft carrier, explodes after being bombed by Japanese planes in the Battle of the Coral Sea in the South Pacific during World War II. (AP Photo)

August 3, 1942: After hammering Port Moresby for two days, Japanese bombers finally sank this Australian transport which sends up a cloud of smoke. She drifted onto a reef and heeled over. Flaming oil can be seen at left. The men in a small boat, foreground, are looking for victims. (AP Photo)

U.S. Marines approach the Japanese occupied Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands in August 1942 during World War II. (AP Photo)

U.S. Marines, with full battle kits, charge ashore on Guadalcanal Island from a landing barge during the early phase of the U.S. offensive in the Solomon Islands in August 1942 during World War II. (AP Photo)

Aug. 29, 1942: After landing in force, U.S. Marines pause on the beach of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands before advancing inland against the Japanese during World War II. (AP Photo)

Oct. 29, 1942: U.S. Marines man a .75 MM gun on Guadalcanal Island in the Solomon Islands during World War II. (AP Photo)

Nov. 3, 1942: Pushing through New Guinea jungles in a jeep, General Douglas MacArthur inspects the positions and movements of Allied Forces, who would push the Japanese away from Port Moresby and back over the Owen Stanley Mountain range. (AP Photo)

January 1943: While on a bombing run over Salamau, New Guinea, before its capture by Allied forces, photographer Sgt. John A. Boiteau aboard an army Liberator took this photograph of a B-24 Liberator during World War II. Bomb bursts can be seen below in lower left and a ship at upper right along the beach. (AP Photo/U.S. Army Force)

January 1943: The bodies of three American soldiers, fallen in the battle for Buna and Gona, lie on the beach of the island in the Papua New Guinea region during World War II. (AP Photo)

November 2, 1943: A B-25 bomber of the U.S. Army 5th Air Force strikes against a Japanese ship in the harbor at Rabaul, New Britain during an air raid on the Japanese-held air and naval base. (AP Photo)

November 11, 1943: A supply ship, one of two that the Japanese were able to work through U.S. Air attacks, explodes in Rangoon Harbor (center) after a direct hit by a bomb from a Tenth U.S. Air Force Plane. Hits also were scored on port facilities, seen smoking (top center). Note numerous small craft moored at docks and offshore, (right). (AP Photo)

January 1944: These U.S. Marine Raiders, with the reputation of being skillful jungle fighters, pose in front of a Japanese stronghold they conquered at Cape Totkina, Bougainville. (AP Photo)

The first wave of U.S. Infantrymen leaves their higgins boats and race through the surf for the beach during the invasion of Wakde Island, Dutch New Guinea in May 1944 during World War II. (AP Photo/U.S. Army Signal Corps)

U.S. Army Gen. Douglas MacArthur wades ashore during initial landings at Leyte, Philippines in October 1944.(National Archives/U.S. Army Signal Corps)

A Japanese kamikaze pilot crashes into USS Essex near the Philippines on November 25, 1944.

American Marines raise the American flag on Iwo Jima on February 23, 1945. (Joe Rosenthal/Associated Press photo)

U.S. Marine reinforcements wade ashore to support the beachhead on Okinawa, Japan on March 31, 1945.

A group of Japanese (or Korean) prisoners in Okinawa, Japan who preferred capture to suicide wait to be questioned by American officers. (Photo: http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/okinawa/chapter18.htm#p4)

At 1443 on 11 April 1945, one of the most famous photos of the Pacific War was taken.  This image shot aboard USS MISSOURI freezes the moment in time that Setsuo Ishino struck USS MISSOURI; it came to symbolize the desperate nature of the fighting against Kamikaze attacks.  The plane broke apart in a glancing impact and threw debris onto the deck, igniting a fire forward. (U.S. Navy photo reproduced from Wikimedia Commons, http://mighty90.com/Kikusui_Number_2.html)

Surrender instructions to surviving Japanese soldiers were broadcast by this “converted” Japanese from an LCI standing off the rocky cliff near Hill 89 in Okinawa, Japan in 1945. (Photo: http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/okinawa/chapter18.htm#p4)

American soldiers raise the American flag in Okinawa, Japan on June 22, 1945 as organized Japanese resistance ended that day.(Photo: http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/okinawa/chapter18.htm#p4)

Third Fleet Raids on Japan, July 1945. U.S. Navy carrier aircraft attack the Japanese battleship Haruna at her moorings near Kure, Japan on July 28, 1945. Photographed from a USS Intrepid (CV-11) plane.(Official U.S. Navy Photograph, now in the collections of the National Archives.)http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-fornv/japan/japsh-h/haruna.htm

