Writing  

Introduction to Boundless

Chapter 1 The Practice of Writing

Chapter 2 Paper Execution

Chapter 3 Academic Writing

Chapter 4 Conversations

Chapter 5 Style, Structure, Grammar

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Chapter 1

The Practice of Writing

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Identifying the Status Quo

Explaining the Stakes and the Consequences

Destabilizing the Status Quo

Section 1

The Practice of Writing

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Identifying the Status QuoGood arguments convince a reader to reconsider previously accepted knowledge or opinion about a topic, also known as the status quo.

KEY POINTS

• In writing, the status quo of a project usually refers to how earlier scholars have approached concerning the issue being written.

• In the earlier part of a paper, the writer must explain to the reader the status quo about a subject, in order for the reader to understand the stakes in the change of the argument.

• The status quo is also common ground between a writer and a reader.

Scholarship never exists in a vacuum. Even with the most original argument, a paper will still be part of a larger academic discourse. Familiarizing oneself with this surrounding discourse, known as the status quo, is an important preliminary step to writing an essay.

How does one find the status quo?

In most situations, the status quo of a project refers to what other scholars have written about the topic. To familiarize oneself with it,

relevant works need to be read and the arguments the writers make need to be thought about critically. It is important to be thorough with research - read as much of other scholars' work as possible before starting to write. Even if most of what is read will not be cited, it will helps to understand how the argument fits into a wider context (Figure 1.1). As the research process continues, sources will eventually be found which the writer wants to incorporate into an essay. The section on posing productive questions how helpful it can be to have a specific work or idea to respond to when setting up your an argument.

Why does the status quo matter?

The status quo is so crucial to making an argument that is usually included at the beginning of problem statements. Telling the audience up front what the status quo is serves several purposes. First, it helps them understand the context of the argument. When the audience is told what sources are used and what

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Before you begin writing on any topic, it is important to understand the dominant conversation surrounding the topic, or the status quo associated with the topic. Examining the status quo is good way of figuring how where to situate your specific insight on a topic.

Figure 1.1 Examining the status quo

current scholarship says about the topic, they will have a better understanding from where the argument comes. It will also be clearer to them why the argument is new and different. If they do not understand exactly what the writer is trying to change their minds about, they will be resistant to the argument.

Providing an accurate and relevant summation of the status quo will also reassure the audience that the writer can speak with authority on a subject. It shows that the writer has enough familiarity with a field to be qualified to make an argument. Audiences have a harder time trusting a writer who does not show that he is familiar with the status quo or who does an insufficient job of describing it to them.

Of course, a full account of the status quo could take forever, especially if writing on a popular topic. Even a brief summary of every article or book about Hamlet would easily fill several volumes. To figure out what to include in a paper, think about what information the audience needs to know to follow and appreciate the argument. This means that, in addition to knowing your status quo, the writer needs to know what audience for whom he or she is writing. This knowledge should always be kept in mind when doing preliminary research.

EXAMPLE

Let’s imagine you are writing a paper about Hamlet. In order to make sense of the ridiculous amount of scholarly analysis, you will have to approach the research process with a smart strategy. Begin by looking at recent books and anthologies that provide an overview of the scholarly consensus. Essay collections and “critical guides” will help you gauge the current status quo, and they will also introduce you to other respected authors writing about your topic. If you find essays that ask questions similar to your own, consult their reference lists to see what other authors they cite, and investigate those sources yourself. If your topic is popular, look for bibliographies dedicated specifically to that topic, which list relevant books, articles, and other resources along with short summaries of each source’s argument. Skimming broad, recent sources before moving on to sources that relate very specifically to your question will help you determine the status quo about your topic, and also point you toward the most relevant, important, respected sources for your own project. If you are writing about literature, some good sources for overviews are: Columbia University Press’s Columbia Critical Guides, Routledge’s Routledge Guides to Literature, Cambridge University Press’s Cambridge Companions to Literature, and Chelsea House’s Bloom’s Modern Critical Interpretations series. All of these series offer comprehensive guides to scholarship about popular writers and thinkers. For other disciplines, Routledge publishes comprehensive critical guides for many subjects in the humanities and social sciences, and its sister imprint CRC Press publishes guides to subjects in the natural sciences.

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Explaining the Stakes and the ConsequencesTo write successfully, you must learn how to explain to your readers why your argument matters.

KEY POINTS

• Your readers need to accept that the argument you are making matters to them.

• You must be able to answer the question “Even if that is your solution, so what?” It is not enough to state a problem and its solution.

• To answer the “So what?” question, you need to know the consequences of your argument.

• These take two forms: costs, which detail bad things that will happen if the audience does not read your argument, and benefits, which detail good things that will happen if the audience reads your argument.

• Consequences can also be pragmatic or conceptual. It is important that the consequences you propose affect your audience somehow.

• If necessary, tailor your explanation of the costs and benefits of your argument to clarify how they would specifically affect your reader.

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As a writer, you may take for granted that your argument is interesting to readers. Often, though, the audience has no particular stake in reading your work. It is up to you to convince readers that your argument matters to them.

Stating Consequences

One of the most effective ways to interest your reader in a problem is to convince the reader that it has consequences. The consequences should be relevant to your reader’s interest, and those interests should also be something that your argument can solve. State explicitly for your readers what those consequences will be. Avoid grand promises that you cannot deliver on, and doom-and-gloom predictions about what will happen if your argument is ignored. If your consequences are smaller but specific, they will be more believable to the reader.

If you yourself aren’t sure of exactly what your consequences are, there are two useful rubrics to consider. Ask yourself: is your problem pragmatic or conceptual, and do your consequences take the form of a cost or a benefit (Figure 1.2)?

Problems usually fall into two categories: pragmatic and conceptual. A quick way of thinking about the difference is this: pragmatic problems ask us what we should do, and conceptual problems ask us what we should think.

Pragmatic problems are those with tangible consequences and solutions. They have concrete consequences, and their solutions usually involve setting forth a plan of action to respond to the problem. Conceptual problems, in contrast, deal with theoretical questions. They seek to investigate an issue rather than to fix it, and their solutions usually involve reaching new understanding or changing how a reader thinks about a question.

It may seem like conceptual problems are harder to make relevant to your audience. After all, since their consequences rarely affect a reader as directly as a pragmatic problem’s consequences would. You can still articulate consequences for them. For instance, you can show your readers that there are costs or benefits if they change their point of view about a topic. Another good tactic is to convince readers that their understanding of an issue is incomplete. If the

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Good writing tends to respond to questions that haven't necessarily been asked yet. Therefore, if you posing specific questions, rather than vague or general questions, will produce more specific, and therefore more productive, responses. Avoiding generalization in favor of specificity is a way of improving the quality of your writing.

Figure 1.2 Pose specific questions so you don't have to take on the entire world!

issue is important to them, they will be willing to pay attention when you promise to improve their understanding.

Along with deciding whether your problem is pragmatic or conceptual, you need to think about whether your consequences take the form of costs or benefits. Costs are negative effects that occur when a problem remains unsolved. Benefits are positive effects that will result if your argument solves its problem.

Pragmatic problems will have different costs and benefits than conceptual ones will. Pragmatic costs include social, economic, or logistical disadvantages. Conceptual costs usually involve not knowing a crucial piece of information or not understanding an important problem. Benefits follow a similar pattern: pragmatic benefits will involve some sort of tangible gain, and conceptual benefits will result in improved knowledge.

Costs and benefits are only effective at interesting readers if those readers feel that the consequences are somehow connected to them. If possible, you should make the connection explicitly. In the case of pragmatic costs, for example, you could explain how an economic disadvantage would impact the reader. For conceptual costs, you would need to convince the reader why not knowing some piece of information would cause them problems. Always be sure to make it clear to your reader how consequences will affect them, since until

you answer the question of why readers should care, you will not be able to convince them what to think or do.

Knowing Your Audience

As you have probably noticed by now, a productive question is defined by whether or not it is interesting to the audience. The same is true of consequences – their relevancy is determined by whether or not they matter to the reader. This means that it is extremely important that you understand your audience. Who are they? What do they care about? Maybe your audience is easily interested in your topic, and will therefore not require much convincing in order to care about what you are writing. Maybe they have no interest whatsoever in your topic, in which case you will have to engage in extensive persuasion before they pay attention. Knowing what your audience is like will make it much easier to provide the right amount and type of evidence that your problem is relevant to their lives.

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EXAMPLES

Most changes to the status quo entail both costs and benefits. This rule certainly holds true in the following case study. ZYX Pharmaceuticals created a new antidepressant that was very effective for patients suffering from severe depression. The drug was not recommended for patients under the age of eighteen due to its debilitating side effects. However, given the drug’s unusual efficacy with severe cases of depression, ZYX considered holding a clinical trial to determine how it would affect younger patients. ZYX’s executives decided that the benefits would outweigh the costs as long as the drug helped significantly more patients than it hurt—and also, as long as the positive effects were greater than those reported for similar drugs with fewer side effects. ZYX Pharmaceuticals held a clinical trial for subjects between the ages of 13 and 17. Two weeks into the trial, 25% of the subjects begin experiencing terrible side effects that were much worse than the effects reported by adult test subjects. However, the other 75% showed unusually large improvement. ZYX faced a pragmatic problem: halt the trial because a significant percentage of subjects experienced side effects that outweighed the benefits, or continue the trial because, for the majority of the subjects, the side effects were worth the unprecedented improvement. This problem is pragmatic because it has real-world consequences.

In addition to those pragmatic problems, the clinical trial also raised conceptual problems. The scientists running the trial worried that the young patients experiencing acute side effects

EXAMPLES (cont.)

might suffer permanent damage if they continued taking the drug. The scientists had already discovered what the 25% had in common: dry skin—and as a result, they had decided to recommend against prescribing the drug to minors with dry skin. However, the scientists didn’t know why the drug affected dry-skinned children so negatively, and they weren’t sure when the risk of permanent damage would begin. Since the drug was significantly better than its peers, there would be conceptual benefits in continuing the trial until the scientists could determine why it interacted so badly with this group. That would allow them to gain knowledge that could help them understand the problem better, although it wouldn’t have direct real-world consequences, since they had already decided not to prescribe the drug to this group. However, if ZYX kept the dry-skinned children in the trial for too long, those subjects might develop permanent debilitating conditions, creating pragmatic costs that would outweigh the conceptual benefits.

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Destabilizing the Status QuoDestabilizing refers to describing something accepted as true, then pointing out what is missing that your argument will provide.

KEY POINTS

• Writers need to be aware of and research the the academic context in which they write their papers.

• Then the writer has to explain to readers how his or her paper connects to other works (the status quo), preferably in a way that makes clear how the paper is improving or adding to the field.

• You can destabilize the status quo in a variety of ways, including pointing out an error, noting an oversight, or calling attention to a common misperception.

• Choose whichever method makes the strongest case that a problem exists and that your argument is a way of correcting it.

As discussed in the previous section, it is up to you, as a writer, to explain to your audience why your work matters. Knowing the status quo will be very helpful when you are trying to explain your argument. Once you are familiar with the argument, you can ask yourself how your work adds something new or different to the field

(Figure 1.3). Think hard about what makes your approach different from everyone else’s – after all, if you claim that your argument has already been made by someone else, you have basically admitted to the reader that your work does not matter.

How to Destabilize the Status Quo

Making your audience aware of this problem is sometimes called “destabilizing.” Basically, you begin by telling your audience about something stable and accepted as true (the status quo). Then you point out that this appearance of stability is false, that, in fact, there is something missing from the status quo and your argument will provide for this missing element.

There are several common strategies for destabilizing the status quo. You can point

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Stating your ideas as a response to others who have written on your topic is not only a good opportunity to articulate the specifics of your argument, but also places you inside of a discursive conversation. Responding to others is a good way to enter the conversation and give your ideas more validity than if they were stated in a vacuum.

Figure 1.3 By stating your ideas as a response to others, you avoid a conversational desert!

out an error, note an oversight, or call attention to a common misperception. You could explain how a new way of thinking would be more productive, or how it would solve a problem that the status quo leaves unresolved. You could even convince readers that they need some piece of information, which they never realized they needed. Often, destabilization will lead into describing costs, since you are trying to convince the reader that they have a problem unrealized previously.

When choosing how you want to destabilize the status quo, remember to be specific. It helps to have a particular idea, author, or text that you are positioning yourself against. Saying that you take issue with one particular point of view will be much more believable to the reader than if you decide to say that an entire field of scholarship is wrong.

To be effective, your destabilization has to be two things: believable, which it will be if you can be specific about the problem, and relevant, which it will be if you can introduce costs. If you achieve both those things, your destabilization should convince the reader that they have a problem even if they did not think they had one before.

When Should I Destabilize the Status Quo?

Since you want to use destabilization to motivate your reader’s attention, the best place to use this tactic is right at the beginning of your paper, when you are still setting up your argument. Go ahead and describe for them what the status quo is, then reveal the “but” moment – this is what scholarship says, but this is what they are missing. By convincing your audience that a problem exists, you prime them to want a solution. They will expect you to follow up the destabilization with your answer to it – in other words, they will want you to go ahead and make your argument.

Destabilizing moments are often introduced with language that signals that a change in your argument is coming. You can use words like “but,” “however,” and “in fact” to announce to the reader that you are about to destabilize an argument.

Your final problem statement will probably look something like this:

Status Quo --> Destabilizing Moment --> Consequences of Problem --> Proposed Solution

You do not always need to follow the structure of this formula, but you should include all four components in your problem statement. As discussed in the previous section, it is up to you, as a writer, to explain to your audience why your work matters. You could try to

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convince readers your paper matters since it is providing them with new information or a new outlook. However, providing them with this new outlook is not always an effective strategy. Unless your reader is extremely interested in your topic, they probably want more justification than “my paper says something new.” They might think they already have enough information about your topic. You will need to use the status quo to generate consequences for readers, and the way to do so is to convince them that there is a problem in the status quo.

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Understanding Critical Thinking

Reading Carefully and Closely

Browsing Content and Text Online

Section 2

The Practice of Critical Reading

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Understanding Critical ThinkingCritical thinking helps writers decide if they think another writer’s argument is solid or in need of improvement.

KEY POINTS

• Critical thinking is a way of approaching texts that calls for a reader to consider what the author is arguing, and how he or she argues it.

• Critical thinking is one of the first essential steps in analyzing and writing about a text, topic, or argument.

• Thinking critically about other writers' work can help you to improve your own. By applying the same critical standards you use when reading someone else's work to your own, you can greatly increase the clarity, accuracy, and value of your work.

In researching the status quo, you will probably come across work by other writers that you would like to use in your own writing. This can be a very successful strategy for argument when done properly. Using sources well means doing more than just repeating what other authors say, though. You need to engage with your source text

– comment on it, argue with it, analyze it, expand upon it. To be able to do any of those things, you need to start with a thorough and accurate understanding of other authors’ work.

The way to achieve that understanding begins with thinking critically about the texts you are reading. In this case, “critically” does not mean that you are looking to find things wrong with a work; though in the course of your critical process, you may well do that. Instead, thinking critically means approaching a work as if you were a critic or commentator. Your primary goal is to evaluate the text at hand.

This is an essential step in analyzing a text, and it requires you to consider many different aspects of a writer’s work. Do not just consider what the text says. Think about what effect the author intended to produce in a reader. Look at the process through which the writer achieves (or does not achieve) the desired effect, and which rhetorical strategies are being used. If you disagree with a text, what is the point of contention? If you agree with it, how do you think you can expand or build upon the argument put forth?

Critical thinking has a lot of uses. If you apply it to a work of literature, for example, it can become the foundation of a detailed textual analysis. With scholarly articles, critical thinking can help you evaluate how reliable they would be as sources. Finding an error in someone else’s argument can be the point of destabilization

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you need to make a worthy argument of your own. Critical thinking can even help you hone your own argumentation skills, since it requires you to think carefully about which strategies are effective for making arguments.Critical thinking has a lot of uses. If you apply it to a work of literature, for example, it can become the foundation of a detailed textual analysis. With scholarly articles, critical thinking can help you evaluate how reliable they would be as sources. Finding an

error in someone else’s argument can be the point of destabilization you need to make a worthy argument of your own. Critical thinking can even help you hone your own argumentation skills, since it requires you to think carefully about which strategies are effective for making arguments.

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As you prepare to practice critical reading, it is important to understand critical thinking. This is not simply the ability to criticize a text or the position of an author. Rather, critical thinking requires understanding argumentative structures, getting to the place where you understand the elements of an argument, and how those elements are sewn together within a text.

Figure 1.4 Critical Thinking Takes More Than Long Stares

Reading Carefully and CloselyWhen reading critically, deciphering the writer's argument allows you to develop a more thoughtful response to the text.

KEY POINTS

• The author of a text will often use language that signals an important point.

• You should also examine what strategies the text’s writer uses to make his or her argument.

• While it is important to know what the thesis statement is, you also need to understand the steps through which the writer attempts to prove it.

• Consider the author’s tone, the author's use of quotations and how the author organizes his paper.

• This process takes time and requires that you pay careful attention to what another writer is saying, but the thought you put into it at this state of research will pay off when the time comes for you to craft your response to the text.

Critical thinking can seem like a daunting task, especially if you don’t have much practice with it. You know you need to make an in-

depth examination of a text, but there are so many different things at which you must look closely.

What follows is a list of questions commonly asked in close reading. These questions are guidelines and suggestions, not a checklist of things you must ask about everything you read. Different guidelines will apply depending on what you are reading and how you want to interpret it. You will not approach a scholarly article in the same way you would read a work of literature or a personal essay. The two constant rules, no matter what you are studying, are that you must pay close attention and take your time. Carefully considering answers to only a few of these questions will probably serve you better than trying to come up with quick answers for all of them.

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Inevitably, you will come across particularly challenging texts, whether they are critical, like essays, or non-critical, like novels. Don't let the difficulty of these texts deter you from reading them. Instead, deploy methods that make them more manageable, such as re-reading pages, tracking important words or drawing diagrams that plot out the trajectory of the text.

Figure 1.5 Don't let particularly challenging texts blow you away!

Questions Regarding Intent

• What is the author trying to do? Writing can accomplish many different goals: explaining, informing, persuading, evoking various emotions, motivating, attacking, defending. Some texts will have one clear purpose, and others will shift over the course of the piece.

• What methods does the author use to accomplish these goals?

Questions Regarding Organization

• What sort of organization does the author use? Does he begin with specifics and work his way up to larger ideas, or does he start off broadly and narrow his argument down? Does he compare and contrast? Use a chronological layout?

• How well do you think the text is organized? Do particular organizational choices improve the work, detract from it, or have no effect at all on your reading experience?

• How does the author set up her thesis? What sort of scope does the thesis have?

• Which rhetorical appeals does the author use to make his argument? Does the piece rely most heavily on ethos, logos, or pathos?

• What evidence does the author provide for his argument? Does this evidence support this argument effectively?

Questions Regarding Style

• What is the tone of the text? Does the author attempt to sound professional or informal? How heavily does she rely on a certain type of language? Why might she be trying to sound that way?

• What sort of vocabulary does the author use? This can offer important hints about the author's intended audience. The connotations of certain words can also tell you a lot about how the author feels about the topic.

• What kind of sentence structure does the writer use? If the structure is obviously unusual or stylized, why do you think he chose to write in that manner?

• How are quotations and dialogue used? Look at where quotes were included, and consider why. Also, when the author chose to paraphrase instead of quoting, why do you think this choice was made?

• Does the writer use any unusual or non-standard punctuation? What other techniques of emphasis (such as italics, boldface font, underlining, and parentheses) does the writer use? And why?

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• Does the writer use any literary devices or figurative language? When does he use them, and why?

Questions Regarding Audience & Authorship

• Who is the author’s intended audience? How can you tell? Which of the audience’s values and beliefs does the author incorporate?

• What assumptions does the author make about her topic? What assumptions does she think her audience is making?

• What information does the author give you about himself? Why do you think he provides that information? If he takes care not to develop an authorial persona, why do you think that is?

• What do you know about the author from sources other than this text? Is she considered an authority on the given subject?

Begin the critical thinking process with careful observation, but don't stop there. When considering these questions, always end by asking “And why?” Assume that the author writes everything based on a specific reason. If you try to discern what those reasons are, you will gain a much better understanding of the work.

And again, be careful. Just as a particularly insightful reading can elevate an argument, a faulty or poorly considered reading of a text

can invalidate one. So take your time and think about what a text is saying before you formulate an argument in your own work.

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Browsing Content and Text OnlineCarefully investigate your sources, since standards for accuracy are often lower for online publications than in books and journals.

KEY POINTS

• The ADAM method evaluates a source's legitimacy using four criteria: age, depth, author and money.

• Keep track of your online sources in a “Bookmarks” folder, Dropbox or even a word document that lists source names and hyperlinks. It's easy to lose track of online content if you don’t record it somewhere.

• Most universities offer free access to research databases such as JSTOR, EBSCO, ProQuest and LexisNexis Academic, all of which contain a huge selection of academic articles from various disciplines.

The internet is a great resource for students. Most universities offer free access to research databases such as JSTOR, EBSCO, ProQuest, and LexisNexis Academic, all of which contain a wide selection of academic articles from various disciplines. These databases also enable students to browse specialized journals, which are helpful

resources for those who want to familiarize themselves with the conventions of a particular discipline.

Beyond the world of academic websites and journals, the role of the internet becomes murkier. You can find resources ranging from online encyclopedias to informative governmental websites to opinionated blogs. Some are acceptable to use in an academic paper, while others are inappropriate. In academic writing, you should carefully investigate the source of your evidence, since the standards for accuracy are lower in many online publications than in books and journals. The ADAM method provides four criteria

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Browsing content and text online can be a very beneficial way of accessing current academic articles. When browsing content online, it is important to take into consideration the legitimacy of the source and author of any texts you access. Ensuring that a text meets academic standards makes it more likely to appear in your own writing or help you construct your argument.

Figure 1.6 Luckily, browsing content online doesn't require two people and a computer that fills an entire room!

for evaluating online sources: Age: How old is this source? For most topics, find the most current sources first before consulting older sources. Depth: Does the source provide in-depth analysis, or does it merely skim the surface? Does it support general ideas with concrete, properly attributed evidence? Always use substantive sources. Author: Who is the author? What are his/her qualifications for writing about this topic? Does the author seem to have a bias or potential conflicts of interest? What is his/her purpose for writing this article? Money: Is the source coming from a place that's trying to “sell” something? Is the source at all connected to advertising that might affect what will be printed?

Keep track of your online sources in a “Bookmarks” folder, Dropbox or even a word document that lists source names and hyperlinks. It's easy to lose track of online content if you don’t record it somewhere. If you want to use an idea that you find online, but you can’t relocate the page on which you found it, don’t use it – that would be plagiarism. Save yourself the trouble and organize your online research from the beginning. Finally, always consult the guidelines for your particular documentation style (for example, MLA or APA) to make sure that you’re using the proper citation format for each type of online source.

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Raising the Stakes of Your Argument

Rhetoric and Argumentation

Section 3

The Practice of Rhetoric

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Raising the Stakes of Your ArgumentLearn how to make your argument more meaningful by connecting it to larger social, philosophical, or political questions.

KEY POINTS

• Scope can be too broad. You can’t answer age-old philosophical or ethical questions in a ten-page paper, nor should you try to do so.

• Arguments that engage readers usually resonate with the reader because their scope extends beyond simply analyzing a source text.

• One common strategy for doing this is to connect whatever is being studied to a topic or issue that is relevant to society. Since the reader is presumably part of that society, he or she will have an easier time grasping why the argument pertains to them.

In scholarly writing, it is important to make a case for why your argument matters. It is tempting to say that your argument is important because its scope is far-reaching – that it will tackle huge questions and provide grand solutions. This strategy can easily backfire, since it is hard to deliver on those promises. You can’t

answer age-old philosophical or ethical questions in a ten-page paper, nor should you try to do so. Instead, you need to find a way to connect your paper to meaningful questions while keeping your claims within the realm of what is reasonable.

A good way to find larger meaning in your analysis is to connect whatever you are studying with a topic or issue that is relevant to society. Some academic disciplines like political science or public policy revolve entirely around exploring this connection. In the arts, there are many fields of criticism dedicated to studying objects in terms of these questions. They can also be politically oriented, as in Marxist theory or imperialist studies. Others focus more on cultural debates, as in the field of gender studies. These disciplines make their work meaningful by connecting to issues faced by the world today. By connecting your argument to questions that are relevant to your readers, you have shown that your argument pertains to their lives.

However, the way you choose to link your argument to larger questions must make sense. That is to say, whatever message you find in your object must be compatible with the object itself. The goal is to connect your work to larger questions, not to project your own ideological views onto every single thing you study.

Also be careful to avoid generalizations and blanket statements. If you are writing a paper on “As You Like It” and want to incorporate

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feminist theory, it would be too simplistic to say, “Shakespeare was a feminist” and elaborate no further. Scholarly arguments are rarely that straightforward. Instead of stating that a text has a clear-cut stance on an issue, it would be more productive to ask how that text can shed light on a particular aspect of a movement or topic of debate.

EXAMPLE

Here are three passages that describe the same psychological study, each using a different rhetorical tactic: Logos: Given that 84% of the subjects in six separate clinical trials reported a statistically significant increase in feelings of guilt when they carried a picture of a deity in their pocket, it follows that there is a correlation between guilt and religion. Pathos: If you still question the results of these trials, take a moment for this thought experiment. Imagine starting your day with a photo of a deity in your pocket. You see an unpaid bill in your desk drawer. You cut someone off in traffic. You arrive at work ten minutes late. You are tempted to steal someone else’s soda from the communal fridge, but you resist the temptation. Regardless of your religious persuasion, doesn’t it make you a little bit anxious to imagine that someone might be keeping track of every mundane little thing you say, do, and even think? Keeping a picture in your pocket makes that possibility even more present in the mind. 84% may seem like a surprisingly high percentage, but guilt is an emotion that afflicts all of us, and it will take root at any excuse. Ethos: When Jones published the results of the study last year, he faced a great deal of scrutiny from the psychological community. Susan Miller, author of the foundational book Religion and Guilt, wrote a paper that questioned his methodology: “Pocket Full of

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You raise the stakes of your writing as you transition from timed essay tests or short essay writing to preparing material for possible publication. Taking your writing public requires that your writing possess rhetorical features and argumentative structures expected of published material. Knowing these expectations will help you prepare writing for public consumption.

Figure 1.7 Raise the Stakes of Your Work by Going Public

EXAMPLE (cont.)

Questions: Methodology and Bias in Recent Scholarship.” Jones responded to her concerns in a post on his personal blog, and Miller responded that she was satisfied. Soon afterward, Jones’s paper was selected to appear in the anthology Psychology and Religion, a strong vote of confidence for such a recent paper.

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Rhetoric and ArgumentationCareful rhetoric, or the art of crafting arguments through tone and presentation of evidence, can make your argument more convincing.

KEY POINTS

• Rhetoric involves the “how” of making arguments – what kind of writing will make your argument most convincing to the reader.

• In classical rhetoric, there are three main strategies to appeal to the reader: logos, pathos and ethos. Good writing will usually rely primarily on only one of these appeals; however, it will incorporate elements of the other two as needed.

• Ethos, logos and pathos are designed to affect the reader differently. When choosing which strategy to rely on most heavily, think about what kind of argument you want to make. Once you know what your goal for the reader is, you should be able to tell which type of appeal will be the most useful.

As a writer, your primary focus should be the content of your argument. However, it’s worth paying attention to how you argue. Careful rhetoric – the art of crafting arguments, particularly through tone and the presentation of evidence – can increase how convincing you are to your readers.

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Rhetoric works when writers choose the strategy best suited to swaying the readers to their side. The three main strategies in classical rhetoric are logos, pathos, and ethos.

Logos relies on rigorous use of logic and reason. Arguments based on logos usually employ deductive or and inductive reasoning, and they depend on the quality of that reasoning and the reliability of their evidence.

Pathos, in contrast, relies on evoking emotional reaction in its audience. Its evidence is more likely to be personal or anecdotal. Its success depends on the author understanding the audience’s values and beliefs and then being able to manipulate them.

Ethos, the final strategy, works by building up authorial credibility and then using that credibility to convince the reader of something. Ethos can be built both by an author stressing his personal reliability and by citing other reliable authors in your work. Ethos is not directly related to making an argument, but when you employ ethos, the other aspects of your argument will be even more persuasive.

Good writing will usually rely primarily on only one of these appeals; however, it will incorporate elements of the other two as needed. For some topics, a logical appeal will be much more convincing to a reader than a pathetic appeal would be. In others, pathos will work better than ethos or logos.

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Using appropriate rhetorical tools and a well-thought out argumentative structure is a way of ensuring the strength of your writing. In addition, rhetoric and argumentation are ways of capturing the attention of your audience and leading them to the conclusions of your argument.

Figure 1.8 Capture the attention of your audience with rhetoric and argumentation

Chapter 2

Paper Execution

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Choosing a Topic

Developing a Question in Your Topic

Propose a Working Hypothesis

Turn Your Working Hypothesis into a Claim

Freewriting and Mapping

Section 1

Planning Your Topic

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Choosing a TopicOne of the most basic yet valuable skills you can have as a writer is knowing how to choose the right topic.

KEY POINTS

• Coming up with your own topic means clarifying two things: what questions are of interest to you, and what you think about those questions. Generating your own topic requires you to articulate your personal viewpoint about a question.

• Doing research can show you what topics others writers have found interesting about your text. This will also help you understand what other scholars thought was interesting about it, which in turn may spark an idea for your own work.

• Brainstorming can also help. Talking about the subject with your professor or classmates may lead to new ideas and help clarify whatever thoughts you already have about a text.

• Another way to generate ideas is to reread the text and write down whatever comes to mind about it as you do so.

• You don’t need to use every method every time – find one that works for you, use it to generate as many different thoughts as you can, and then go back later and look your work over.

• Remember to take your deadline and page limit into account, since this affects how broad your topic can be.

One of the most basic yet valuable skills you can have as a writer is knowing how to choose the right topic. This can seem like a daunting task. When you can write about anything, it can be hard to find just one question and stick to it. But coming up with the right topic is essential to writing a good paper – it is the foundation on which all your other work has to rest.

A good topic is two things: creative and precise. In the coming section, we will discuss strategies for thinking of topics that meet both criteria. Remember that all these strategies are suggestions rather than necessary tasks. When you are new to coming up with topics, it will probably be helpful to engage in all these different exercises. As you gain practice, you will learn which strategies do and don’t work well for you.

Why come up with your own topic?

If you are still a relatively new writer, you’re probably used to teachers and professors giving you specific instructions on what you should write. The first time you can choose whatever you want to write about, you may wonder why your professor has suddenly given you such vague instructions. The professor probably hopes you will be more excited about working on the paper if you are expressing your own ideas rather than working to fulfill a set of strict requirements. He or she wants to see your viewpoint – what you think and how well you can articulate it. This is where the first

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requirement of a good topic comes into play. What your professor wants, first and foremost, is to see you be creative.

Getting Started: The Use of Research

Saying that a topic should be creative does not mean that every paper you write must deal with a question that is completely original. A demand like that could never be met. In this case, “creative” means that you are adding your own personal viewpoint to the academic conversation that surrounds whatever text you are writing about.

What is the academic conversation? Simply put, it is all the scholarship that already exists about your subject. When you know the general topic of your paper – say, the play Hamlet – you can start figuring out what your specific viewpoint will be by going to the library and finding scholarly journals and books that cover the play. If you need a good starting point, your librarian or professor would probably be happy to suggest a couple texts to you (Figure 2.1). Feel free to browse randomly and choose whatever catches your interest.

One thing to look for at this stage of research is what topics other writers have found interesting or productive. Chances are you’ll find several questions that scholars keep coming back to. They may correct each other, argue against each other, or clarify points that

others have made. These debates are always going on, which means it’s possible for you to step in and make your own contribution. If you find a debate that sparks your interest, pursue it further – that opinion could become your topic.

Generating New Ideas: Brainstorming

Let’s say that you have done your research but you haven’t found any line of questioning that particularly sparks your interest. Or maybe you’ve found a debate that you want to take part in, but you

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Reading scholarly work in your field of interest is a good way to start choosing a topic

Figure 2.1 DATABASE at Postmasters, March 2009 by Michael Mandiberg

still don’t have a specific contribution you want to make. You need to generate more ideas to clarify exactly what you want to do. There are several strategies you can use to do this.

First of all, even if you didn’t find much in the academic conversation, regular conversation can still be helpful. Talk with

your classmates or professor about where you are in your writing process. Explaining to others what you’re doing can often help you clarify and narrow your position. It can also lead to new thoughts as you respond to others’ questions.

Another good strategy is to reread the text and brainstorm while doing so. Sit down with your book and and take down notes as you read. Write down whatever strikes you as interesting or confusing. If you get an idea about something, note that as well. If you notice patterns in what you write down, you might want to organize them on different pages.

The goal with this project is to write down as many ideas as possible. Don’t work about whether something is good or bad, or even if it is completely coherent. Record whatever goes through your mind about the text, whether or not you think it will make a good topic. You can go back over what you’ve written and see which notes still look good or interesting. Those are the ones that probably reveal your viewpoint on the text.

Choosing the Right Scope

We’ve discussed how to come up with a topic that is creative, but that is only half of the process. A good topic also has to be precise.

Even if you are not given a specific prompt for a paper, your professor probably told you how many pages long he wants your

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An example of an idea cluster for the subject “gardening”

Figure 2.2 Clustering

paper to be. For your argument to be successful, it must be something you can complete in the given space. Entire books have been written on the topic of “revenge in Hamlet,” meaning it’s probably not a good topic for a ten-page paper. You need to choose a smaller component of that question.

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Developing a Question in Your TopicA problem statement needs a question to solve, so part of narrowing your topic is transforming it from a statement into a specific question.

KEY POINTS

• A topic is usually a description of an area of study. Writers generate problem statements by rephrasing their topics into questions to be answered.

• A question is what you want to find out about that area of study. You need this question in order to state your argument, since it is impossible argue something that can neither be agreed nor disagreed with.

• To rephrase your topic as a question, think what you want to say about your topic. You do not need a specific answer, just a focused line of inquiry.

You may think that once you choose a topic, you’re ready to start writing. Actually, choosing a topic is just the first of several preliminary steps. Your end goal in this stage is to formulate a problem statement, which tells the reader what you’re arguing and why your argument matters. To develop a problem statement,

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you must rephrase your topic into a question.

Topic Versus Question: What’s the Difference?

When asked to describe your topic, give a description of an area of study. Your topic might be the political implications of revenge in Hamlet, the involvement of French nobility in the American Revolution, or use of the color purple in Monet’s Water Lilies. These are all possible topics. However, telling the reader that you are studying one of those things gives no indication of your argument, or even if you have one.

A basic rule of academic writing is that every paper needs an argument, and every argument needs a question.

You cannot introduce your paper by declaring that “Hamlet explores the question of revenge” or “Monet uses purple in many ways in his Water Lilies.” Those sentences are topics, not problem statements, because they offer nothing to argue against. They fail in

the two most important tasks a problem statement has: saying what you intend to prove and why it matters that you prove it.

Your question is also not a fully articulated problem statement. It is a summary of what you hope to find out about your topic. However, it should work towards figuring out how to meet the criteria of a successful problem statement.

How to Transform a Topic into a Question

To rephrase your topic as a question, think what you want to say about your topic. You do not need a specific answer, just a focused line of inquiry. This is an area where brainstorming can be very helpful (Figure 2.4). Try free-writing questions about your topic, or making a concept map of things you want to discuss. Even if you do not explicitly phrase these subtopics as questions, you will come across a few that you will want to answer or explain. One of those can become your question.

It might also help to think about what questions your audience will need answered. If your topic is revenge in Hamlet, ask yourself what your readers will need to know about revenge. For instance, they will probably want to know whether Hamlet presents revenge as a noble act or a destructive one. Going even further, they might want to know how the play describes successful revenge as opposed to unsuccessful revenge. The question, “How does Hamlet lay out

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Reading up on the current academic conversation in your topic area can help you develop a solid research question

Figure 2.3 Library, Hermitage of St Bernardine, Stroud, NSW

criteria for ‘successful’ revenge?” is far from a developed argument, but it is something from which a problem statement can be built.

Formulating your question also helps develop the costs of your argument. In the case of conceptual arguments, the question helps justify why you are writing in the first place. A good question should ask something that you and your readers will want answered. That is why turning your topic into a compelling question is such a vital step in the preliminary writing process.

EXAMPLE

Once you’ve found a topic that you’re interested in—Humbert Humbert’s unreliable narration and its effects on the moral classification of his character—and you’ve read up on other scholars’ views on that topic, you’re ready to develop a question about your topic to investigate. Through brainstorming and free-writing, you might come up with a list of lines of inquiry: Can an accurate moral evaluation even be made when a narrative is written in the first person? How skewed does Humbert Humbert’s narration seem? Are there instances where his narration lets itself be known as a false recounting of events? How does Clare Quilty, as Humbert’s quasi-doppelganger, function as a vessel for the transference of Humbert’s moral transgressions? How far do Humbert’s direct addresses to his audience (the “ladies and gentlemen of the jury”) affect the tone of his expressions of remorse? How does the extreme, self-identified solipsism through which Humbert views and describes Lolita play into the reader’s ability to morally assess his character and hers?

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Brainstorming can be a good way to help develop a research question

Figure 2.4 Brainstorming

Propose a Working HypothesisA “working hypothesis" is a statement of what you think the answer to your question is.

KEY POINTS

• Your “working hypothesis” will evolve as you write and refine your argument. A working hypothesis is essential to structuring your problem statement.

• Good papers will tell readers up front what they are going to argue. Rather than say you are going to answer a question, say what you think your answer will be – you can always go back and clarify later. Stating your hypothesis early on will help ensure you stick to the proposed topic.

• A working hypothesis is the next step after posing a question. A working hypothesis can be a rough answer to a question rather than a polished final argument.

You’ve chosen a topic, and you’ve turned it into a question. The next step is to start answering your question. Don’t panic – you don't need to jump straight from your question to a fully-developed, thoroughly argued answer. Instead, aim for what scientists would call a “working hypothesis.” This is a statement of what you think the answer is, and which you will test out and build upon as

you construct your argument.

What Should My Working Hypothesis Do?

By the time you reach this stage, you probably already have some sort of answer for your question. If that’s the case, this step is less about finding a solution than it is about starting to phrase the solution you want to promote.

Your hypothesis should provide a clear and complete summary of your solution. This is helpful both to you and to your eventual audience. When your paper is done and your hypothesis finalized, it will be an integral part of your problem statement. This means you should spend time making sure it tells the audience exactly what you want it to.

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A working hypothesis can be a rough answer to a question, rather than a polished final argument

Figure 2.5 Lightbulb at the Menger Hotel in San Antonio

Working Does Not Mean Finished

A complete problem statement contains the following steps: a status quo, a moment when you point out a problem in the status quo, and the solution you have to that problem. This solution will be developed from your working hypothesis. Since it is going to become part of your problem statement, this is the time to start paying close attention to your language. While your paper may not present your question verbatim, you will need to state your finalized hypothesis in exact words. However, you won't have that final phrasing of your hypothesis until much later, so even after you come up with a working hypothesis, you should feel free to tweak it. Since you have yet to fully develop your argument, you will probably come up with several variations of your answer. That’s okay. As you write your paper and work through your argument, it should become clear which variation works best. Experiment until you decide which version is the most accurate and understandable (Figure 2.6).

What Should Be Changing?

Be sure to modify your working hypothesis as you develop your argument. You should pay close attention to what kind of changes you are making, because some will be more consequential than others. Improving or tweaking your language is fine. You can even refine and clarify your argument, which will probably start off as

fairly rough. However, if you find yourself significantly altering the meaning of your working hypothesis, you need to stop and look at your work. If you are no longer answering your question, you may be drifting away from your paper’s intended organization. If this is unintentional, you need to refocus on the original question and hypothesis. If you are changing your hypothesis because you discovered that your earlier one was not working, you will need to reformulate your problem statement and restructure your argument.

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Writing out your ideas can be a good way to organize disparate thoughts on a topic

Figure 2.6 Idea Notebook

EXAMPLE

Perhaps you are writing a paper on Humbert Humbert from Lolita.  Your question is: "How does the extreme, self-identified solipsism through which Humbert views and describes Lolita play into the reader’s ability to morally assess his character and hers?" The next step is to develop a working hypothesis as a potential answer to that question. Having a working hypothesis in hand—one that’s open to revision—will help direct your research and the development of your argument. You might think, for example, that the solipsism evidenced in Humbert’s narration works specifically to provide the reader with a guide (albeit a highly manipulative one) for a non-condemning moral assessment of Humbert as a character.

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Turn Your Working Hypothesis into a ClaimYour working hypothesis should not be a statement of fact, but a claim you work to prove in your writing.

KEY POINTS

• To be part of a problem statement, your hypothesis needs to make a claim that can be argued either for or against. When phrasing a working hypothesis, make sure that it meets this criterion. If it does not, it will not make a good basis for you argument.

• A hypothesis is something to be proven; a fact is something that has already been proven. Your argument should rest on a hypothesis rather than a fact. A hypothesis should always make a claim about your topic. The specific claim of your hypothesis should be clear to the reader.

• The point of academic writing is to dispute and debate. If you are arguing an accepted fact, there is no reason to write a paper. You must do more than simply restate what your reader already knows.

It may sound counterintuitive, but your argument should be based on hypothesis, not fact. Fact may seem more desirable – after all, it would mean that you are indisputably correct – but the point of

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academic writing is to dispute and debate. If you are arguing an accepted fact, then you have no good explanation of why you are writing your paper. You are only restating what people already know, and your audience will have no reason to read your work (Figure 2.7).

To motivate your audience to read your work, make sure that they know exactly what your claim is. A hypothesis, by definition, is something you hope to prove, not something that has been previously proven. Consequently, it is the nature of a hypothesis to make a claim about something.

If your hypothesis does not make a claim, it is for one of two reasons. Either it is not a real hypothesis or the way it is written leaves out crucial information. To test whether a hypothesis makes a claim or not, ask yourself: can someone reasonably argue against this? If something cannot be contradicted, it is a fact rather than a

claim. You will need to reformulate your proposed solution into a real hypothesis.

If your claim is unclear even if someone can present reasonable objections to your hypothesis, then your problem is the way you have stated your hypothesis. Try rephrasing it, simplifying the language and making sure you have included all the relevant information. You always want to be as clear and thorough as possible about what you are claiming. Make sure that you provide your audience with everything they need to understand your claim.

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Currently accepted facts generally make for poor claims, as there's not much against which to argue

Figure 2.7 The Sky Is Blue

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Your claim should be something you hope to prove to further the academic conversation about your topic

Figure 2.8 The Purpose of Argument

Freewriting and MappingFreewriting and clustering are two forms of brainstorming; both can help you take a general topic and make it more specific.

KEY POINTS

• In both exercises, it is important to record everything that comes to mind without editing yourself during the process. Both are tools to generate many different questions and ideas for you to choose from when formulating your topic.

• Freewriting is an exercise that helps you generate new ideas about a topic by asking you to write whatever comes to mind when you think of a text or topic.