World War II Joint Chiefs of Staff at a luncheon meeting, circa 1943. Present are (from left to right): General Henry H. Arnold, Chief of Staff, U.S. Army Air Forces; Admiral William D. Leahy, Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff; Admiral Ernest J. King, Chief of Naval Operations and Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet; and General George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff, U.S. Army.(Official U.S. Navy Photograph, now in the collections of the National Archives)http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-k/ej-kng.htm

OVERLORD commanders meeting, January 1944. Left to right: Omar Bradley, Bertram Ramsay, Arthur Tedder, General Eisenhower, Bernard Montgomery, Trafford Leigh-Mallory, Walter Bedell Smith. (Eisenhower Presidential Library/National Archives)

"Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower gives the order of the Day. 'Full victory-nothing else' to paratroopers in England, just before they board their airplanes to participate in the first assault in the invasion of the continent of Europe." Moore, June 6, 1944. (National Archives)

D-Day Invasion at Normandy, France on June 6, 1944

Crowds of French patriots line the Champs Elysees to view Free French tanks and half tracks of General Leclerc's 2nd Armored Division passes through the Arc du Triomphe, after Paris was liberated on August 25, 1944 (Library of Congress)

Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill (left) and provisional President of France General Charles de Gaulle (right) walk down the Avenue des Champs-Elysees during the French Armistice Day parade in Paris, France on November 11, 1944.(Photo: Imperial War Museums)

American troops of the 28th Infantry Division march down the Champs Elysees, Paris, in the Victory Parade on August 29, 1944. (Photo: http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/WW2Index/picindex5.html)

Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill (center) leaves the ruins of Adolf Hitler’s Chancellery in Berlin, Germany on July 16, 1945. (Photo: Imperial War Museums)

Concentration camp survivors and Allied soldiers alike celebrate after Mauthausen concentration camp near Linz, Austria was liberated in 1945.

An infantryman is on guard on Grassy Knoll in Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands on January 26, 1943 during World War II. (AP Photo)

Right Shoulder Arms. A squad of Japanese-American soldiers are here shown in the action of obeying this command during routine practice on the Camp Shelby drill field at Camp Shelby, Mississippi in July 1943. The 442nd combat team at Camp Shelby is composed entirely of Americans of Japanese descent who volunteered for services in the armed forces. This unit of approximately 8000 men is undergoing intensive training in all branches of combat duty, and they are looking forward with eagerness to actual services at the front.(Photographer: Charles E. Mace) (Contributing Institution: The Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley)

Left photo: Tuskegee Airmen during World War II. (Photo: http://www.blackarchives.org/node/83)Right photo: Madame Chiang Kai-shek, the wife of Nationalist China’s leader Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, celebrates V-J Day in August 1945 as she displays an American newspaper with the headline “Complete Surrender”.

President Harry S. Truman holds up the official Japanese document of surrender with Emperor Hirohito's signature at a White House meeting on September 7, 1945. From left to right are: Secretary of War Henry Stimson, Gen. George C. Marshall, unidentified, and Dean G. Acheson. (Photo: http://www.bookshopsdriveinsandjive.com/2013_09_07_archive.html)

A group of American soldiers and Japanese men pose for a photograph in front of the Urakami Cathedral in Nagasaki, Japan after World War II. (Photo: http://www.flickr.com/photos/afigallo/1099664736/in/set-72157602132535519/)

Company "B" commemorative plaque at Maywood, IL Veterans Memorial Park. A tablet to commemorate the people who fought in Bataan

American generals: seated left to right are William H. Simpson, George S. Patton, Jr., Carl Spaatz, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar Bradley, Courtney H. Hodges, and Leonard T. Gerow; standing are Ralph F. Stearley, Hoyt S. Vandenberg, Walter Bedell Smith, Otto P. Weyland, and Richard E. Nugent. Circa 1945. (National Archives)

Left photo: U.S. Army Gen. George S. Patton, Jr. (November 11, 1885 – December 21, 1945). On December 9, 1945, a day before he was due to return to the United States, General George S. Patton was severely injured in a road accident.

Right photo: U.S. Army Gen. Douglas MacArthur

U.S. Army Lieutenant General Jonathan Wainwright (L), a former prisoner-of-war, chats with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in Chungking, China on September 7, 1945 after Wainwright’s release from a Japanese prison at Sian, China days earlier. Chiang Kai-shek spoke no English. (Photo: Jack Wilkes/Time Life)

General of the Army Douglas MacArthur and Lt. Gen. Jonathan Wainwright greet each other at the New Grand Hotel, Yokohama, Japan on August 31, 1945, in their first meeting since they parted on Corregidor more than three years before. (Army/National Archives)