• Clustering (or concept mapping) is an exercise that helps you refine ideas and narrow the scope of a topic by making a map or diagram of different things you associate with a central topic.

Brainstorming can be used to generate areas of interest if you have no idea what you want to write about. In addition, if you have a broad question in mind, brainstorming can help you develop it into a workable topic. Two exercises that are particularly useful are freewriting (Figure 2.9) and clustering.

Freewriting

Freewriting will come in handy if you have a general topic but are not quite sure what you want to say about it. Get a pen and paper (or open up a blank computer document) and set yourself a time limit. Then start writing about your general topic, recording thoughts as they come into your mind. Do not edit as you go, or even look back at what you have written. Just keep moving on as thoughts occur to you. The purpose of freewriting is to develop ideas spontaneously and naturally.

Consider this example, a two-minute freewrite on the topic “Revenge in Hamlet:”

"People say Hamlet is a play about revenge, but is revenge successful if he dies at the end? Is killing Claudius enough to make Hamlet happy? Did he succeed at anything, or did he just destabilize Denmark further? Fortinbras seems like a better king –

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Freewriting can be a great way to get ideas moving.

Figure 2.9 Notebooks

at least he is interested in government. But he isn’t the rightful ruler, which is part of why Hamlet was upset with his uncle in the first place. Or was he? Is he more upset about the murder or the usurpation? Does he want to rule or just to get revenge? Is his quest for vengeance the act of a justice-seeking prince or are revenge and rulership at cross-purposes from each other?"

There are a few good things to notice about this freewrite. First, the paragraph has many more questions than observations or answers. This is perfectly fine. Freewriting is not a place to work out answers to questions, but rather to figure out exactly what question you want to ask.

The other thing to notice is the general trajectory of the paragraph. The different questions in that paragraph are connected to each other, albeit very loosely. Again, this is fine. Freewriting does not need to be rigidly organized as long as it stays relatively close to its general topic. Often, freewrites will end up having one line of thought carry through them even without you trying to connect everything. There is a significant difference between the starting point of “Is Hamlet’s revenge successful?” and the final questions of “Does Hamlet want to get revenge or become a ruler?” and “Can you seek revenge and be a ruler?” All three are different approaches to the same broader question, though. In fact, those second questions can be refined into more specific answers to the first one.

A topic from the first question might be “Hamlet does not successfully achieve his goal of vengeance.” A topic from the last questions might be “Hamlet fills his stated goal of killing Claudius, but since he leaves Denmark without a king he ultimately fails at correcting the wrong he wanted to correct.” Both ideas are far more focused than what you started with.

Clustering or Concept Mapping

We have already discussed the importance of choosing a topic with the appropriate scope for your paper. If you are having trouble breaking a big topic down into smaller ones, you might want to try clustering.

Clustering is when you write down a very broad topic or idea and then make a concept map, when you diagram smaller ideas or categories that go into the central topic.

Say you are writing a paper that teaches your classmates how to perform a task. You have one page to provide detailed instructions about an activity. If you have chosen “gardening” as that activity, you will not be able to give an adequate description in the space provided. You have to choose a smaller task associated with gardening. The question is, which one?

All the things you linked to “gardening” are smaller tasks you could describe. You can even break them down into further levels of

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detail. For example, the subcategory of “researching and purchasing plants and seeds” can be broken down into separate bubbles for research and purchasing. The purchasing bubble could be broken down into a) where to purchase plants,b) when to purchase plants, c) how much to pay for different plants…and on and on until you reach the right level of specificity. In this way, you can break your general topic down from “explaining gardening” to something like “explaining how to purchase a sunflower plant.”

The goal of clustering, much like freewriting, is to come up with lots of different possibilities. Then you can choose which ones you think are best suited for your assignment.

EXAMPLE

Clustering might involve charting out thoughts about the different sides of Humbert Humbert’s personality—evil, crazy, manipulative, manipulated, hapless—then following each of those general categories toward more specific examples of his behavior. For example, “manipulative” might lead you to his direct address of his readers from the get-go, that he assumes he has more than one reader (self-aggrandizement), that he expresses deep remorse but in suspiciously flowery language, that he constructs his descriptions of Quilty to fit the “evil twin” archetype, etc. The same kind of branching out could happen for each of Humbert’s listed personality traits.

Freewriting might look something like this: Humbert Humbert

EXAMPLE (cont.)

is a pedophile, which is pretty creepy. He takes Lolita away from her childhood and, in a lot of ways, ruins her life. But he recognizes that he’s being judged by the world for his actions and he says he’s full or remorse. Is he sincere or just playing it up for the “jury”? He sounds sincere, though flowery. Do his elaborate professions of guilt work to absolve him or make him seem purely theatrical? What about how he talks about Lolita? He doesn’t even call her by her real name, which is Dolores. In a lot of ways, she’s more of an object of his fantasy than a real person. Does that make his behavior less condemnable because he’s clearly nuts? Or more condemnable because he’s unempathetic to the extreme?

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Assembling Your Argument

Arguing with Evidence and Warrants

Structuring Your Argument

Section 2

Planning Your Argument

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Assembling Your ArgumentOnce you have decided what you will argue, you must prove it by researching and drawing conclusions from the evidence you collect.

KEY POINTS

• Proving your argument requires gathering and providing proof. In academic writing, there are two main elements that constitute proof of an argument.

• The primary element is the text of the object. This will be your main source of proof because your argument should be grounded in the specifics of the text. Indicating and analyzing components of the texts, characters, scenes, narrative, etc., is a way of providing proof for your argument.

• The secondary element is theoretical texts accessed through research. These may support or differ from your argument. Oppositional texts can act as negative proofs, which provide opportunities for you to articulate why that text is incorrect and what constitutes the specifics of your argument.

• Another element of your argument should be information on stances that oppose yours, since you will need to refute those stances in your own work.

• Before you can write an argument, you must gather evidence and draw conclusions from it. Addressing the opposition in your argument will strengthen it significantly.

You will only win readers over to your solution if you can present them with a thorough, convincing argument. Doing this requires careful planning and organization. Before you sit down to write, you should start by gathering and organizing the different elements of your argument.

Think of the elements of argument as the different pieces of information you need to include in your paper. Do not worry about how you will organize them yet – at this step, the goal is just to make sure you have all the components you will need.

In general, there are five different elements of argument: evidence, conclusions, warrants or reasons, knowledge of your audience, and knowledge of your opposition.

The first thing you should assemble is evidence. You cannot make a good argument unless you have strong evidence in sufficient amounts. It is the foundation of the rest of your paper—every claim you make and conclusion you draw must be backed up by the evidence you present.

Evidence can come in many forms: data, written reports or articles, graphs or visual representations, even anecdotes and interviews. Choose whatever forms work best for your argument. While it is important to provide enough evidence to support your argument, be selective about what you use. It is better to choose several very

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convincing pieces of evidence than to have many different pieces that are only vaguely convincing. Also be careful about how reliable your evidence is. Faulty evidence can damage the credibility of your entire paper, so make sure that everything you use is accurate and comes from a trustworthy source.

Next, you want to be clear on what conclusions you are drawing. Make sure that every conclusion corresponds to some piece of evidence. Also have an idea of how you want to organize your conclusions, particularly the order in which you will present them. Conclusions should build on each other, rather than be listed all at once at the end of your paper. Figure out how they fit together before you start writing, and your paper’s structure will benefit from it.

Warrants are the way in which you link evidence to conclusions. Broadly speaking, warrant refers to the explanation of your reasoning. Even though you will not state every warrant openly, you need to make sure that they all hold up under questioning. If required, you need to be able to articulate to the audience why evidence supports claims and conclusions. You should also have an idea of what parts of your argument are complex or important enough that your warrants will need to be stated explicitly.

You should already have some knowledge of your audience, since you need to understand their needs and interests in order to write a

compelling problem statement (Figure 2.10). That same knowledge will help you understand what you need to include in your argument. What evidence will your readers find most compelling? What points will you need to address to convince them? Are there any particular methods of argumentation or lines of reasoning that will prove especially effective? Are there any conventions that you need to obey in order to appeal to them?

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You need to keep your audience in mind when assembling evidence and other elements of your argument. Everything you choose should be tailored to appeal to them.

Figure 2.10 Think about the Audience in an Argument

It makes sense that you need to know who you’re writing for, but it may seem more counterintuitive to include information in your argument about who you’re writing against. In fact, knowledge of your opposition is one of the most important elements of your argument. Failure to acknowledge other points of view will damage your credibility. Instead, think of this element as preparation for refuting their claims. The more you understand what they are saying, the easier it will be for you to convince your reader that your position is better than that of your opponent.

None of these elements needs to be completely worked out before writing. All of them should be well developed, though. It’s fine to add evidence or modify warrants and conclusions later, but the more you change the more you risk presenting your reader with a sloppy argument. Take the time to consider and organize these elements now, so that when you sit down to write, you are confident that your argument is convincing.

EXAMPLE

Here are the steps you should follow to assemble the elements of your argument: 1) Choose an object: short story, novel, painting, movie, television show, etc. 2) Assess the object and decide what your argument is about the object: do you have an insight into something about the object that seems important or significant? 3) Analyze your object and gather evidence to support your claims: find places in the text of your object that support your argument. 4) Do research: review literature that concerns your object and the elements of your argument. Look for positions that both agree and disagree with your argument. 5) Synthesize your reading of the object with the findings of your research: construct your argument by moving between the text of the object and the text of literature you viewed while researching.

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Arguing with Evidence and WarrantsAfter identifying the problem, gather evidence, draw conclusions, then assemble those conclusions into a cohesive position or proposal.

KEY POINTS

• Know your audience.  A paper written about a scientific experiment will rely much more heavily on evidence than, say, an essay on philosophy: the former would depend primarily on hard data that supports its conclusions; the latter would emphasize the rigorousness of its logic.

• An argument based on warrant is only convincing if the warrant is well developed. Warrants are the quality of connection between your evidence and what you claim it concludes. Arguments based on warrant move by building logical connections between separate evidence.

• A warrant is good if the audience will accept three things about it: that it is accurate, that it is appropriate to the circumstance in which you are using it, and that it will also apply to them and their community.

• A way to improve warrants is usually to make them more specific.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

• The Position Method of argument is used to try to convince your audience that you are in the right and that the other view of your argument is wrong.

• The Proposal Method of argument is used when there is a problematic situation and you would like to offer a solution to the situation.

Emphasizing Evidence or Warrants

Once you have assembled the elements of your argument, you must decide how you want to put them together. A good first question is what kind of support you want to emphasize in your paper: evidence or warrant?

Obviously, your paper will include both evidence and warrants that justify the conclusions drawn from it. But chances are that you will find yourself relying on one more than the other when trying to justify your conclusions. If you know in advance which kind of argument you want to make, you will have a better idea of what possible weaknesses to avoid.

Frequently, the kind of paper you are writing will determine which element you need to emphasize. Most disciplines favor one approach over the other. A paper written about a scientific experiment will rely much more heavily on evidence than, say, an

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essay on philosophy. The former would depend primarily on hard data that supports its conclusions; the latter would emphasize the rigorousness of its logic.

If you do not know which approach your discipline favors, think about which approach would appeal more to your audience. Choose to emphasize whichever element they would find more convincing.

Refining Your Warrants

Warrants are the quality of connection between your evidence and what you claim it concludes. Argument based on warrant only works if the warrant is good. A warrant is good if the audience will accept three things about it: that it is accurate, that it is appropriate to the circumstance in which you are using it, and that it will also apply to them and their community.

The last proposition may seem a bit tricky, but it is necessary because warrants work by playing upon the writer and reader’s common ground. A child may try to convince his mother he needs new shoes because his old ones are not fashionable. His mother may accept that his shoes are out of date, but she will not agree he needs new ones unless she believes that it is important for her son to have fashionable shoes.

If your warrant is not good, you may find yourself accused of committing a logical fallacy. To fix the situation, clarify your warrant and make the logical connection stronger. The process of refining your warrants often looks something like the following example:

Claim: “This movie is good because many scholars have studied it.”

As a logical statement, this leaves a lot to be desired. First of all, how are you defining “good?" Scholarly interest does not necessarily correlate with audience enjoyment or even critical acclaim. So you will need to begin by finding a more specific word or phrase than “good.”

Claim: “This movie is worth studying because many other scholars have studied it.”

Okay, so by “good” you mean “worth studying.” You’re closer now, but does the fact that other people have studied something mean

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Academic argument is not about shouting until you get your way: you need evidence and reasoning to carry your point.

Figure 2.11 Spirited Debate

that you need to, as well? Almost everything has been studied by at least a few academics in the past, even things that many people would not think merit the attention (reality TV shows come to mind as a good example). You need a better causal connection.

Claim: “Many scholars have studied the theme of death in this movie without coming to a consensus about how the director intends to represent the afterlife. Clearly, it is an issue with a lot to explore.”

Now you’re getting there! You have given a much stronger reason for why this movie merits studying. You can still go further, though. Maybe you could specify how you would clarify the issue or say what benefit comes from gaining a better idea of the director’s vision of the afterlife.

As you probably noticed, the way to improve warrants is usually to make them more specific.

Other Argument Structures: Position Method and Proposal Method

The position method and proposal method are two variations on normal argument structure.

The position method seeks to convince the reader to share your position on an issue or question. It depends on articulating your

point of view clearly, then providing strong evidence to support it. You will also need to address the opposing stance and explain why yours is superior.

The proposal method, as the name suggests, offers a solution to a problem. It emphasizes warrant more than evidence, since the goal is to convince your reader that the actions you suggest will lead to the outcome you say they will. You will need to make them believe that the connection you describe is a logical one.

EXAMPLE

Here is an example of an argument based on evidence: "The ratio of oxygen to carbon in the water sampled indicates the presence of pollutants in the water." Here is an example of an argument based on warrant: "Many scholars have studied the theme of death in the film without coming to a consensus about how the director intends to represent the afterlife. What they overlook is the frequency of long tracking shots, which demonstrates that the director sees death as a fluid component of the life process."

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Structuring Your ArgumentOnce you assemble your topic and research, you should organize your ideas into a coherent structure before you start writing your paper.

KEY POINTS

• There is no one structure that all papers should follow, but finding the structure that lets you best lay out the evidence can significantly increase how convincing your argument is to readers.

• Assembling an argument requires more than just drawing conclusions based on evidence. You must explain to the reader how you drew those conclusions, and you must present the elements of your argument in a structure that makes it clear how they are all connected.

• Instead of following a format (such as the five-paragraph essay), focus on making sure you include all of the elements of argument.

Structuring an Argument

Now that you have assembled the elements of argument and decided on your strategy for using evidence and warrant, you need to organize everything into a coherent structure (Figure 2.12).

Argument structure can be trickier than you might expect. Many inexperienced writers make the mistake of choosing organizational structures that do not to contribute to their argument. Common mistakes with structure include:

• The Five-Paragraph Essay: This is the formula for how most people first learn to write, and some writers never move away from it. The structure is basic – make a claim, offer three things that support it, then restate your claim. The problem is that papers that use this method read like lists rather than arguments. They rarely connect the different points to each other.

• Chronological Order: This is another default structure. These papers base their organization on the time in which they received evidence. They may describe a series of events or analyze quotes one at a time based on what page of a book

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Once you have the elements of your argument, you need to connect them together, forming an argument that makes sense.

Figure 2.12 Putting the Pieces Together

they appear on. They do this instead of organizing evidence according to which conclusions it supports.

• Compare/Contrast: When used properly and in the right situation, this can be an effective argument structure. More frequently, though, inexperienced writers will describe two separate ideas without ever connecting them to each other. The point is to find some larger meaning in the differences, not just list them for the audience.

You might have noticed that all three of these share a common fault: they list the elements of argument rather than connecting them to each other. A good structure, in contrast, will help strengthen your argument by linking different components in a way that is interesting and makes clear to the reader how each new piece builds upon the previous one.

Questions to Ask Yourself

Unfortunately, the perfect argument structure does not have an easy-to-follow formula. There is no rule or format that will always work. The way you organize your paper will vary depending on what your goal is and what elements of argument you want to emphasize. In general, ask yourself the following:

• Does the claim introduce and give context for the discussion that follows?

• Do any ideas lack a foundation earlier in the paper?

• Does every paragraph contain the evidence necessary for its conclusion?

• Do any paragraphs contain evidence that is not necessary for their conclusions?

• Do you want to lead with your strongest reason, or do you want to save it for the end of your paper so you can finish on a strong note?

• Do you establish authority and trustworthiness for yourself early on?

• Where do you need to make warrants explicit? Where will your audience understand them even if they are only implied?

• Where do you want to address your opposition? Does it make more sense to do it early on so that you have preempted audience objections, or would you be better off building up your argument before addressing any alternatives?

• Does this structure incorporate all five elements of argument?

Lastly, do not be afraid to experiment. You can (and probably will) change the structure of your argument when you revise your paper. If you plan your structure but realize that it is not working once you

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sit down and write your paper, do not be afraid to move elements around. You will still be better equipped to do so than if you had not planned at all, since you have already spent a significant amount of time thinking about how the different elements of your argument work together. If you understand that, you will eventually be able to find a structure that works well for you.

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Organizing Your Research Plan

Finding Useful Print, Online, and Field Sources

Choosing Search Terms for Sources

Conducting Research

Evaluating Sources

Taking Useful Notes

Creating an Annotated Bibliography

Managing Information

Using Relevant Sources

Citing Your Sources

Looking Beyond the Traditional References

Reading Generously to Understand, then Critically to Evaluate

Writing as You Research

Section 3

Researching Your Topic

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Organizing Your Research PlanTo save time and effort, decide on a research plan before you begin.

KEY POINTS

• A research plan should begin by stating a clear focus. Narrow the scope by identifying your specific subtopic.

• Another part of your research plan should be what kind of sources you want to look for. Most search engines will let you limit search results by type of source.

• You could also decide on a time period when planning your research. You can use search engines to find only articles written during a specific period of time.

Creating a Research Plan

As a researcher, you have a huge amount of resources at your disposal (Figure 2.13). It can be very difficult sifting through that many sources looking for specific information. If you begin researching without any plan, you could find yourself wasting hours reading sources that will be of little or no help to your paper. To save time and effort, decide on a research plan before you begin.

A research plan should begin by stating a clear focus. Narrow the scope by identifying your specific subtopic. Think about key search terms that will apply only to that subtopic. Come up with specific questions that you want answered, but avoid making them overly specific. If you choose a focus that is overly narrow, you will find yourself with extremely limited resources. What you want is a question that will limit search results to sources that relate to your topic, but will still result in a variety of different sources to choose from.

If you are studying the Battle of Gettysburg, for example, you might decide to look into any number of things: medical practices on the field, social differences between soldiers, or military maneuvers. If your topic is medical practices in battle, an unspecified search for “Battle of Gettysburg” would bring back information on all of those topics and more. You would also not want to search for a single

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Do not start research haphazardly – come up with a plan first.

Figure 2.13 Books, Books, Books...

instance of surgery, because you might not be able to find enough information on it. Find a happy medium between completely broad and overly specific.

Another part of your research plan should be what kind of sources you want to look for. Most search engines will let you limit search results by type of source. If you know that you are only looking for articles, you can exclude things like interviews or abstracts from your search. If you are looking for specific kinds of data, like images or graphs, you might want to find a database dedicated to that sort of source.

You could also decide on a time period when planning your research. Do you only want articles written in the past ten or twenty years? Do you want them from a specific span of time? Again, most search engines will allow you to limit results to anything written within the years you name.

Example of a Research Process

• Step 1: Decide on topic. For instance, 19th century literature.

• Step 2: Narrow topic in order to narrow search parameters. Continuing with the above topic, 19th century British science fiction.

• Step 3: Choose a specific object to focus on. For instance, Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" is an example of 19th century science fiction.

• Step 4: Determine what question about your object will drive your research. Continuing with our example, a question could be, "How does the novel's vision of generative life relate to the theories of how life is formed that were developed in the 19th century?" Posing a historical question opens up research to more reference possibilities.

• Step 5: Generate sub-questions from your main question. For instance, "What were some competing theories of how life was formed that were dominant in the early 19th century?" Developing questions beyond your main question will give you further lines of research.

• Step 6: Determine what kind of sources you are interested in. Our example would lead us to possibly look at newspapers or magazines printed in the late 18th or early 19th century. In addition, books or essays on the topic, both contemporary and older, could be sources. It is likely that someone has researched your topic before, and even possibly a question similar to yours. Therefore, books written since your time period on your specific topic could be a great source for further references. When you do find a book that is written

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about your topic, check the bibliography for references that you could try to find yourself.

• Step 7: Enjoy the research process! Even though it may feel stressful to find sources that not only match your topic, but that are also reputable, try to let yourself enjoy your topic and the research process. Having this relationship to your work will make the transition from research to writing much easier, and you may even find something in your sources you had not originally expected to find.

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Finding Useful Print, Online, and Field SourcesIn academic writing, the sources you use must be reliable; therefore, you should rely mainly on scholarly articles for your sources.

KEY POINTS

• Not all sources are equal. One way to find reputable scholarly sources is to avoid using general search engines such as Google or Wikipedia.

• Use academic search databases like JStor, EBSCO, or Academic Search Premier.

• In addition, do not hesitate to visit your library in order to ask your librarian about accessing these databases, and also in order to search for print materials.

What Is a Scholarly Source?

In addition to being pertinent to your topic, whatever sources you use must be reliable. In academic writing, this means that you should rely on scholarly articles for your sources.

A scholarly source is an article or book that has been written by an expert in the academic field. Most are by professors or doctoral

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students for publication in peer-reviewed academic journals. Since the level of expertise and scrutiny is so high for these articles, they are considered to be among the best and most trustworthy sources. Most of these articles will list an author’s credentials. If an article does not, try searching for the author online to see how much expertise he or she has in the field.

You may decide to use sources that are not scholarly articles, such as interviews or newspaper articles. These still ought to be written by an expert in the field and published by a reputable source. An investigative essay in the New Yorker would be fine; an investigative essay in the National Enquirer would not.

Types of Scholarly Sources

A primary source is an original document. Primary sources can come in many different forms. In an English paper, a primary source might be the poem, play, or novel you are studying. In a history paper, it would probably be some sort of historical document. If you conduct field research such as surveys, interviews, or experiments, your results would also count as a primary source. Primary sources are valuable because they are hard evidence that you can analyze directly.

Secondary sources, by contrast, are books and articles that analyze primary sources. They are valuable because they provide

other scholars’ perspectives on your primary source. You can also analyze them to see if you agree with their conclusions or not.

Most essays will use a combination of primary and secondary sources.

Where to Find Scholarly Sources

The first step in finding good resources is to look in the right place. If you want reliable sources, avoid general search engines. Sites like Google, Yahoo and Wikipedia may be good for general searches, but if you want something you can cite in a scholarly paper, you need to find it from a scholarly database.

Popular scholarly databases include JStor, Project Muse, the MLA International Bibliography, Academic Search Premier, and ProQuest. These databases do charge a fee to view articles, but most universities will pay for students to view the articles free of charge.

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Looks like he's found a good print source—though it may be too old for us to use today.

Figure 2.14 Research

Ask one of your college librarians about what databases they offer access to.

If you are unfamiliar with these, visit your school’s library. Most librarians are trained in how to use all of these databases, and they would probably be happy to help you get started using them.

Most journals will allow you to access electronic copies of articles if you find them through a database. This will not always be the case, however. If an article is listed in a database but can’t be downloaded to your computer, write down the citation anyway. Many libraries will have hard copies of journals, so if you know the author, date of publication, and page numbers, you can probably find a print edition of whatever you’re looking for.

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Choosing Search Terms for SourcesGenerating keywords relevant to your topic will help systematize your research.

KEY POINTS

• In the course of your research, your initial keywords may reveal other avenues that could help further your research, especially in situations where the keywords are still vague.

• You can search both online databases and actual library catalogs for sources. Catalogs and databases allow you to organize searches by subject headers and/or key terms.

• The two options for narrowing your search are to use key terms or subject headers. Key terms are words that will appear frequently in the article. Subject headers are categories of articles grouped by theme.

You have your research topic and you know which databases you want to search for articles about that topic. What is the best way to go about searching for those articles? You can’t just type in a question like, “What were medical practices like during the Battle of Gettysburg?” Instead, you should search one of two ways. The first option is to use key terms, or words that will appear frequently in

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the article. The second is to use subject headers – or categories – of articles grouped by theme.

Key Term Searches

To search key terms, think about important words that will occur in sources you could use. Then, type in one or two of those terms into the search bar. Most engines will generate results based on how frequently those words appear in articles and their abstracts.

Let’s use medical practices at the Battle of Gettysburg as an example. You might choose keywords like “amputation,” “field medicine,” and “Gettysburg.” This should bring back articles that discuss amputations on the field during the battle of Gettysburg. Or you could search something like “anesthesia” and “Civil War,” which would lead you to articles about anesthetics during the war.

While searching with key terms, you may need to get creative. Some articles will use different language than the language you are expecting, so try a variety of related terms to make sure you’re getting back all the possible results.

Subject Header Searches

Key terms work best if you have a specific idea of the language in articles you’re looking for. If you know the category but not the language that you want, you will probably have better luck with a subject header search. Subject headers are categories organized by topic of study. If you pull up a subject header, you can browse all the articles contained in that category.

Subject headers become more specific by degree, which means that if you start with the category “medicine,” you will need to narrow it down significantly before finding articles that are pertinent to your topic. You can browse the different subcategories until you see one that seems to fit, then keep narrowing down until you come up with something like “medicine > historical practices > 19th century > medical practices in the civil war.”

If you don’t know what subject header to search under, try looking at articles you’ve already found. They will probably list their subject headers, so you can use them to go back and search through other articles in their category.

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Phrase your search terms as specifically as possible, so that you only find relevant sources.

Figure 2.15 A Lot of Options

EXAMPLE

If you're studying medical practices during the Civil War, in the course of reading you might find “spontaneous generation,” which was a theory of how life was formed, popular in the 19th century. This could help open new avenues for searching further sources. If the topic of your paper is 19th century scientific theories of life and Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein," some keywords that might be relevant for your search would include "science," "Frankenstein," and "life".

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Conducting ResearchHow you conduct research depends upon the topic you are researching. Different topics will require accessing different types of materials.

KEY POINTS

• Some arguments will require presenting quantitative data to support claims, while other arguments will require making theoretical distinctions to support claims. The topic you choose to write on will determine how you conduct research and what types of sources you will need to access.

• Applied research is used to solve practical problems. Rather than exploring a wide body of knowledge, applied research looks for information that will indicate how feasible a solution might be.

• Quantitative research is used to measure quantities or amounts, then to track those amounts against earlier data to try and predict what that quantity will become in the future.

• Qualitative research involves collecting, analyzing and interpreting data about what people do and say. It relies on observation rather than strict measurement.

Basic research is meant to increase your general knowledge about a subject. Sometimes, though, you have a more specific goal that requires special research practices. Before you begin researching,

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think about the kind of data you need and which methodology would be most useful in gathering it. The three methodologies most commonly used are applied, quantitative, and qualitative research.

Applied Research

Applied research is used to solve practical problems. Rather than exploring a wide body of knowledge, applied research looks for information that will indicate how feasible a solution might be. It focuses on analysis and solving social and real life problems.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is used to measure quantities or amounts, then to track those amounts against earlier data to try and predict what that quantity will become in the future. It relies heavily on

measurements, numerical data, and mathematical models-- particularly those found in statistics.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data about what people do and say. It relies on observation rather than strict measurement. Given its subject matter, it can be more subjective and open-ended than other types of research. Methods of conducting qualitative research include conducting interviews and observing different social scenarios.

The better you understand your subject matter and the goal of your paper, the more equipped you will be to begin researching using one of the above listed methodologies. Researching with the most appropriate methodology will allow you to collect information that is highly applicable to your topic.

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The specialized manuscripts stored here are for special or unusual research purposes.

Figure 2.16 Rare Book Room

Evaluating SourcesYou must establish your own credibility when writing a scholarly paper.  One way to do this is by choosing credible sources.

KEY POINTS

• It is important to evaluate sources, even when those sources were accessed via reputable databases. In addition to evaluating the credentials of the author and the publisher, it is important to evaluate the publication date of the source.

• Citing sources that are unreliable or non-objective can damage your credibility. Before you decide to use a source, figure out whether its reputation is good enough for you to use.

• Things to consider when evaluating a source include its author, publisher, and date of publication.

• Avoid using sources that are outdated: these will undermine the strength of your writing, making it appear as though you are unaware of the current status of the conversation surrounding your topic.

Your readers will only accept your argument if they believe that you have enough credibility and expertise to make it. One of the biggest factors they will consider when judging your credibility is what kind of sources you choose. Citing sources that are not trustworthy is a

sure way to make your audience distrust you too.

In general, you need to consider several factors to determine a source’s suitability: the accuracy of the information, the objectivity of the argument, and the reputation of the writer and publisher. If a source meets all these criteria, it is safe to use. If it does not, think long and hard before incorporating it into your own work.

The accuracy of information can be judged in several ways. First of all, ask whether or not you can verify any of the information in other sources. Have you seen similar data or analyses in other articles? Obviously, not all articles will be repetitions of other ones, but after doing enough research you should have a good idea of what constitutes accepted knowledge in your field. An article that radically departs from that knowledge may be revolutionary, or it may be wildly wrong. See if you can find other authors who support

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These books look impressive, but they're probably too old to contain worthwhile information.

Figure 2.17 Older Sources

the viewpoint in question; if you cannot, be suspicious of its accuracy.

Accuracy can also be judged from a source’s publication information. Look into the author’s background to see how much experience he or she has with the topic. A good example of a reliable author is someone who has a PhD in the field you're studying and has published in a reputable journal.

Then look at the publisher. If you are considering a book, is the publisher an academic printing house or a commercial or vanity press? These types of publishers have very different standards on scholarship, with academic publications going through a more rigorous review process. Similarly, if you are evaluating a journal article, check if the journal is peer-reviewed or not. Peer-reviewed articles have been vetted by experts in the field, which means that the information in them is almost certainly reliable. Lastly, be sure to check the publication date. An article that was published in 1950 will generally be considered less reliable than an article published in 2005. Scholarship develops rapidly, and information that was novel or accurate several decades ago may have become outdated or been proven wrong today. For that reason, you want your sources to be as current as possible.

Lastly, be aware of possible authorial biases. If an article has an agenda beyond furthering the academic debate, ask yourself what it

is. Sometimes it will be acceptable to use the source anyway. Articles such as policy proposals advocate for specific things and against others, but you should still be safe in using them. Just remember that they have an agenda, and that data within them will need to be verified elsewhere. Be more wary of articles whose authors have connections to special interest groups, or who frequently use biased or accusatory language to refer to opposing arguments. One of the best signs of an objective article is the author's ability to discuss alternate viewpoints in a fair way.

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Taking Useful NotesWhile researching, be sure to take notes on your sources which will prove helpful later on, when you move into the writing process.

KEY POINTS

• Notes should not only include bibliographic information, but also relevant arguments, quotes, and page numbers.

• Systematizing your note-taking while doing research will reduce the need to shuffle and scramble through all your sources when you transition into writing. Taking notes now, even though it may feel frustrating, is in your best interest in the long run.

• Use the full citation as your heading for each segment of notes you take. That way, you can be sure to have the citation ready when you start writing your paper.

While most of your research will take place before you begin writing, you will still be referring to your resources throughout the writing process. This will be much easier if you take thorough notes while reading through your sources during the initial research phase.

The goal of note-taking is to keep a record of whatever information you might want to use later. Your notes should be as thorough as

they need to be, but not too long that they are no longer useful to you. If you summarize information, make sure you include whatever you might want to incorporate in your paper. If you think a quote will be useful, write it down in full. Avoid copying whole paragraphs or pages, though; instead, decide exactly what is useful to you on that page and write only that down. You want to be able to look through your notes later on and easily see what information you found useful. Taking overly-detailed notes will mean that you have to spend more time searching through your notes later on.

The first thing you should do when writing notes is to write down the full citation for the source you are taking notes on. This will help you find the source later on if you need to, and will ensure that

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Some people use index cards to organize their notes while researching.

Figure 2.18 Taking Notes

you still have the complete citation even if you lose the source or have to return it to the library. Organizing notes by source also ensures that you will never lose track of how you need to cite them in your paper, so beginning with citation information provides a useful heading.

Always be sure to write down the page numbers where you found whatever information you’ve written down. You will need to know the page number when you cite that information in your paper.

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Creating an Annotated BibliographyAn annotated bibliography is a list of all your sources, including both their full citation and notes on how you will use the source.

KEY POINTS

• If you keep an annotated bibliography while you research, it will function as a useful guide. It will be easier for you to revisit sources later because you will already have notes explaining how you want to use them.

• If you find an annotated bibliography attached to one of the sources you are using, you can look at it to find other possible resources.

• It is important that you use the proper format when citing sources. Consult the style manual for whichever format your professor asks that you use.

• When you make notes on your sources start by summing up the main idea and note the specific information that you want to use. Then explain how that information is useful to you. Note if you have any reservations about the source, such as weak writing, authorial bias, or questions about reliability.

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An annotated bibliography is a list of all the sources you have researched, including both their full bibliographic citation and some notes on how you might want to use the resource in your work (Figure 2.19).

Annotated bibliographies are useful for several reasons. If you keep one while you research, the annotated bibliography will function as a useful guide. It will be easier for you to revisit sources later because you will already have notes explaining how you want to use them. If you find an

annotated bibliography attached to one of the sources you are using, you can look at it to find other possible resources.

How to Make Your Citation

The first part of each entry in an annotated bibliography is the source’s full citation. A description of common citation practices

can be found in the section entitled “Citing Sources Fully, Accurately, and Appropriately,” and detailed instructions can be found in the style manual for whatever format your professor wants you to use.

What to Include in Your Annotation

A good annotation has two parts. The first part is a brief summary and the second part is a more detailed critique of each resource. Start by summing up the main idea of the source. If you have space, note the specific information that you want to use. Then explain how that information is useful to your own work. Lastly, note if you have any reservations about the source, such as weak writing, authorial bias, or other questions about its reliability.

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Annotated bibliographies include notes that explain what you found useful in a source, making it easier for you to refer back to a bibliography later.

Figure 2.19 Understand Your Notes

Managing InformationManaging the information you collect while researching will cut down on time spent trying to relocate quotes as you are writing.

KEY POINTS

• One way to manage information is by creating an organizational structure. You can organize your sources by topic, or you can even organize your sources by their use of important terms.

• Another option is to use quotation files, or a collection of all the quotes that you might use. The only danger with simply having a large collection of quotes is that it is easy to forget the broader context that the quote came from, which could lead you to misrepresent an author’s position.

• No matter what organizational method you choose, make sure you keep track of the author and page number as you organize.

Over the course of your research, you will probably compile many pages of notes. It can be easy to lose track of what you have written down or what you wanted to do with a citation. Having an organizational system in place during research will keep you from becoming overwhelmed by your notes (Figure 2.20).

Many writers have their own unique note-taking systems, developed over time as they figured out what kind of structure worked for them. If you already have a system in place that works well for you, that’s good. If you do not, there are several common strategies you should consider trying.

The first is outlining. This does not mean that you have to come up with a full outline for your paper while conducting research. Instead, consider grouping different facts according to the points you think they make. If you have quotes from several different sources that could all be used to support the same claim, list them all together. Then, when you need to find something to support that claim, you only have to look in one place for all the possible quotes.

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With computers, you have better ways to organize your research than old filing cabinets.

Figure 2.20 Keeping Files

Another system some writers use is a quotation file. A quotation file is a collection of documents – one for each source – where you have written down all the quotes you are considering using. Whereas an outline would group information by theme, this organizes it by source. For example, if you know that you want to cite a particular scholar, a quotation file would make it easy to locate all the notes you had on him.

Whatever system you use, make sure that every single note you take includes enough citation information that you can find it in its original text. At a minimum, list the author and the page number.

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Using Relevant SourcesConsider the knowledge of your readers and use your sources to educate readers, support your argument, and ensure your credibility.

KEY POINTS

• Just as with every other aspect of your paper, you will need to take your readers’ expectations and desires into account when choosing which resources to use.

• When choosing sources, look for ones what will be most useful and trustworthy for your audience. Choose sources that will reassure your audience that your claims are worthwhile and that you have done proper research in your field.

• If you see an article mentioned frequently in other sources, it is probably considered one of the foundational studies of your topic. Even if you do not draw heavily on it, a mention or brief citation will reflect well on your own credibility and expertise.

• Just as your evidence is support for your argument, your sources can act as verification for your evidence and can make the audience more likely to trust your claim.

You are writing your argument for an audience, not for yourself. Just as with every other aspect of your paper, you will need to take

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your readers’ expectations and desires into account when choosing which resources to use.

Start by thinking about what information you will need to provide for them. If you expect that there will be things in your paper that they will not know much about, try and find sources with information that you can provide for your readers. These sources can also provide them with context about the field in which you are writing, particularly if they are not very familiar with it.

Next, think about what they will expect to see. Most fields of study have several landmark books and articles written about them. If you see an article mentioned frequently in other sources, it is probably considered one of the foundational studies of your topic. As such, your audience will probably want to see proof that you are aware of

its existence. Even if you do not draw heavily on it, a mention or brief citation will show them that you have done enough research to be familiar with major works relating to your subject. This will reflect well on your own credibility and expertise.

You should also think about what your audience will be unsure about. Look for sources that will help reassure them of your claims about those issues. Just as your evidence is support for your argument, your sources can act as support for your evidence. Use them to help you verify facts and viewpoints for your audience. If you think your audience will not accept a piece of information on your word alone, find an outside citation for it. Similarly, if you make a point and want to reinforce it, it can be helpful to mention another author with similar views. Doing so will make the audience more likely to trust your claim.

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Not all books make good sources - the books people buy for enjoyment are not the same ones your readers would expect you to cite in an academic paper.

Figure 2.21 Pleasure Reading

Citing Your SourcesYou need to provide an accurate citation every time you use information from an outside source, otherwise you are committing plagiarism.

KEY POINTS

• An accurate citation includes complete reference information written in an approved format.

• The parenthetical citation commonly provides just the author last name and page number of a quote. A footnote is a citation that commonly provides a more detailed citation; a parenthetical citation points the reader toward the bibliography which will include the full citation of all the sources.

• Ask your teacher what specific style they expect citations to follow. No matter the style, it is very important to accurately cite all your sources, especially when quoting or paraphrasing. If you fail to cite an idea or excerpt, you are committing plagiarism, a serious and punishable offense.

• A Works Cited page comes at the end of your paper and lists all your cited sources in alphabetical order. Details on how to format this page, as well as what information you must provide, can be found in the style manual for whatever format you are using.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

• There are several different formats, including MLA and Turabian style (also known as Chicago style). Rules for each of these styles are codified in style manuals, which include detailed explanations and many specific examples of how to cite things correctly.

What Do You Need to Cite?

Any time you use specific material from an outside resource, you need to provide a citation that says exactly where you found that information. “Specific material” means quotes and detailed paraphrases, as well as images or graphs. If you use any of those things without citing them, you are committing plagiarism.

You will cite resources in two places: a brief citation in the text of your paper, right after you use the information, and a full citation in a Works Cited page at the end of your essay.

In-Text Citations

In-text citations come in two forms, the parenthetical and the footnote. Parenthetical citations include the necessary information in parentheses after a sentence. Footnotes place it at the bottom of the page. In the case of parentheticals, you should include only enough information to direct the reader to the specific information

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you are citing. Most citations will require only the last name of the author and the page number where the information comes from. For more detailed instructions, as well as information on what to do in exceptional circumstances, consult the style manual for whichever format your professor wants you to use.

Works Cited Pages

Since in-text citations are kept brief, particularly if you are following MLA style, you will need to provide the full bibliographic details of your sources later. This is done in a Works Cited page, which comes at the end of your paper and lists all your cited sources in alphabetical order. Details on how to format this page, as well as what information you must provide, can be found in the style manual for whatever format you are using.

Style Manuals

Writing citation requires that you follow detailed rules on formatting your essay. There are several different formats, including MLA and Turabian style (also known as Chicago style). Rules for each of these styles are codified in style manuals, which include detailed explanations and many specific examples of how to cite things correctly. Your professor will probably have a specific style that he or she wants you to follow, so be sure to ask up front what that style is. Then find a copy of its manual and consult it frequently. It may seem tedious and fussy, but accurate citations are a necessary component of any reputable essay (Figure 2.22).

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Make sure to provide complete and accurate citation information for every source you use in your work.

Figure 2.22 Understand Your Notes

Looking Beyond the Traditional ReferencesUsing a variety of reference types can shed a different light on your topic and make your writing look more informed.

KEY POINTS

• While scholarly publications can be tremendously useful, you may have a topic that calls for a different kind of information.

• You do not need to restrict your research to scholarly articles— consider how you might incorporate things like journalistic articles, interviews, or other forms of media into your work.

• Non-scholarly sources still need to meet the same standards of expertise and reliability that scholarly sources do.

While scholarly publications can be tremendously useful, certain topics may call for a different kind of information. Most scholarly articles involve the analysis of text or data. But what if you want a personal anecdote or an account of an event that recently happened? You will probably not be able to find these types of references scholarly work. If these references would help build your argument, you may be able to find them elsewhere.

Do not be afraid to look at non-traditional sources during your research. Some good sources to consider include newspaper or magazine articles, interviews, surveys, and even collections of personal essays. Even things like theater reviews and program notes can be used as sources. You can also use other media, such as radio or television programs, if the information contained in them is relevant to your work.

Keep in mind that even if you are using a non-scholarly source, you should still hold it to the same high standards, if not higher standards. Be even more scrupulous when evaluating how reliable these sources are, since they have not undergone any type of academic vetting process. Ask yourself the same questions you would of a more traditional source. Can you verify the information elsewhere? Are the publisher and author considered reliable? What expertise does the author have in this area? When was the source published?

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Books and articles are wonderful sources, but think about what other forms your research could take.

Figure 2.23 Don’t Limit Yourself

Using a unique yet verifiable source could elevate your paper from a mundane academic piece of writing to something engages your audience more successfully.

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Reading Generously to Understand, then Critically to EvaluateWhen researching, read through your resources twice: once to understand what the author is saying and a second time for how he is saying it.

KEY POINTS

• In general, you will need to read sources over twice to get a full idea of what they are saying and how you can use them.

• During your first reading, start by looking for the topic and the thesis. What is the author’s stated purpose? What kind of evidence does he or she use to support the argument? How is the argument organized?

• The second reading is the time to think about whether you agree or disagree with the source, and whether you have any commentary that you would like to make about the author’s argument.

Do not read a source once and then assume you are done with it. Take the time to read carefully and make sure that you understand a source fully before you decide on how you want to use it. In general, you will need to read sources over twice to get a full idea of what

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they are saying and how you can use them. The first time should be devoted to understanding what argument the source is making. The second reading should focus on how the argument is made. At this stage, you should also determine whether you agree or disagree with the argument that the source is making.

During your first reading, start by looking for the topic and the thesis. What is the author’s stated purpose? What kind of evidence does he or she use to support the argument? How is the argument organized? What is the source saying? What is the writer's purpose? The author could be trying to explain, inform, anger, persuade, amuse, motivate, sadden, ridicule,

attack, or defend. Is there more than one purpose? Does the purpose shift at all throughout the text?

The second reading is the time to think about whether you agree or disagree with the source, and whether you have any commentary that you would like to make about the author’s argument. Things to look at during your second reading include the writer’s reputation and who their intended audience is. Do you find the author credible or not? Also consider what kind of language and rhetorical devices are used to advance the author’s argument.

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Once you have scanned a source to know what it is about, reread it while thinking critically about its argument.

Figure 2.24 Think About It...

Writing as You ResearchDon't get bogged down in the research process, but don't just move on to the first draft either. You can write while still researching.

KEY POINTS

• As you research, let yourself do some preliminary writing. Provide yourself with a space to think through ideas and consider how your ideas are related to each other.  This can be a very helpful practice as you move into the writing phase.

• Writing as you read is a way to avoid getting bogged down in researching, which can feel endless as you try to determine what is and is not a relevant source. By causing you to think through your research materials, preliminary writing is a good way to build the specifics of your argument.

• Take notes as you read your sources, since relying on memory will lead to losing information. Similarly, start coming up with the organizational structure and argument of your paper as you gather research.

We often think of the writing process as a series of discrete steps. We first research, then take notes, then outline, then write. However, in practice, the different phases of writing a paper often overlap. As you research, you begin taking notes. As you take notes, you begin to see how you want to put your argument together and

may even start developing an in-depth analysis of some of your sources. Even if you are not officially at the drafting stage of your paper, that’s okay. The research you do will often provide you with insights that you'll want to include in your argument.

If you have an idea while taking notes, don’t wait to write it down, start developing it! While the idea is still fresh and clear, take a break from research to start working on your paper structure or argument. Writing about issues you discover in your research that you find interesting will take the tedium out of researching and outlining. If you are passionate about something you discover and you use that material in your paper, that will only improve your paper and make it more interesting to read.

Once you have enough notes, you should start writing, even if you intend to keep researching. It can be tempting to get bogged down in the research process and avoid moving on to actually writing a

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Don’t just read passively—take notes throughout the research process.

Figure 2.25 Active Research

first draft. Avoid this impulse by starting to write while still researching. At this early stage, it will still be easy to include new research as you find it.

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Forming a Thesis

Supporting a Thesis

Generating Further Questions

Section 4

Drafting Your Paper

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Forming a ThesisA thesis statement must contain the question you are addressing, the answer you propose, and proof that it is important to your readers.

KEY POINTS

• The thesis should be a clear idea that can be stated in a sentence, and should be backed up by evidence and argumentation. It should be powerful enough to address the concerns at hand, but not generate too many new problems or concerns.

• Most thesis statements follow the same basic structure: I am working on the issue of _____ in order to prove that _____. Proving this will _______.

• The thesis should include information on what you are studying (the question), what you want to prove (the solution), and what you hope to change or prevent (the stakes, or consequences, of your argument).

• Thesis statements do not need impressive rhetoric or copious detail. Instead, they should provide enough information that your readers understand what your paper will argue.

The thesis statement, or problem statement, is central to your argument. The content of your paper should work towards proving your thesis. Because your entire argument must relate to it, it is

important that you know what your thesis is before you start drafting your paper.

By this point in the writing process, you should have an idea of what your thesis is going to be. You have considered the question you want to address, the solution you have for it, and what the stakes are. The next thing to do is to combine these considerations into a clear, focused statement that previews your argument to your readers.

The point of a thesis statement is to introduce your argument to the reader, which means it must be one of the most easy-to-understand parts of your paper. It should be short – no more than one or two sentences – and contain no extraneous information.

Most thesis statements follow the same basic structure, but there are variations in phrasing, depending on a writer’s style or on the complexity of the argument. Since all thesis statements need to relay the same pieces of information, you can start drafting yours by

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The thesis is the first building block of a strong paper

Figure 2.26 Building Blocks

following the formula: "I am working on the issue of _____ in order to prove that _____. Proving this will _______.”

This structure includes information on what you are studying (the question), what you want to prove (the solution), and what you hope to change or prevent (the stakes, or consequences, of your argument). Obviously, not all thesis statements read exactly like the formula above. The sample statement is just a suggested starting point.

Thesis statements do not need impressive rhetoric or copious detail. Instead, they should provide enough information that your readers understand what your paper will argue. Therefore, making your thesis statement clear and concise prepares your audience for the argument you will prove in the body of the paper.

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Supporting a ThesisSynthesizing your general claims with specific evidence is a way of providing support for your claims.

KEY POINTS

• Every claim in your thesis must be backed up by two things: evidence and logical analysis of that evidence.

• Unsupported, generalized claims make a paper appear thin and uninformed, while a paper willing to support its claims with evidence looks thoughtful and well-researched.

• The author must provide evidence to support sub-points of the argument. There needs to be a rational, objective (or resembling-objective) component to this persuasion, but also a persuasive tone or style. These make up the components of classical rhetoric.

Your thesis will condense a series of claims into one or two sentences. To prove your thesis, you will need to articulate these claims and convince the reader that these claims are true. Consequently, the majority of your paper will be dedicated to presenting and analyzing evidence that supports your claims, making it clear to the reader how the evidence relates to the claims.

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By the time you start writing, you should already have conducted research and assembled your evidence. You should also know which pieces of evidence you want to use to back up each claim. What you have probably not finished working out is how you want to analyze those pieces of evidence. The first draft is the time to focus on doing that.

You cannot just present a piece of evidence and assume that your work is done. After working extensively on your argument, it may seem obvious to you how the evidence proves your claim. Your reader, however, has not done the same preparatory work you have. It's likely that he or she will not automatically understand the point you take your evidence to prove. Consequently, it is up to you to explain to the reader how a piece of evidence supports your claim.

When analyzing your evidence, be as thorough and clear as possible. You may be familiar with the rhetorical strategy of logos, or step-by-step rational argument. It will probably be helpful to adopt that as a model and conduct your analysis through progressive points, each one of which builds off the previous one. Even if it seems like you are oversimplifying things, it is better to give your audience too much analysis than too little. Make sure every step is included, and that the description of your evidence’s purpose is clear. You do not want any part of your process to be ambiguous for your reader, or they may stop understanding or agreeing with your argument.

When supporting your thesis, it is important that you establish and maintain your credibility. This means that both your evidence and reasoning must be reliable and high quality. You may have great evidence, but if your reasoning is sloppy or flawed, you can render that evidence meaningless to the reader. Similarly, you may write a great analysis of bad evidence, but that analysis will not count towards your argument because it is based on something unreliable. To avoid these problems, take the time to confirm the trustworthiness of your evidence and to make sure that your analysis is thorough. Also, be careful to remain objective—avoid biased language and stick to arguments that are based on logic rather than on emotion.

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Don’t assume your reader has done the same research you have. Explain your conclusions fully.

Figure 2.27 Arranging Notes and Research to Form an Outline

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Generating Further QuestionsA thesis statement, by making a claim or challenging one, is bound to generate further questions.

KEY POINTS

• The author needs to be prepared to answer, or at least anticipate, further questions.

• The author doesn't necessarily need to answer questions that spring from the thesis, but should acknowledge and be ready to respond to the questions his or her thesis might raise.

• Your thesis statement is the main claim of your paper, but it contains many smaller claims.

• You need to address all questions and claims in order to prove your thesis statement.

• A good way to identify questions that need to be addressed is to approach your own work as if you were analyzing another scholar's article.

Your thesis statement stages the overall claim of your paper. However, the scope of your paper is probably too large to address all at once. To convince your reader that your thesis is true, you will need to answer a series of smaller questions that you anticipate the reader will ask.

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Look at your argument critically, asking yourself the same questions that you would of a scholarly article. Scholarly articles should be evaluated based on criteria such as thoroughness, credibility, and accuracy. Take the same approach with your paper. Think about the sub-claims you will need to make to clarify and support your main argument. If you make a claim, what other things will you need to prove in order to back that up? What assumptions have you made that need to be articulated to your reader?

For every argument, there are a number of possible questions to be addressed, though you cannot, and should not, attempt to respond to every one of them: every piece of writing is necessarily limited by the perspective of its topic and author. The goal of looking at your work critically is to identify which questions must be answered in order to prove your argument. Which questions, if left unaddressed, would damage your credibility? Which claims must be proven in order to move onto the next step of your argument? Those are the types of questions that you need to deal with in your paper.

Some questions you can ask about your own work include:

• Have I made it clear why this argument is important?

• Am I using the best method possible to prove my point?

• Am I using the most persuasive evidence I can find?

• Do I need more evidence?

• Do I have any evidence that I need to analyze further?

• Does my analysis of evidence make it clear how that evidence supports my claim?

• Are there any alternative interpretations of evidence that I need to address?

Thinking about these questions will not only help you identify which parts of your argument need to be strengthened, but also give you an opportunity to get a perspective on your own work that may allow you to better understand your own argument.

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A thesis statement is bound to generate further questions. Be ready for them.

Figure 2.28 Questions

Revising Your Paper

Editing and Proofreading

Completing a Final Review

Section 5

Revising Your Paper

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Revising Your PaperRevising happens on many different levels of your paper, from individual words and sentences to larger issues of organization and coherence.

KEY POINTS

• Since the biggest changes will be made at those higher levels, it is best to start there and then work your way down.

• The two biggest areas of review are purpose and organization.

• Make sure that you end up fulfilling your stated purpose and that you remain on-topic for your entire paper.

• Also see if you maintain the same voice throughout the paper or if you ended up making unplanned shifts in tone or vocabulary.

• Revising should begin with looking at the biggest questions about your writing, since those will require the most substantial changes.

• The first stage of revising should focus on how consistent your paper is in terms of purpose, organization, and voice.

One of the best tools for a writer is the ability to revise. Revision is the stage where you go back and look at a draft of your paper

critically. The goal is to see what aspects of the paper need work, and then improve them.

When Should I Review My Paper?

Once you have finished your paper, set it aside for a while and then read it again. It may be tempting to go straight from writing to revising, particularly if you are working under a deadline. Taking a break is an important part of the process. It will give you the necessary distance from what you have written to look at it with a critical eye. Chances are good that you will notice things about your work that you did not pick up on before (Figure 2.29).

How Should I Get Started?

Revising is easiest if you break it down into different stages to avoid feeling overwhelmed.

There are three general stages of revision: revising for purpose,

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Re-reading completed work is essential for more than just catching typos.

Figure 2.29 Reviewing

editing for clarity, and proofreading. Revising for purpose is the stage where you look at how your argument is constructed.

The changes you make when revising for purpose will probably be major ones. You may have to alter how your argument works or how your paper is organized. Changes at this level are the biggest ones you will make, which means that this is the first part of the revision process that you should undertake. There is no point in playing around with word choice or punctuation when you might have to rewrite that entire paragraph later.

The main thing to look for when reviewing for purpose is consistency. You want to make sure that you stick to your argument and that everything in your paper relates back to that argument. This is also the place to make sure that your argument makes sense.

Some things to be on the watch for when reviewing for purpose:

• Argumentation: Do you connect the different steps of your argument in a logical manner? Is every step explained adequately to the audience? Are your examples effective? Do they prove what you want them to prove? How well do you use quotes and examples? Are you actually analyzing them and connecting them to your argument, or just paraphrasing?

• Organization: Does the structure of your paper match how you set it up in your thesis? Does the order of your paragraphs make sense? Does each paragraph build off of what was developed in the previous one? Does the end of the paper relate back to the beginning?

• Voice and Consistency: Do you maintain the same tone throughout the paper? Do you introduce new ideas or terminology without setting the reader up for them? Are you consistently arguing the same thing? Does everything in your paper work towards articulating or proving your thesis?

Breaking Down the Big Picture: Revising at the Paragraph Level

A good way to examine your organization is to look at your paper paragraph by paragraph (Figure 2.30). This can give you a good idea of how consistent your argument and organization are. For each paragraph and section, ask yourself two things: What do you want each paragraph to do? How well does each paragraph complete that task?

• Introductions: Do you give your audience a good reason to read your paper? Are your stakes clear and compelling? Is your introduction rambling and vague, or does it give your reader a specific blueprint for what to expect in the paper? Do

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you make claims in your introduction that you do not support later in your paper? Do you make claims later in your paper that are never hinted at in your introduction? How concise is your introduction? Does everything in it pertain to your argument, or do you make grand generalizations that do nothing for your argument?

• Problem Statements: Do you clearly explain your problem, stakes, and solution? Is there any possibility that the audience will not understand what you are arguing? Are you taking a

clear position, or are you avoiding making a claim? Do you have one obvious problem statement, or do you have several different sentences that the reader could mistake for your problem statement? Is your problem statement an accurate description of the argument in your paper, or do you need to update your working hypothesis to reflect changes in your argument?

• Body Paragraphs: Is every body paragraph necessary to your argument, or do you have extraneous information in your paper? Do you fully develop every step of your argument, or did you forget to include crucial information? Does each paragraph set you up for the next one? Are the transitions between paragraphs easy to understand?

• Conclusion: Does your conclusion expand upon your introduction or just repeat it? Do you introduce significant new information without setting it up? Ending your paper with a dramatic and unexpected statement may seem like a strong way to conclude it, but in reality it will just make the reader wonder why you never set up or proved that statement.

Do Not Panic

Revising for purpose can be hard. You may discover that you need to add or delete entire paragraphs, or that parts of your argument

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Revising ideas so that they are persuasive, cogent, and form a solid argument is the real work of writing.

Figure 2.30 Revision

need to be rewritten significantly. That is okay – the important thing is not to get too attached to what you have written. If you spent three hours writing a paragraph that you later realize does not work with the rest of your paper, you may be tempted to keep it. Nevertheless, if it does not fit with your paper, you should take it out or rewrite it. Your paper will be better because of it.

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Editing and ProofreadingAfter revising for purpose, the next two levels of revision are editing and proofreading, which must be done before your paper is finished.

KEY POINTS

• Editing and proofreading are concerned with the style of your writing, not the substance of your argument. Editing focuses on the clarity of your writing, particularly word choice, sentence construction and transitions. Proofreading focuses on mechanics, such as grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

• Unlike revising for purpose, editing and proofreading focus on the sentence level of your work. When editing, you look at how clearly you have written. The goal is to make sure that your sentences are easily understood and tightly written.

• While editing focuses on improving your writing, proofreading is more like fact-checking it. The goal of proofreading is to find and correct mechanical errors. Since proofreading calls for the smallest and easiest changes, it is usually the last step of the revision process.

• It can be helpful to do a peer review: ask one of your peers to edit and proofread your paper. Since they are seeing your work for the first time, they will be probably be able to spot problems that you have missed.

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After revising for purpose, you still have two levels of revision left: editing and proofreading. When you move on to editing, the emphasis is clarity. Once your sentence structure and language have been cleaned up, you continue to proofreading, where you check the accuracy of your spelling and grammar.

Editing

Editing, like revising, is something that you will do throughout the writing process. Most of the editorial process will take place in the middle and final drafts, after you have worked out your argument and organizational structure. Editing looks at your work on a sentence-by-sentence level, considering ways to make everything you say as clear and precise as possible.

During the editing process you'll mainly want to consider language, construction, and style.

With language, the overall question is whether you are using the most accurate language possible to describe your ideas. Your reader will have an easier time understanding what you want to say if you remain precise. Make sure you name all the relevant characters and objects rather than relying too heavily on pronouns. If you are using vague or potentially confusing terms, try using something more specific.

Make sure you have no misplaced modifiers, so your reader can understand what adjectives and adverbs are meant to describe.

Lastly, clean up your word choice and usage. Make sure that every word means what you intend it to mean – check a dictionary if you’re not sure. If you know a word but are afraid your audience will not, try substituting a term they will understand or provide a definition. Finally, pay attention to wordiness. Writing that is clean, precise, and simple will always sound best.

Editing for sentence construction means considering how neatly your sentences are written. The goal is to make everything easy for your audience to read and understand. Start by simplifying your sentences. If you think a sentence is too complicated, rephrase it so that it is easier to read.

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Proofreading’s aim is to catch surface mistakes in spelling, punctuation, formatting, etc.

Figure 2.31 “Omelate”

Consider how balanced your sentences are. You do not want every sentence to have identical length and structure. Instead, vary your prose. Mix up longer and shorter sentences, and avoid starting every sentence in the same way.

This is also the time to add transitions between clauses and sentences that aren’t connected smoothly to each other. You don’t need to introduce every sentence with “then,” “however,” or “because.” Using these words judiciously, though, will help your reader see logical connections between the different steps of your argument.

Editing for style is more difficult, because as writers gain practice they usually develop their own unique stylistic quirks. That’s a good thing. Instead of thinking that you should write a certain way, what follows is general advice for the kinds of writing that can help or hurt your work.

Think about how you use active and passive verbs. Often, rewriting a sentence to take it from passive to active will make it simpler and easier to read. Consider the following sentences:

• “The sharp rise in fuel prices is a serious challenge to trucking firms. It makes it hard for them to provide timely service to customers and to meet payroll expenses.”

• “Sharply rising fuel prices challenge trucking firms by causing delays in customer service and payroll.”

The second is shorter, less wordy, and makes the connection between cause and effect clearer than the first sentence does. In this case, changing from passive to active made a major improvement. Please note, this does not mean that you should never use passive verbs. Some sentences do read better with them. It’s up to you to decide which works better for your scenario.

Another thing to look at with your verb use is parallelism. Parallelism is when you use the same pattern of words to provide balance in a sentence. If you are listing things, try to make them all the same part of speech. Look at these examples:

• Unbalanced: “John likes reading, his studies, and talking.”

• Parallel: “John likes reading, studying, and talking.”

Both are grammatically correct, but the parallel sentence has a better rhythm.

Proofreading

Proofreading is the final stage of revision. It’s okay to correct typos or grammatical errors if you catch them in early drafts, but you should save thorough proofreading for your final draft. Wait to

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begin this step when you are sure that you will not be changing anything else in your paper.

Here are some of the things you should do every time you proofread:

• Check spelling. Be alert for typos.

• Check punctuation.

• Make sure that you are using the correct formatting and citation style.

• Check that your verb tense remains consistent.

• Look at subject/verb and pronoun/antecedent agreement.

Tips for Editing and Proofreading

Know your errors. As you get used to revising, you will probably realize that there are some errors you make more frequently than others. Maybe you have a tendency to wordiness. Maybe there’s a particular rule of grammar that always gives you trouble. Whatever your particular weakness is, you can pay special attention to that when revising.

Secondly, take the time to do multiple re-readings. Start by going through for one particular kind of error, and only pay attention to

that. Then choose another thing to focus on and read your paper again. Keep going until you’re satisfied that your paper is as good as it can be. Prioritize the issues you know you’re most likely to find.

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Completing a Final ReviewWhen you’re done with all the steps of revision – revising for purpose, editing, and proofreading – make one final overview of your paper.

KEY POINTS

• Look one more time to make sure that you meet the criteria of the assignment and that you have taken care of all the changes you wanted to make.

• Ask yourself if you think the paper is now finished, or if you still have things you want to improve upon.

• A final overview after revisions will help you determine if your paper is ready to be turned in.

After spending so long looking at your paper on the level of individual words and sentences, it can be helpful to return to the big picture. Before you turn your paper in, read it over one more time. You do not have to look for specific problems. Just try to get a general sense of what your paper has turned into.

It can be helpful to imagine that you are reading somebody else's paper during this final read-through (Figure 2.32). What would you say to a peer if this were his or her paper, instead of your own? Does

it have a clear thesis? Does the argument make sense? You can also try reading your paper out loud to see how it sounds.

The purpose of a final overview is not to prompt major changes, as you already addressed those when you revised for purpose. Instead, doing a final overview will help you see how all the changes you made work together as a whole. If you gave your work to someone else for peer review, a final overview will also give you the opportunity to check that your paper still sounds like you wrote it.

This is also your last chance to make sure you meet the criteria of the assignment. Are you still saying what you intended to say? Did you complete the task you set for yourself in the introduction? Look at how your argument has developed and whether you are happy with it. If you are not, see what you can do to fix it. If you are, then congratulations – you can finally say that your paper is complete.

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Reviewing work throughout the writing process helps make sure it's moving in the right direction.

Figure 2.32 Directions

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Chapter 3

Academic Writing

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Exploring Academic Disciplines

Making Connections Across Disciplines

Section 1

The Practice of Writing Across Disciplines

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Exploring Academic DisciplinesWriting across advanced topics that range from the humanities to the sciences to business requires nuanced treatment of the subjects.

KEY POINTS

• Writing in the humanities includes theoretical writing, creative writing, interpretive writing, and analytical writing.

• Theoretical writing focuses on the ideas of past cultures and people, and also includes writing about your own theories.

• Creative writing can include storytelling, personal expression, free association, poetry, song lyrics, and nonfiction.

• Interpretive writing improves understanding of a text by asking a series of good questions, introducing the writer’s own ideas about a text, and backing up claims by referring to the text or another appropriate source.

• Analytical writing covers the basics of interpretive writing, but delves further into analysis by asking “how" and “why” questions.

Academic writing in a college setting can generally be divided into three main categories: writing in the humanities, writing in the

sciences, and writing in business. Each category brings with it specific requirements in terms of content, style, and construction. The following gives a brief description of each category (Figure 3.1).

Writing in the Humanities

Writing in the humanities can be thought to include theoretical writing, creative writing, interpretive writing, and analytical writing.

Theoretical writing includes historical and philosophical writing, and focuses on ideas of past cultures and people. It can also include writing about your own theories. Some examples might be:

• Thomas Paine’s “Common Sense”

• Plato’s Republic

• Einstein’s theories on nuclear physics

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Each academic discipline brings with it specific requirements in terms of content, style, and construction.

Figure 3.1 Exploring Academic Disciplines

Creative writing is a more imaginative style of writing, which can include forms such as storytelling, personal expression, free association, poetry, song lyrics, and nonfiction. Some examples might be:

• James Baldwin’s short story “Sonny’s Blues”

• Barack Obama’s memoir Dreams of My Father

• Elizabeth Bishop’s poem “Sestina”

Interpretive writing goes beyond summary to improve the understanding of a given text by asking a series of good questions and introducing the writer’s own ideas about that text, while always backing up those claims by referring to the text or another appropriate source. Some examples might be:

• A newspaper article about local eagle migration

• A paper about the effects of fracking on rural communities

Analytical writing covers the basics of interpretive writing, but delves further into analysis by asking “how” and “why” questions. Some examples might be:

• An article exploring current social movements toward campaign finance reform, how and why they are organized, and what their larger political goals ought to be

• A paper examining the use of fragments in William Carlos Williams’s "Paterson" in order to come to a fuller understanding of the text as a whole

Writing in the Sciences

Science writing includes writing in two main categories: natural sciences and social sciences. In both categories, the writing focuses on informing the reader of new discoveries and assisting readers in discovering truth through facts and detailed, solid data. This type of writing is generally concise, and includes forms such as lab reports and literature reviews.

Natural sciences include pure sciences and applied sciences. Pure sciences are life sciences, physical sciences, and earth sciences. Applied sciences include medical sciences, engineering sciences, and computer science.

Social sciences, on the other hand, focus on human behavior and societies. They involve documenting actual events as they happen. Categories of social science include psychology, anthropology, political science, sociology, education, business, and economics.

Examples of scientific writings might be:

• A lab report about children’s ability to aurally identify ambiguous phonemes

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• A paper that discusses recent findings on post-traumatic stress disorder in soldiers returning from multiple deployments

Writing in Business

Writing in business often means explaining a situation, event, or change in order to compel the reader toward a very specific action. A well-written business document should allow the reader to quickly scan for purpose, time constraints, and a contact person who can answer further questions. Writing in business can include: memos, cover letters, resumes, project reports, proposals, thank you letters, emails, and business plans.

Examples of business writings might be:

• A written proposal outlining costs and benefits of securing a liquor license for an established restaurant

• A report delineating sales figures for a company’s last quarter and suggesting means to increase sales in the future

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Making Connections Across DisciplinesWriting across disciplines, ranging from the humanities to the sciences to business, requires nuanced treatment of the subject.

KEY POINTS

• Writing in the humanities includes theoretical writing, creative writing, interpretive writing, and analytical writing. Theoretical writing includes historical and philosophical writing and focuses on the ideas of past cultures and people, and also includes writing about your own theories.

• Creative writing can include storytelling, personal expression, free association, poetry, song lyrics, and non-fiction.

• Interpretive writing improves understanding of a text by asking a series of good questions, introducing the writer’s own ideas about a text, and backing up claims by referring to the text or another appropriate source.

• Analytical writing covers the basics of interpretive writing, but delves further into analysis by asking “how” and “why".

• Writing in the sciences focuses on informing the reader of new discoveries, and assisting readers in discovering truth through facts and solid data given in detail.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

• Writing in business often means explaining a situation, event, or change in order to compel the reader toward a very specific action. A well-written business document should allow the reader to quickly scan for purpose, time constraints, and a contact person who can answer further questions.

Advanced Topics

Once you have learned some of the basics of college writing, you can dive into the advanced topics of writing. There are many different reasons for which one writes. It could be for school, work, or even the community. The topics discussed in this section are writing for the humanities, sciences, and business. Each chapter will highlight the unique features that separate these genres and give practical examples of how each uses writing to achieve goals.

Writing in the Humanities

Writing in the humanities includes theoretical writing, creative writing, interpretive writing, and analytical writing. Each of these qualifies as writing in the humanities, but each uses a significantly different style.

Theoretical Writing

Theoretical writing includes historical and philosophical writing. This topic focuses on the ideas of past cultures and people. It also includes writing about your own theories.

Creative Writing

Creative writing uses a more imaginative approach and can include storytelling, personal expression, or even free association. Poetry, song lyrics, short stories, non-fiction, and fiction novels are all included under creative writing. In creative writing, there is more freedom for the writer to explore feelings or ideas. Some forms of creative writing, like sonnets, do include formatting concerns or restrictions. Creative writing is more concerned with personal expression than adhering to tradition.

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There are several ways to integrate material across disciplines. When you think you see a connection across two separate disciplines, pursue your inclination and try to make the connection.

Figure 3.2 Seeing and making connections across disciplines

Interpretive Writing

Interpretive writers do more than simply summarize the text they study. Interpretive writing improves understanding by asking a series of good questions. Interpretive writers introduce their own ideas about a text, but they must always back up claims by referring to the text they analyze, or another appropriate source.

Analytical Writing

Analytical writing is like interpretive writing, but goes a bit further. Not only will you provide information, but you will also analyze it. This includes asking “how” and “why.” You will need to take a critical approach to develop an understanding of the topic before writing about it.

Writing in the Sciences

Writing in the sciences focuses on informing the reader of new discoveries, and assisting readers in discovering truth through facts. This form of writing should not leave anything open to interpretation by the reader. Information should be presented with solid data given in detail. Science writing is generally written in past tense and should be concise. Common forms of science writing includes lab reports and literature reviews.

Writing in science includes two main categories: natural sciences and social sciences. Natural sciences include pure sciences and applied sciences. Pure sciences are life sciences, physical sciences, and earth sciences. Applied sciences include medical sciences, engineering sciences, and computer science.

Social sciences focus on human behavior and societies. Social sciences involve documenting actual events as they happen as with case studies. Categories of social science include psychology, anthropology, political science, sociology, education, business, and economics.

Writing in Business

Business writing has a practical bent to it. Writing in business often means explaining a situation, event, or change. Authors typically have a very specific action that they wish the audience to take, and that action often contains time concerns as well.

Good business writing is concise and focuses directly on the stated purpose. A business document needs to be organized in a manner that directs a reader’s eye to the most important points. A well-written business document should allow the reader to quickly scan for purpose, time constraints, and a contact person who can answer further questions.

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Writing in business can include: memos, cover letters, resumes, project reports, proposals, thank-you letters, emails, and business plans.

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The Practice of Writing in the Natural Sciences

Starting with the Data

Presenting the Prevailing Theories

Explaining Your Methods

Summarizing Your Findings

Making Your Own Arguments

Saying Why It Matters

Entering the Scientific Conversation

Section 2

The Practice of Writing in the Natural Sciences

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The Practice of Writing in the Natural SciencesScientific writing has two goals: informing the reader of new developments in a field and clarifying existing questions with new evidence.

KEY POINTS

• Academic writing in the social sciences employs either quantitative or qualitative methods and maintains an objective voice.

• Peer-reviewed journal articles, literature reviews and grant proposals are popular written forms in all domains of the sciences--the social sciences add case studies to the list, while the natural sciences add the lab report.

• A literature review is an overview of writing from a particular scholarly field. Literature reviews compile information rather than conducting new research or introducing new evidence. An abstract is a 100-300 word summary of a paper's argument and methods.

• The IMRAD method is a common structural approach to academic writing in the sciences. The IMRAD model has four parts: introduction, methods, results and discussion.

Academic writing in the natural sciences endeavors to report new discoveries and to use novel perspectives and evidence to illuminate prevalent scientific questions. Writing in these disciplines often takes the form of peer-reviewed journal articles, literature reviews, grant proposals and lab reports. Unlike the humanities, the sciences are supposed to be objective – a distinction that accounts for various formal and stylistic differences between humanities writing and science writing.

Style

In the sciences, the most important elements of style are clarity and objectivity. The sciences aim to explain complex phenomena in clear, straightforward prose that minimizes authorial bias. Writing in these disciplines is somewhat argumentative, since science papers are expected to contextualize, analyze and interpret the

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Test tubes and other specialized measuring devices are an important feature of every chemistry laboratory. Accurate measurements are crucial to the success of chemistry experiments.

Figure 3.3 Test tubes and other recipients in a chemistry lab

information at hand. The following section is a guide to clear, objective argumentative writing in the natural sciences.

Scientific papers require a great deal of preliminary work, including research, field work and experimentation. Translating that work into writing can be difficult, but academic conventions provide a common template for communicating findings clearly and effectively. Strive to use simple words and sentences. Some students try to make their work sound more intellectual by using obscure words and long, elaborate sentences. In reality, the academy values precise words and detailed – but still accessible – descriptions, while it discourages rarefied words and convoluted sentences intended primarily for stylistic purposes. Don’t try to mimic the stereotype of dense, convoluted academic writing. Instead, write as simply and clearly as possible. Precision is a key component of clarity. Science writing must be precise in order to provide results that can be tested and reproduced.

In the sciences, precision has two main applications: using concrete examples, and using clear language to describe them. Defining your parameters accurately is essential. Don’t generalize – provide the exact time, measurement, quantity or other relevant datum whenever possible. Using precise, straightforward language to describe your work is also vital. This is not the time or place for flashy vocabulary words or rhetorical flourishes. Style, however, is

still important: writing about the sciences doesn’t give you a pass to write sloppily. Five common clarity issues include imprecise words, informal speech, figurative language, contractions, abbreviations and transitions.

Many students struggle to transition from one topic to the next. Transitions are well worth mastering – they are the glue that holds your ideas together. Never assume that the reader will correctly guess the relationships between different subtopics; it is your responsibility to explain these connections.

Objectivity is broadly defined as the ability to perceive a subject without being influenced by personal biases or emotions. The sciences aim for objectivity at every stage, from the experimental procedures to the language used in the write-up. However, there is still controversy surrounding the limits of objectivity in the sciences.

Science writing must convince its audience that its offering an important, innovative contribution; as a result, it has an argumentative character. Combining objectivity and argumentative writing can be challenging.

Moreover, no scientific research is free from personal choice. Selection is inherently subjective in the sciences; therefore, many scientists have adopted a practical definition of objectivity.

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Scientific objectivity has two requirements: your hypothesis must be testable, and your results must be reproducible.

The importance of objectivity in the sciences limits writers’ ability to use persuasive rhetoric. However, it is still necessary to make a strong case for the importance, relevance and applicability of your research. Argumentative writing does have a place in scientific papers, but its role is limited. You may use persuasive language in the abstract, introduction, literature review, discussion of results and conclusion, but avoid using it when you describe your methods and present your results.

Scientific Reasoning

As you design your research method, develop your hypothesis and analyze your results, you will have to base your claims on specific aspects of scientific reasoning, such as induction, deduction, interpolation or extrapolation. Keeping your chosen model in mind while you write can help ensure that your decisions and conclusions are logically consistent. Also, watch out for logic traps such as bias and faulty causality.

Researchers must account for their own biases, or personal preferences, prejudices and preconceived notions. These may include cognitive bias (irrational thinking), cultural bias (the imposition of one’s own cultural standards upon research subjects)

and sampling bias (the tendency during sample collection to include some members of the intended sample more readily than others).

When you interpret your results, don’t jump to conclusions about causal relationships – as the saying goes, “correlation does not imply causation.” In other words, if you identify a link between two factors, don’t assume that one factor must have caused the other. There may be other elements at play that you have not considered. In order to make a valid claim about causation, it is necessary to control for many interrelated factors.

Interpolation and extrapolation are methods of constructing new data points and estimating values. To interpolate is to estimate a value that lies within the range of available data. In other words, interpolation is the process of using established data points to predict the behavior of another point within their range. To extrapolate is to use established facts as a basis for inferences about matters beyond the range of known values. In the sciences, many academic projects extrapolate

The IMRAD format is the most popular structure for papers in the natural sciences. This acronym stands for the four main parts of the paper: the introduction, methods, results and discussion. Depending on the field, the intended audience and the particular occasion, different structures may be more appropriate. However, many journals prefer the IMRAD format, or similar variations of it,

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and even recommend that writers designate these four elements with uniform title headings. Added elements such as the abstract and the literature review fit seamlessly into the IMRAD schema.

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Starting with the DataIn scientific writing, the primary evidence you will rely on is your data.

KEY POINTS

• In scientific writing, your conclusions must be based on verifiable data.

• Since your data is the basis of your argument, you must present it to the reader before you can explain how you drew conclusions from your experiment's results.

• You should also record the exact methods you used to acquire your data. This will be presented to the reader in the section on methodology so that your experiment can be replicated.

• When presenting data, it is important not to change the findings of your research, but present readers with the full results of your experiments. Manipulating data is a very serious ethical violation in scientific work, because it undermines any conclusions you may have drawn from the data.

In scientific writing, the primary evidence you will rely on is your data. IMRAD refers to the most commonly used structure for writing a scientific paper. It is an acronym for Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion. The body of an IMRAD paper is concerned with presenting your data (in the sections on

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methodology and results) and then drawing conclusions from it (in the sections on analysis and discussion). As your data is so central to your paper, you should organize your findings and check them for accuracy before you begin writing.

Your most important data – the information your reader will need to know in order to follow your argument – are the results of whatever research you conducted and experiments you performed. You must present your reader with the full results of these experiments without changing anything. Doing so will corrupt your data and, consequently, any conclusions you may draw from it.

You should also record the exact methods you used to acquire your data. This will be presented to the reader in the section on methodology. You need to provide this information because in

scientific writing, data is only held to be reliable if the experiment that produced it can be replicated with identical results.

Scientific work is structured around data, and the conclusions must be based on verifiable data. Data is the result of research conducted and experiments performed. What follows is an example that presents data that came from the analysis of lake water:

“Results: The range of chlorine and phosphorus compounds found in the water was consistent across the selected area. The compounds made up 1/1000th of a sample size of 54 oz. of river water. A previous study found the ratio to be 1/500th of a 32 oz. sample performed in a study of river conditions performed ten years prior to the current study. In that time, the salmon population in the area has grown from 2,000 to 3,500.”

When presenting data, it is important not to change the findings of your research, but present readers with the full results of your experiments. Manipulating data is a very serious ethical violation in scientific work, because it not only corrupts your research findings but also undermines any conclusions you may have drawn from the data. In addition, part of reliable data comes from the method used to acquire the data. It is equally important to present your methodology, or the steps you took while conducting experiments. This gives others the opportunity to replicate your experiment and see if they get similar or different results.

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Test tubes and other specialized measuring devices are an important feature of every chemistry laboratory. Accurate measurements are crucial to the success of chemistry experiments.

Figure 3.4 Test tubes and other recipients in a chemistry lab

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Presenting the Prevailing TheoriesIn your writing, you should include a “literature review,” which discusses some prevailing theories that dominate your specific topic.

KEY POINTS

• A literature review allows you to present some theories about your topic, independent of whether they differ or agree with your findings. By presenting these theories, you give the reader a sense of the field within which your study was performed.

• Your study will likely diverge in some way from the previous studies, either because you have different data, or because you reach different conclusions about the data. Having a literature review in your writing will make clearer why your findings are important.

• When using the IMRAD structure, you have the option to include a literature review between your introduction and your methodology.

• The literature review works like the “status quo” of writing in the humanities and social sciences.

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Although it is not mentioned in the IMRAD acronym, writers in the natural sciences commonly begin their papers with a literature review. A literature review is an overview of writing from a particular scholarly field. Not all academic science papers require literature reviews, but they are quite common in such papers. Literature reviews compile information rather than conduct new research or introduce new evidence. Think of it as the equivalent of the “status quo” in other disciplines – the purpose is to situate your work within the existing scholarly discussion. It will help the reader understand what your argument is and why it matters.

Some students imagine that they need to summarize all of the research that has been conducted on their specific topic area, but that, of course, is an unrealistic expectation. The literature review should only refer to work that affects or illuminates your question –

otherwise, it would be too easy to get lost in generalities involving your topic.

Similarly, you do not need to include a lengthy history of all the prevailing theories about your topic. In the sciences, even more so than in the humanities, the age of a theory has a major impact on how accurate that theory is considered to be. This is true because most theories continue to be developed over time until they have changed significantly, become far more specific or have been proven wrong and thereby discarded. In some fields, progress is so rapid that theories can become outdated within the span of a decade. Consequently, if you want your literature review to reflect theories considered accurate by scientists today, you should focus on the most current research available.

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Test tubes and other specialized measuring devices are an important feature of every chemistry laboratory. Accurate measurements are crucial to the success of chemistry experiments.

Figure 3.5 Test tubes and other recipients in a chemistry lab

Explaining Your MethodsA methods section is a detailed description of how you conducted a study.

KEY POINTS

• A section describing your methodology should describe in detail your assumptions going into the study, performance measures, the materials used, as well as when, where, and how the study was conducted.

• The description of your methodology should give readers all the information necessary for them to recreate your experiments exactly, which not only gives others a chance to test your findings, but also demonstrates that a project meets the criteria of scientific objectivity.

• Scientific objectivity requires that your paper have a testable hypothesis and reproducible results.

• To prove that your paper meets those criteria, you need to include a detailed description of how you conducted your experiment and reached your conclusions.

Methodology in IMRAD

The first section of the IMRAD model we will discuss is methodology. Methodology is a full, technical explanation of how

you conducted research and found your results. It should describe in detail your:

• assumptions,

• questions,

• system model,

• simulation model, and

• performance measures.

For an original study, the methods section should also specify when, where, and how the study was conducted, what materials were used, and who was included in the study groups.

The methods section does not have to be a crowd pleaser – technical language and dense, tedious details are to be expected. Always err on the side of being overly thorough, since the goal of the methodology section is to give readers all the information necessary for them to recreate your experiments exactly. Scientific papers need a thorough description of methodology in order to prove that a project meets the criteria of scientific objectivity. These criteria are a testable hypothesis and reproducible results.

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Testability

Your claim is only a valid hypothesis if it is testable. Testability is an extension of falsifiability, a principle indicating that a claim can be proven either true or false. The statement, “all Swedish people have blonde hair” is falsifiable – it could be proven false by identifying a Swede with a different hair color. For a hypothesis to be testable, it must be possible to conduct experiments that could reveal observable counterexamples. This is the equivalent of the principle in the humanities that a claim is only a valid argument if someone could also reasonably argue against it.

Hypotheses become accepted theories only when their experimental results are proven to be reproducible. That means that if the experiment is conducted the same way every time, it will always generate the same results.To ensure that your results are reproducible, it is important to explain your process very clearly and provide all of the details that would be necessary to replicate your project. This information must be accurate—even one mistaken measurement or typo could change the results of the experiment.

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Summarizing Your FindingsSince the goal of the scientific paper is to present facts supported by evidence, there are general rules to follow in the paper.

KEY POINTS

• After discussing the methodology of your study, or the steps you took to perform your experiment, you should describe the outcome, or results, of your study.

• When presenting the findings, avoid drawing conclusions and instead provide and explain the data you collected. This is the opportunity to tell the reader what you found, without drawing any explicit conclusions from it.

• In your conclusion, you should focus on the data you presented. Share and discuss your results. Here you are allowed to give your opinion on what the results mean.

Since the goal of the scientific paper is to present facts supported by evidence, there are general rules to follow in the paper. Avoid adjectives and adverbs (being descriptive), and instead focus on the nouns (the focus of the paper) and the verbs (how it acted). Structure your sentences so that they are clear and easy to understand. Keep your audience in mind when using technical jargon. Limit yourself to words and jargon that your audience

should be familiar with. Overuse of unfamiliar jargon will not make you sound smarter, it will only thoroughly confuse your readers.

The results section is where you state the outcome of your experiments. It should include empirical data, as well as any charts and plots that relate to the research question. It should also state whether the research hypothesis was true or false.

It may be tempting to start drawing conclusions as you present your results. You may also want to compare your results to the outcomes of other researchers’ experiments. However, you should refrain from doing so. Both those tasks will be performed in the discussion section. The most you should do is present and explain the data your experiments produced. Think of it as laying the foundation for what you will conclude later on in your work.

In your conclusion, you should focus on the data you presented. Share and discuss your results. Here you are allowed to give your opinion on what the results mean. Although you are given the freedom to interpret your data how you see fit, avoid linking your findings with other, unexplored subject matter. If you didn't cover it in your introduction or experiment, leave it out of the conclusion!

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Making Your Own ArgumentsScientific papers present their methodology and the findings from a research experiment, and then make an argument based on the results.

KEY POINTS

• Presenting your argument gives you an opportunity to summarize all the things you discovered while doing your research and present the conclusions you think they imply.

• When discussing your results and drawing conclusions from them, a good paper will make an argument rather than simply restate facts.

• The discussion section is where you will argue that your conclusions are valid and reiterate why those conclusions are relevant to other scientists.

Although the structure of a scientific paper differs from the model found in disciplines such as Humanities, scientific papers are still concerned with making an argument. Therefore, stopping at the description of your methodology before detailing your results is insufficient. Instead, you must draw conclusions from those results, explain why those conclusions are valid, and reveal why a wider audience should care about the importance of those findings. This

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takes place in what the IMRAD model calls the discussion section of your paper.

The discussion section should analyze the results, state why they matter, contextualize them in relation to existing research and suggest what the results imply for future research. This section plays a vital role: it makes sense of your results, and it also synthesizes your work, reminding your readers of the steps you’ve taken to address your initial claim. The discussion section is your final opportunity to convince your readers that your argument is a valuable contribution to your field. Remember that if your readers are unfamiliar with your argument, it is very helpful for them to see a review of your main points. The discussion section is your opportunity to prove that you answered the questions that you posed in the introduction.

Although this section is called “discussion,” in truth, it’s where you make your argument. Therefore, you need to formulate a contestable claim. In the case of the sciences, those claims are the conclusions you draw from your data. Using this section to explain how you reached those claims and why the reader should agree with them is essential.

An easy way to ensure that you are making a contestable claim is to position yourself in relation to other scientists’ work. Two common tactics exist to help you do this. If you find an article you agree with,

you can base your argument around refining or building off of that scholar’s work. Alternatively, you can base your argument on the counterpoint of another writer’s conclusions.

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Saying Why It MattersJust as in any other discipline, an integral step in writing a science paper is to explain to your readers why your argument matters.

KEY POINTS

• It is important to articulate to your reader why your argument matters.

• An abstract is a short summary that distills the topic area, methods, results, conclusions, and recommendations of a paper in about 100 to 300 words.

• The introduction provides an overview of subsequent material, while also forming a common ground of general information about your topic, before moving on to the specifics of your particular question.

• Your paper should begin with an abstract and introduction that explain what makes your research significant or useful.

Just as in any other discipline, an integral step in writing a science paper is to explain to your readers why your argument matters. You will want to follow the same general process of articulating consequences and explaining the benefits of your work. Why did you take the time and effort to conduct this experiment? Why should anyone care about what you found? These are things you

want to make clear. There are two main places where you will set up the stakes of your argument: the abstract and the introduction.

Abstract

An abstract is a short summary that distills the topic, methods, results, conclusions, and recommendations of a paper in about 100 to 300 words. Most scientific journals require abstracts, and publish them at the beginning of the paper. Many more people will read a paper’s abstract than the paper itself, so make sure your summary is compelling in its own right (Figure 3.6). The abstract should stand alone, making it possible for readers to understand the goals and conclusions of your research without reading the whole paper. Most importantly, though, the abstract should make the case for why someone should read further--it is the first place where you will articulate the stakes and consequences of your research.

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When others search for your paper, the first thing they will read is your abstract. Making this clear and compelling is the first step to getting your paper widely read.

Figure 3.6 Literature Searching

Introduction

If the abstract has convinced a reader that your paper is worth his or her time, you need to keep their interest by expanding the claims you introduced in the abstract. The introduction is the place to do that.

The introduction should describe the paper's motivation, objective, problem, tested hypothesis, novel contributions, and background materials. The opening should provide a common ground of general information about your topic, and then get more specific as it closes in on your particular question. This is your opportunity to make the reader care—make sure you emphasize how applicable your research is to other issues and even other fields. It is also the place to share what scientists before you have done in this area, and what they have found. You also what to make it clear what they did not find, or what they still might want to know. This is the motivation for your own experiment.

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Entering the Scientific ConversationReading scientific articles can help you learn how to structure your own and help you learn the conventions of contemporary research.

KEY POINTS

• One way to become acquainted with how to write scientific articles is to ask questions while reading them. Paying attention to the components of an article, such as the form it takes, how it is structured, and what it explains, can help you prepare for writing in the sciences.

• When reading scientific articles, analyze them closely rather than skim them passively.

• You should always take notes while reading scientific articles. You should also always begin reading with one or more questions in mind.

Reading, Summarizing, and Analyzing Scientific Articles

Every scientific article you read is an opportunity to improve your own academic writing. The formal conventions of scientific writing can be confusing, so it is helpful to study concrete examples that demonstrate how the rules work in practice. When you read a

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scientific article, notice how the writers use formal techniques, such as organization and language, to emphasize important points. Scientific articles are dense, and it is easy to get lost in the details, but examining the article’s form can guide you through the content.

Reading articles with an eye for formal aspects serves two purposes: it provides models for your own writing, and it also clarifies the article’s content. The following segment will discuss methods for reading scientific articles with these two objectives in mind.

Reading Scientific Articles

Do not read a scientific article as though you’re reading a textbook. Unlike academic articles, science textbooks organize information in chronological order and highlight important terms, definitions, and conclusions with bold text and flashy graphics. Academic articles require a more proactive reading strategy.

Follow these four steps for reading scientific articles:

1. Before you read the entire article, skim it quickly for an overview of its structure.

2. Return to the beginning for a selective reading. Read the abstract, which will summarize the article. Read the beginning and end of the introduction, which will present the main points and explain their importance. Skim the

conclusion to see how the results correspond to the hypothesis. As you read, look for keywords that signal important information, such as: surprising, unexpected, in contrast with previous work, we hypothesize that, we propose, we introduce, we develop, the data suggest.

3. Skim the entire article for common keywords and also visual aids (such as diagrams and charts), which are good indicators of important information.

4. At this point, you can read the article closely, attempting to draw inferences beyond what it states explicitly. As you read, take notes in a separate notebook, or in a word document.

Taking Notes

When taking notes, the following strategies are effective:

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Test tubes and other specialized measuring devices are an important feature of every chemistry laboratory. Accurate measurements are crucial to the success of chemistry experiments.

Figure 3.7 Test tubes and other recipients in a chemistry lab

• Highlight important passages.

• Draw lines between the highlighted parts and briefly describe their connection.

• Map the relationships between key concepts.

• Make a list of keywords.

• Look for words that signal an important piece of information.

• Look for familiar concepts applied to new populations or situations.

• Try to find evidence that might contradict something that was established in your class.

Questions for Guided Reading

If you want to make sure you catch the most important features of the article, ask pointed questions while you read. These twelve questions are essential to a thorough summary of a scientific article:

1. What is the topic of the article?

2. How is the problem, question, or issue defined?

3. What is the purpose of the research? What question, problem, or issue did the article address in relation to the topic?

4. Are any assumptions unusual or questionable?

5. Why is the question, problem, or issue important?

6. What situation exists that motivated the research?

7. What experimental design is used?

8. What methods are used?

9. What are the results?

10.How were the results interpreted?

11.What did the researcher conclude?

12.Why is the article valuable or noteworthy?

A paper might be noteworthy if it:

• Answers a previously unanswered question

• Introduces a new method or technique

• Contradicts earlier research in a new way

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• Tests a method or conclusion on a new type of data or specimen

• Tests an earlier conclusion with a new method or larger sample

• Proves an old assumption false

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Writing Your Introduction and Thesis

Creating Your Literature Review

Analyzing the Data

Section 3

The Practice of Writing in the Social Sciences

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Writing Your Introduction and ThesisIn academic writing, the introduction and thesis statement form the foundation for your paper.

KEY POINTS

• Writing in the social sciences examines the human relation to nature, technology, and social systems that include value systems, family structures, and other interpersonal models.

• Writing in the social sciences should adopt an objective style without figurative and emotional language.

• A few style tips for social science papers: be detailed; remain focused on your topic; be precise; and use jargon only when writing for a specialist audience.

• An abstract is a summary of a paper’s key points. The typical length for an abstract is 50 to 300 words.

• In the social sciences, an introduction should succinctly present these five points: the topic, the question, the importance of the question, your approach to the question, and your answer to the question.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

• A thesis statement is a brief summary of your paper’s purpose and your central claim. The thesis statement should be one to three sentences in length, depending on the complexity of your paper, and it should appear in your introduction.

Social science papers generally include the following elements: title page, abstract, introduction, thesis statement, literature review, methods, results, analysis, conclusion, and bibliography. Depending on the assignment, some of these sections may be omitted. In some cases, the entire assignment may be a literature review. Some disciplines in the social sciences—particularly anthropology, communication studies, political science, sociology, law, and linguistics—overlap with the humanities, and may use rubrics for humanities writing (Figure 3.8). For now, we will focus on the introduction and thesis statement.

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The social sciences include academic disciplines like anthropology, sociology, psychology, and economics

Figure 3.8 Social Sciences

Introduction

The introduction to a social science paper should succinctly present the main ideas. The goal of the introduction is to convince the reader that you have a valid answer to an important question. In order to do that, make sure your introduction covers these five points: the topic, the question, the importance of the question, your approach to the question, and your answer to the question.

A popular introduction structure is the concept-funnel – begin with general information about your topic, narrow the focus and provide context, and end by distilling your paper’s specific approach. As you move from general background information to the specifics of your project, try to create a road map for your paper. Mirror the structure of the paper itself, explaining how each piece fits into the bigger picture. It is usually best to write the introduction after you have made significant progress with your research, experiment, or data analysis to ensure you have enough information to write an accurate overview.

There are many ways to begin a paper, some straightforward, others more creative. Papers in the sciences generally aim for an objective voice and stay close to the facts. However, you have a bit more freedom at the beginning of the introduction, and you can take advantage of that freedom by finding a surprising, high-impact way

to highlight your issue’s importance. Here are some effective strategies for opening a paper:

• Make a provocative or controversial statement

• State a surprising or little-known fact

• Make a case for your topic’s relevance to the reader

• Open with a quote or brief anecdote

• Take a stand against something

• Stake a position for yourself within an ongoing debate.

• Introduce a challenging problem or paradox

After you grab the reader’s attention with the opening, make a case for the importance of your topic and question. Here are some questions that may help at this stage: Why did you choose this topic? Should the general public or your academic discipline be more aware of this issue – and why? Are you calling attention to an under-appreciated issue, or evaluating a widely acknowledged issue in a new light? How does the issue affect you, if at all?

Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is a brief summary of your paper’s purpose and central claim. The thesis statement should be one to three

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sentences, depending on the complexity of your paper, and should appear in your introduction. A thesis statement in the social sciences should include your principal findings and conclusions. If writing about an experiment, it should also include your initial hypothesis. Do not wait too long to state your thesis. The introduction should provide a rationale for your approach to your research question and will be easier to follow your reasoning if you reveal what you did before you explain why you did it.

The thesis statement is one of the most crucial parts, since it provides a concise summary of your argument. However, many students struggle with the thesis statement. Here are thesis statement types to avoid:

1. The statement without a thesis. A statement of a fact, opinion, or topic is not a thesis. Push the thesis statement beyond the level of a topic statement, and make an argument.

2. The vague thesis. If your thesis statement is too general, it will not provide a “road map” for readers.

3. The “value judgment” thesis. Your argument should not assume a universal, self-evident set of values. Value judgment-based arguments tend to have the structure, x is bad, y is good, or x is better than y. “Good,” “bad,” “better,” and “worse” are vague terms that do not convey enough

information for academic arguments. In academic writing, it is inappropriate to assume that your reader will know exactly what you mean when you make an overly general claim. The burden of proof, and thorough explanation, is on you.

4. The oversized thesis claim. There is only so much material you can cover within a page limit, so make sure your topic is focused enough that you can do it justice. Also, avoid arguments that require evidence you do not have. There are some arguments that require a great deal of research to prove – only tackle these topics if you have the time, space, and resources.

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Creating Your Literature ReviewThe body of a scientific paper is likely to contain the following sections: literature review, methods, results, and discussion.

KEY POINTS

• The literature review provides an overview of relevant research in your discipline.

• The section that describes your methods should explain how you collected your data and also how you evaluated the data.

• If your project conducts an experiment or an original data analysis, you should include a separate section that reports your results.

• The discussion section should analyze your results without reporting any new findings.

• Think of each section as a course served at a fancy dinner—don’t mix the soup in with the salad or add leftover scraps from the entree to the dessert!

The Body of the Paper

In the social sciences, the format for the body of the paper varies depending on the discipline, audience, and research methods. The

body of the paper is likely to contain a literature review, methods, results, and discussion. These sections are usually discrete, although in some cases the literature review is combined with the introduction, and the results are combined with the methods. However, many instructors prefer that students maintain these divisions, since they are still learning the conventions of writing in their discipline.

This section breakdown is designed to separate different categories of information. Try to stay true to each section’s stated purpose. For instance, the bulk of your writing about scholarly literature should be limited to the literature review itself. You can cite relevant sources in the methods, discussion, and conclusion sections, but again – save the lengthy discussion of those sources for the literature review. The results section should describe your results without discussing their significance, while the discussion section should analyze your results without reporting any new findings. Think of each section as a course served at a fancy dinner—don’t mix the soup in with the salad or add leftover scraps from the entree to the dessert!

Literature Review

The literature review provides an overview of relevant research in your discipline. Its goal is to provide a scholarly context for your research question, and explain how your own research fits into that

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context. A literature review is not merely a summary of the sources you’ve found for your paper – it should synthesize the information gathered from those sources in order to demonstrate that work still needs to be done.

Explain your selection criteria early on – why did you choose each of these sources? The literature review should only refer to work that affects your particular question – otherwise, you will get bogged down in generalizations about your topic. Seek out a diverse range of sources. Look at primary research reports and data sets in addition to secondary or analytical sources.

Methods

The section that describes your methods should explain how you collected your data and also how you evaluated the data. Use the past tense, and use precise language.

Explain why you chose your methods, and how they compare to the standard practices in your discipline. Cite the particular sources that inspired your choice of methodology. Address potential problems with your methodology, and discuss how you dealt with these problems. Demonstrate that the scope of your methodology corresponds to the scope of your conclusions. Convince your readers that your sample size, time horizon, geographic range, selection mechanisms, and other limiting factors are appropriate given the nature of your conclusions. Explain the logic behind these limiting factors, and then classify your methods. Are they empirical or interpretive? Quantitative or qualitative? Quantitative methods rely on objective measurements and numerical analysis, while qualitative methods create a more subjective understanding by studying a subject’s defining qualities and character.

After you support your methods for data collection or creation, defend the framework you use to analyze or interpret the data. What theoretical assumptions do you rely on? Confirm that those theoretical assumptions are currently permissible in your discipline.

After you provide a rationale for your methodology, explain your process in detail. If you are vague or unclear in describing your methods, your reader will have reason to doubt your results. Furthermore, scientific research should present reproducible results, and it will be impossible for other researchers to recreate

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One of the goals of the literature review is to demonstrate familiarity with a body of knowledge

Figure 3.9 Royal Academy School

your results if they can’t determine exactly what you did. Include information about your population, sample frame, sample method, sample size, data collection method, and data processing and analysis.

Results

If your project conducts an experiment or an original data analysis, you should include a separate section that reports your results. When you describe your findings, do so in the past tense, using impartial language, with no attempt to analyze their significance. You will analyze your results in the next section. However, it is perfectly acceptable to make observations about your findings. For instance, if there was an unexpectedly large gap between two data points, you should mention that the gap is unusual, but save your speculations about the gap for the discussion section. If you find some results that don’t support your hypothesis, don’t omit them. Report incongruous results, and then address them in the discussion section. If you find that you need more background information to provide context for your results, don’t include it in the “results” section – go back and add it to your introduction.

It can be very helpful to include visual aids such as figures, charts, tables, and photos with your results. Make sure you label each of these elements, and provide supporting text that explains them thoroughly.

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Analyzing the DataIn the discussion section of your scientific paper, analyze your results; to explore even broader implications, include a conclusion.

KEY POINTS

• The discussion section should briefly remind the reader of your research question and principal findings, and then interpret your results.

• In the discussion section, first briefly remind your reader of your research question and principal findings by writing a short statement that restates these points. Then explain the results themselves.

• In the conclusion, discuss the significance of your research for future research, public policy, personal decision-making, or other spheres of influence somewhere in your paper.

Discussion

The discussion section of a scientific paper should interpret your results. First, briefly remind your reader of your research question and principal findings by writing a short statement that restates these points. Then explain the results themselves. Discuss how they fit your hypothesis, and whether they are consistent with the results

of similar research projects. Did you encounter anything surprising or idiosyncratic? If so, why is it significant? What might have caused it? Build on the research question you posed in the introduction, and the context you established in the literature review. Make a case for the meaning and significance of your findings, and support your case by connecting it to related research.

Acknowledge other possible interpretations of your results, and admit your project’s limitations. Your argument will be more convincing if you can anticipate your reader’s potential objections to your claims, and address them directly in the discussion section.

If your interpretation has broader implications, you can either suggest them in the discussion section, or introduce them in a separate conclusion. You don’t have to write a conclusion if your points fit neatly into the discussion section, but a conclusion is helpful if you want to make suggestions that stretch far beyond the scope of your project.

Conclusion

The conclusion section is not strictly necessary in the social sciences, but it is helpful to provide a succinct summary of your work. It is also a good place to make bold speculations about the implications of your project. You should discuss the significance of your research for future research, public policy, personal decision-

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making, or other spheres of influence somewhere in your paper (Figure 3.10). But think carefully about whether you could benefit from the distancing effect of putting these implications in a separate conclusion.

The conclusion should not repeat your discussion section. It should take one to three paragraphs to restate the research question, the main results, and the meaning of these

results. The conclusion then reaches beyond the suggestions you made in the body of the paper to emphasize the importance of these results, and their potential consequences.

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Your conclusion can discuss the broader implications of your research.

Figure 3.10 U.S. Capitol Building

Meeting College Writing Expectations

Using Strategies for Writing College Essays

Collaborating on Academic Writing Projects

Section 4

The Practice of Writing in College

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Meeting College Writing ExpectationsStudents should explore the writing resources provided by their institutions, and may be surprised by how much help they offer.

KEY POINTS

• The conventions of academic writing can be confusing at first, but there is no need to struggle alone.

• Some colleges publish outstanding student work, which can provide valuable examples for students who are still getting used to academic writing.

• Taking advantage of these resources has the added benefit of pushing students to begin the planning and writing process early.

• Take advantages of whatever resources your college offers, and allow yourself enough time to write and revise several drafts.

The typical student enters college with a wealth of experience writing five-paragraph essays, book reports, and lab reports, but most college freshmen need to make big adjustments to learn the conventions of academic writing. College-level academic writing obeys different rules; learning these distinctions will help you hone

your writing skills. Many students feel intimidated asking for help with academic writing; after all, it's something you've been doing your entire life in school. However, there's no need to feel embarrassed. College professors and administrators are familiar with this problem, and most universities have support systems in place to help students learn how to write for an academic audience. The following sections discuss common on-campus services, what to expect from them, and how they can help you (Figure 3.11).

Writing Mentors

Learning to write for an academic audience is challenging, but universities offer various resources to guide students through the

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College writing can seem daunting at first, but there are methods to help you master it.

Figure 3.11 Kings College, Cambridge

process. Most instructors will be happy to meet with you during office hours to discuss guidelines for writing about their particular discipline. If you have any doubts about research methods, paper structure, writing style, etc., address these uncertainties with the instructor before you hand in your paper, instead of waiting to see the critiques they write in the margins afterward.

Writing Centers

Most colleges have writing centers that are designed to help students adjust to college-level expectations. These centers usually offer one-on-one advisory meetings or group sessions that cover topics ranging from conducting research to conquering procrastination. Although universities don’t always do a great job advertising their writing centers and workshops, these resources are widespread and generally easy to use, once you find them.

Learning by Example

Many students like to learn by example, and find it very helpful to read other students’ academic writing. Some universities publish outstanding student essays. Some professors keep copies of student papers, and they may be willing to show you examples of writing that meets their expectations.

Student-Led Workshops

Some courses encourage students to share their research and writing with each other, and even offer workshops where students can present their own writing and offer constructive comments to their classmates. However, course-sponsored workshops are scarce, especially in advanced classes. Independent paper workshops provide a space for peers with varying interests, work styles, and areas of expertise to brainstorm. If you want to improve your writing, organizing a workshop session with your classmates is a great strategy.

Planning

In high school, students submit their work in multiple stages, from the thesis statement to the outline to a draft of the paper, and finally, after receiving feedback on each preliminary piece, a completed project. This format teaches students how to divide writing assignments into smaller tasks and schedule these tasks over an extended period of time, instead of scrambling through the entire process right before the deadline. In college, it is your responsibility to break large assignments down into smaller projects instead of leaving an unmanageable amount of work until the last minute.

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Drafting

Academic writing can, at times, feel overwhelming. Many students have anxieties about the conventions of academic writing, and these worries can lead to writer’s block. Even the most diligent students suffer from writers block; it is an indiscriminate blight. The symptoms are all too familiar: the terror of a blank screen and a blank mind, the nagging certainty that the sentence you just wrote is embarrassingly clunky, the fear that you're not saying anything new or interesting. It is tempting to face these fears by trying to solve each problem you encounter before moving on to the next paragraph, but that strategy is not efficient. You can waste a great deal of time staring at a problem paragraph, when it would be more productive to begin drafting other parts of your paper. When you return to the problem section a few hours later (or, even better, the next day), the solution may be obvious.

The practice of writing in drafts makes academic work more manageable. Drafting gets your ideas onto paper, which gives you more to work with than the perfectionist's daunting blank screen. You can always return later to fix the mistakes that drove you crazy.

In the early stages of planning, prewriting, and drafting, the academic writer is like an architect building a solid, sturdy framework to support ideas and research. This textbook provides more techniques for navigating the writing process in subsequent

chapters, “Academic Writing in the Humanities” and “Academic Writing in the Sciences.”

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Using Strategies for Writing College EssaysAcademic writing is a genre that presents ideas about thoroughly investigated knowledge to an informed scholarly audience.

KEY POINTS

• Academic writing has some features that hold true across disciplines, and this section lists those features. It also describes resources for scholarly research.

• There are many different approaches to academic research, since each discipline has its own conventions that dictate what kinds of texts and evidence are permissible.

• Scholarly writing typically takes an objective stance, clearly states its significance and methods, and uses precise, formal, academic rhetoric. Academic writing can reach a broader audience through more informal venues such as journalism and public speaking.

Academic Writing

Academic writing is a diverse genre, but it has some features that hold true across many disciplines. Scholarly work generally tries to:

• Maintain an objective stance

• Demonstrate the significance of its claims

• Clearly signal its methods

• Aim for specificity

• Provide citations for all of its research sources

• Write with an informed academic audience in mind

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Across many academic disciplines, research is often required for writing assignments.

Figure 3.12 The Original Dallas Pubic Library

• Write in an argumentative style

• Focus on closely investigated knowledge

There are countless examples of respected scholarly pieces that flaunt these conventions – for instance, the “reader response” school of literary criticism abandons the objective stance altogether. If you plan to dispense with one of these conventions, it is a good idea to make sure your instructor approves of your stylistic choice.

Academic Writing Skills

Academic work is an excellent way to develop strong research and writing skills. Try to use your undergraduate assignments to build these skills:

• Reading comprehension

• Critical thinking

• Creative thinking

• Research

• Communicating with a specific audience

• Adapting to the norms of a particular genre of writing

• Collaborating on research, writing, and presenting

• Technological proficiency

Academic Research

There are many different approaches to research for academic writing; each discipline has its own conventions that dictate what kinds of texts and evidence are permitted. The following section lists popular source types for academic writing.

Commonly Cited Academic Documents

• Annotated bibliography

• Annotated catalogue

• Book

• Book report

• Call for papers (a document requesting papers for a conference or journal, which often specifies an organizing theme, question, or occasion)

• Classification scheme

• Conference paper

• Dissertation (usually 6,000–20,000 words in length)

• Database

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• Encyclopedia entry

• Essay (usually 1,500–6,000 words)

• Explication (a short, factual note explaining an obscure part of a particular work – especially its terminology, dialect, allusions, or coded references)

• Hypertext (an online resource including hyperlinks that the reader can click to immediately access other texts)

• Literature review (an overview of the academic work published about a particular topic)

• Research paper (usually 3,000–6,000 words)

• Scholarly article

• Timeline

• Technical report

• Thesis

• Translation

Sources Outside the Academy

• Journalism

• Opinion (in the formal sense—an expertly written opinion used in a court case)

• Obituary

• Public speech or lecture

• Review of a book, musical performance, film, art exhibition, event, etc.

• Script from a film, documentary, television show, or radio show

• Think tank pamphlet, position paper, or briefing paper

Personal Sources

• Autobiography or memoir

• Blog

• Chapbook

• Commonplace book (a collection of personally-selected quotes from various texts)

• Correspondence

• Diary

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• Notebook

• Performative writing (writing in which the form is just as important as the content – performative writing is a postmodern practice with ties to performance art, critical writing, and creative writing)

Research Documents

• Experiment plan

• Laboratory report

• Raw data collection plan

• Research plan

• Structured notes

Technical or Administrative Forms

• Brief (a general term for formal documents used in fields such as law, architecture, and business)

• Peer review report (a formal review conducted by experts in a given field)

• Proposal

• White papers and green papers (reports issued by political entities that explain proposed laws or changes to existing policies)

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Collaborating on Academic Writing ProjectsAcademic collaboration on projects provides valuable opportunities for students to learn effective cooperative tactics.

KEY POINTS

• Many students resist collaborative work, but with proper planning and ground rules, teamwork can increase the scope and quality of various academic endeavors.

• A motion is a formal method of introducing new topics. To introduce a motion, a group member should precede the suggestion of a new topic by saying, “I move that,” and another group member must “second” the motion to initiate a discussion.

• An agenda is a written plan outlining the issues that will be addressed in a group meeting.

• Minutes are notes that record the topics discussed and decisions made at group meetings.

The principle of collaborative work is ambitious: it brings students together to combine their diverse talents with the goal of achieving something greater than any group member could have achieved

alone. Collaboration allows students to work on larger questions than they could manage on their own, and it also provides great opportunities for them to learn from their colleagues.

Recent research suggests that teamwork is an important part of academic success. Professor Ben Jones of the Kellogg Business School analyzed 19.9 million peer-reviewed scientific articles and 2.1 million patents from the last fifty years, and concluded that, compared to lone scholars, groups of scientists were over six times as likely to produce the most successful papers (papers cited at least 1,000 times).

Collaborative work has applications far beyond academia: it is necessary in most professions. Academic work provides opportunities for students to practice effective cooperative strategies for presentations, papers, and research. Some students are reluctant to work with partners, but with proper planning and clearly defined ground rules, teamwork can increase the scope and quality of academic and professional endeavors.

Timing

• Meet early to define your project. Settling the main issues before intense deadline pressure sets in will make group negotiations much more relaxed.

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• Divide the work evenly at an early date: The longer you wait to distribute specific assignments, the likelier it is that one or two group members will end up doing most of the work at the last minute.

• Create a timeline that states when each part of the project is due.

• At an early date, set a time for a meeting close to the due date to revise the project. Finding a date that works for everyone will become increasingly difficult if the project is due around midterms or finals, so fix a time earlier rather than later.

Communication

• Give other group members constructive feedback on their ideas and their work. Don’t hesitate to voice your questions and reservations. Your grade will be based on the work of everyone in the group, and it is in everyone’s best interest to address problems as soon as they come up.

• Make sure your criticism is constructive – in other words, don’t simply shoot down ideas or trash a teammate’s work. Balance your critiques with affirmations.

• Remember that each group member has different skills, talents, and expertise. The loudest students aren’t necessarily the most knowledgeable – try to get a sense of each student’s strengths, and draw the quiet students out. You won’t maximize the group's synergy if you simply rely on the most assertive students.

Structuring Meetings

Creating structures to govern each aspect of collaborative work, from the agenda of each meeting to the timeline of goals leading up to completion, will minimize interpersonal tension. Referring to documents is less emotionally charged than making personal judgments. Compare these two statements: “We should probably get back to the points on the agenda” vs. “I think you’re distracting us from the issues that really matter.” The more elements of group

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Collaborating writers often produce strong documents because they have a greater pool of knowledge from which to draw information.

Figure 3.13 Students at UNU-ISP, Tokyo

work you can define in writing, the better. Here are a few formal strategies for structuring group work:

Agenda

An agenda is a written plan outlining the issues that will be discussed at a specific meeting. Effective agendas strike a balance between describing goals in detail and expressing each point concisely. Some groups choose one leader to write agendas and run meetings. Having a group leader is essential for large groups. Smaller groups can either adopt this strategy or write future agendas together at the end of each meeting. Either way, one group member should be in charge of distributing the agendas to all group members before each meeting.

Motion

A motion is a formal method of introducing new topics. It is appropriate for large groups, and also for groups that have trouble staying focused. Customarily, a participant who wants to suggest a change of direction will do so using the phrase, “I move that...” as in, “I move that we should also consider data gathered between 1980 and 1990.” If another participant “seconds” the motion by saying, “I second the motion” or simply “second,” the motion will proceed. However, if no one seconds the motion, the group will not discuss the proposed topic.

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Anticipating Potential Objections

Articulating Your Argument Up-Front

Using Satire to Summarize

Using Signal Verbs that Fit the Action

Section 5

The Practice of Summarizing

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Anticipating Potential ObjectionsThere are two sides to every argument. So try to form a common ground with the audience.

KEY POINTS

• Anticipating the objections from a reading audience requires not only thinking about the particular qualities of the audience, but also requires putting yourself in their position as skeptical readers.

• One way of increasing the effectiveness of your argument is to anticipate potential objections: try to approach your argument from the skeptical position of the audience who have not had access to the train of thought that brought you to your certain conclusion.

• By demonstrating that you have considered the position of your audience, you not only improve your own understanding of your argument, but also increase the likelihood that readers will be receptive as the topic moves forward.

Not everyone will readily agree with the viewpoint you take in an argument. One way of increasing the effectiveness of your argument is to anticipate potential objections: try to approach your argument from the skeptical position of the audience who have not had access

to the train of thought that brought you to your certain conclusion. By demonstrating that you have considered the position of your audience, you not only improve your own understanding of your argument, but also increase the likelihood that readers will be receptive as the topic moves forward.

There are two sides to every argument. This means not everyone will agree with your viewpoint. So try to form a common ground with the audience. Think about who may be undecided or opposed to your viewpoint. Take the audience's age, education, values, gender, culture, ethnicity, and all other variables into consideration as you introduce your topic.

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The men who participated in Toronto's Walk A Mile in Her Shoes benefit are great role models in many ways! In academic writing, as in life, it is wise to consider and entertain perspectives that are different from your own.

Figure 3.14 Walk A Mile in Her Shoes: Toronto Walk Against Violence

These variables will affect your word choice, and your audience may be more likely to listen to your argument with an open mind if you do.

For example, to begin discussing the legalization of physician aid-in-dying with an audience that may be initially adverse to the idea, you might begin with something like: "The impending death of a loved one, particularly a person who can no longer communicate for herself, can pose intense ethical and emotional questions for those designated to make medical decisions for the patient. Hastening death can seem antithetical to the goals of medicine, and the artificial extension of life through invasive and/or risky medical procedures often does not provide an easier alternative. So, how might one go about making such fundamental decisions?"

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Articulating Your Argument Up-FrontEarly in the essay, you want to include a series of sentences that show the way in which your essay will move toward your position.

KEY POINTS

• Demonstrate that the essay will move logically toward your argumentative conclusion.

• Refer to the essay question, showing that you have answered the question articulated in the beginning.

• In the final section, summarize the main points of the essay, reminding the reader how you got to where you ended up.

Early in the essay, you want to include a series of sentences that briefly demonstrate the way in which your essay will move toward articulating your argumentative position. As a first step you will state how you understand the question. By doing so, you give your reader a sense of where the essay is going. You also demonstrate that you are going to answer the question. An important point is to be explicit what goes into the essay and what stays out. A short outline is often helpful. This provides your reader with a preview of

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where the paper will go, as well as establishing the argumentative framework you will be working within (Figure 3.15).

After exploring the different aspects in the argument, it is time to take a critical stance. Are some aspects more convincing, are others plain wrong? This is the place where the writer brings in his or her own views and prepare the conclusion.

In the final section, summarize the main points of the essay, reminding the reader how you got to where you ended up. Refer to the essay question, showing that you have answered the question articulated in the beginning.

For example, after acknowledging the complex medical and emotional circumstances that surround end-of-life care for a loved one, you might move forward to state your opinion: “When therapeutic and palliative care have reached the limits of their effectiveness in the treatment of fatal illness, patients (and/or their surrogates) should have all options available to them in terms of deciding how or if to continue treatment. Physician aid-in-dying presents an important option for competent patients in that it can allow patients to decide to end their lives autonomously.”

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Explain your understanding of the question to your reader.

Figure 3.15 Question Mark Statue

Using Satire to SummarizeSatire can be a useful tool to draw out the shortcomings of an argument.

KEY POINTS

• Satire is a tone that can be deployed in order to correct a viewpoint that is seen as incorrect or misguided.

• Satire can be a useful tool to draw out the shortcomings of an argument.

• It is less likely to be used in academic writing.

After engaging in a critical analysis or reading of your intended artifact, text, or given source, the next step in the process of completing an effective rhetorical analysis is to discuss the discoveries. For the purposes of writing, when we refer to rhetoric, we often talk about it as the art of persuasion or the ability to communicate effectively. There are many different strategies a communicator may employ to effectively communicate their message to their intended audience. While the rhetorical strategies for effective communication are discussed in terms of writing about your findings, pertaining to your rhetorical analysis, it should be noted that these rhetorical strategies can be employed during the

critical analysis or reading portion of your rhetorical analysis project.

Satire is one of many strategies that can be used to effectively distinguish your argumentative position from another that you feel is flawed. Satire is a tone that can be deployed in summarizing a position in order to not only draw out its shortcomings, but also to correct or change the shortcomings of the position as well. It is less likely to be used in academic writing.

For example, in a popular (as opposed to academic or professional) essay advocating for strictly enforced leash laws in cities, you might write something like: “While it may seem like an act of pet-friendly beneficence and trust to allow your mutt to roam free in the streets, exercising his right to sniff and bite whomever he pleases, unrestrained animals in public places ultimately pose a potential threat to the safety of pedestrians.”

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One popular rhetorical device is irony, or language that signals a meaning that opposes its own literal meaning, often through tone or context.

Figure 3.16 Iron and Irony

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Using Signal Verbs that Fit the ActionWithin the body of an essay, deploying specific phrases can assist the reader in tracking the movement of your argument.

KEY POINTS

• There are a wide variety of terms that can be used to signal what type of work each section is doing relevant to the larger project of an essay.

• Deploying specific phrases and vocabulary can assist the reader in tracking the movement of your argument.

• Including phrases such "to begin" or "in conclusion" signal larger argumentative transitions, while phrases such as "in other words" or "it is worth noting that" tend to be used to elaborate smaller, more local claims.

Within the body of an essay, deploying specific phrases can assist the reader in tracking the movement of your argument. Including phrases such “to begin” or “in conclusion” signal larger argumentative transitions, while phrases such as “in other words” or “it is worth noting that” tend to be used to elaborate smaller, more local claims. The following is an extensive list of phrases that

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can be used given the relevant objective you may be attempting to accomplish:

Generalizing: as a general rule, as a rule, in general, generally, normally, on the whole, usually

Explaining: in other words, that is, this means that

Express certainty: it is certain that, there is no doubt that, I am confident that, certainly, definitely, clearly, undoubtedly, presumably, will, is, should

Express probability: it is probable that, it is likely that, probably

Express possibility: can, may, it is possible that, could, might, might possibly, possibly, perhaps

Express doubt: it is doubtful that, maybe

Express improbability: is improbable, is unlikely, it is uncertain

Express impossibility: impossible, cannot, can’t, will not, is not

Draw attention: it is worth noting that, it should be emphasized that, it should be highlighted that, it should be underlined that, in particular, especially, mainly, chiefly, mostly, it should be pointed out that, it should be noted that, it should be remembered that, it is worth stressing that, is vital, is crucial

Contrasting two points: however, but, in spite of, despite, in spite of the fact that, despite the fact that, nevertheless, nonetheless, instead, conversely, on the contrary, by contrast, whereas, while, whilst, although, even though, on the one hand, on the other hand, in contrast, in comparison with, but, yet, alternatively, the former, the latter, respectively, all the same

Giving alternatives: there are two possibilities, alternatively, the one, the other, either, or, neither, nor, in addition, not only, but also, worse still, better still, equally, likewise, similarly, correspondingly, in the same way, another possibility, in a similar vein, as well as, furthermore, moreover, also, although, again, what is more, besides, too, as well as

Giving examples or introducing illustrations: for example, for instance, to name an example, to give an example, is well illustrated by, a case point is, such as, such, one of which, illustrates, is an example of this, is shown by, is exemplified by, is illustrated by

Stating sequence: first of all, first, firstly, second, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, now, then, next, finally, to complete, after that, last, lastly, furthermore, to begin with, moreover, in addition, to conclude, afterwards

Reformulate the same point: in other words, to put it more simply, to put it differently, it would be better to say

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Stating consequences: so, therefore, as a consequence, as a result, now, consequently, because of, thus, for this reason, then, this is why, accordingly, hence, given this, with reference to, given, on this basis, is caused by, causes, due to, has the effect, affects, the reason for, because of this, if, then, results in, leads to, produces, owing to, through, as, since, because

Stating purpose: in order to, so that, so as to, to

Giving the method by which something happened: by …ing, by [noun], by using

Stating surprise about something unexpected: besides, however, nevertheless, surprisingly, nonetheless, notwithstanding, only, still, while, in any case, at any rate, for all that, after all, at the same time, all the same

Summarizing: to sum up, in summary, to summarize, in brief, altogether, overall

Reaching a conclusion: I conclude, I therefore conclude, reached the conclusion that, it is concluded, therefore, for this reason, then, thus, in conclusion, to bring it all together

Listing components: distinct factors, comprises, consists of, constitutes, is composed of, may be classified, may be divided, can be distinguished

Giving definitions: [something] is, means, describes, is defined as, is used, is concerned with, deals with, relates to, involves, signifies, consists of

Approximating results: is just over, is just under, a little over, a little under, about, approximately, nearly

Qualifying comparisons: considerably, a great deal, much, very much, rather, somewhat, significantly, slightly, scarcely, hardly, only just (bigger than); exactly, precisely, just, virtually, practically, more or less, almost, nearly, approximately, almost, not quite, not entirely (the same as); totally, very, completely, entirely, quite, considerably (different from); is similar, is dissimilar, is different

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Use signal verbs and phrases to point your reader in the right direction.

Figure 3.17 Traffic Signal Controller in Emeryville, CA

Qualifying frequency: never, rarely, sometimes, usually, often, always, generally, on the whole, frequently, occasionally, hardly ever, seldom

Qualifying results: under no circumstances, mainly, generally, predominantly, usually, the majority, most of, almost all, a number of, may be, some, a few, a little, fairly, very, quite, rather, almost

Qualifying change: no, minimal, slight, small, slow, gradual, steady, marked, large, dramatic, complete, steep, sharp, rapid, sudden (rise, increase, fluctuation, decrease, decline, reduction, fall, drop, upward trend, downward trend, peak, plateau, level off)

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Quoting Relevant Passages

Presenting Quotations

Introducing Quotations

Using Quotations Versus Citations

Avoiding Generalizations about Scholarship

Section 6

The Practice of Quoting

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Quoting Relevant PassagesIncluding quotes in your paper will demonstrate your familiarity with your material and give legitimacy to your argument.

KEY POINTS

• Quotations, unlike citations, use the exact words of another author.

• While reading, carefully selecting quotes can help make the author's work more understandable.

• As you collect quotes, save the proper citation information for all of your sources.

• A quote file is a document that contains quotations you may want to use in your paper, saved with proper formatting and footnotes, if appropriate.

• Record quotes that both concur with your argument as well as assertions that contradict your claims. Refuting opposing viewpoints will make your argument more believable.

Selecting Quotes

As you read sources that relate to your paper topic, be on the lookout for good quotes. You can find quotes in primary texts, which are original materials such as novels, historical documents,

and political tracts. You can also find quotes in secondary texts, which are analytical works such as literary criticism and political commentary. Secondary texts are called “secondary” because they comment on primary texts.

When you read a primary text, look for quotes that could serve as evidence to support your argument. These passages might express important ideas, themes, and structural elements, or they might express contradictions or exceptions to a rule. In secondary texts, look for statements that concur with your argument, but also try to find assertions that contradict your claims. When you write your paper, your argument will be more convincing if you can quote experts who agree with your ideas and also address experts who disagree with you. By quoting authors who dispute your point of view, you demonstrate that you are willing to entertain opposing perspectives, and your refutation of their points will be all the more convincing.

Collecting Quotes

When a quote catches your eye, it is advisable to save it immediately. Ultimately, it saves time to record quotes the first time you encounter them rather than searching madly for half-remembered quotes while you're writing your paper. Many students create a “quote file,” which is a document created for the sole purpose of saving helpful quotes (Figure 3.18). The quote file can

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preserve quotes with their proper formatting intact, including footnotes when appropriate. All you have to do is cut and paste from one document to another, and you’ll have a reserve of ready made, properly formatted quotes at your disposal.

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Presenting QuotationsTo quote an author, copy the author's exact language and use quotation marks to show you are reproducing language from another source.

KEY POINTS

• Use quotations marks around a statement to give the original writer or speaker credit.

• When you introduce a quote, pay close attention to the proper use of quotation marks and related punctuation.

• To paraphrase is to restate another author’s point in your own words. When you paraphrase, you don’t need to use quotation marks, but you still need to give credit to the author and provide a citation. Otherwise, you are committing plagiarism.

Quotation Versus Paraphrasing

To quote an author, you should copy the author’s exact language and frame the words with quotation marks, which signals that you are reproducing language from another source. Quotation marks give full credit to the original author, as long as you name the author. To paraphrase an author, restate the author’s claim using your own language. You shouldn’t use quotation marks when you

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A "quote file" is a document that exists specifically to store quotations for future use.

Figure 3.18 Resources for Quotation: Quote File

paraphrase, since the language is your own, but you should give proper credit for the idea by naming the author and providing a citation. If a particular author, idea, or passage plays a crucial role in your argument, you should include at least one direct quote from that source. It is also a good idea to use direct quotes from important sources who disagree with you, so it won't look like you're distorting their ideas in paraphrase. For minor sources and ideas, paraphrasing will suffice.

Formatting Quotations

Quotations call for special rules regarding punctuation:

If a quotation is introduced formally, use a colon.

Example: The author explicitly states: “Socrates was only a figment of Plato’s imagination.”

If a quotation is set off with “he said” or “she said,” use a comma.

Example: When Jim reached the door, he said, “Everyone quick, come outside!”

If your quote has a quote within it, the inner quote needs a pair of single quotation marks and the outer quote needs a pair of double quotation marks.

Example: This is the pivotal part of the story: “The doorman cried out, ‘You forgot your coat!’ as he ran after the cab.”

If you choose to break up the quotation with your own words, use commas to offset the quotation from your explanation.

Example: “In the middle of the novel,” the critic claims, “the main character’s reflections are restricted by his sense of impending change.”

Periods and commas should be placed inside the quotation marks. Colons and semicolons should be placed outside the quotation marks. Question marks and exclamation points should be placed inside the quotation marks, unless the punctuation applies to the whole sentence (not just the quote).

Example: When the team's best player said, “We’re in for a bad season,” it became clear that the team’s morale was flagging.

If you are using a long quotation (four or more typed lines), instead of quotation marks, you should indent the quotation. If the quote is

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It is important to “frame” quotations with quotation marks, which signal that the writer is using someone else's language.

Figure 3.19 Frames

two or more paragraphs, indent the first line of the paragraphs an additional five spaces (plus the indent of the rest of the quote). When indenting to quote, you do not need to use quotation marks.

You should also use quotation marks around the titles of short works such as newspapers and magazine articles, poems, short stories, songs, and chapters.

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Introducing QuotationsQuoting sources in a variety of ways can enhance a paper.

KEY POINTS

• Quoting scholarly sources is a way of improving the “conversation” had with readers within a paper.

• Quotations from scholarly sources can play a variety of roles in your writing. They can be introduced as examples or evidence: a particular quotation can be introduced as a way of demonstrating that people have held the general position captured by the quote.

• You can also introduce a quotation in order to build upon or refine it. This may be the case if you think a source's position is similar to your own but overlooks something significant.

• Quotations can also be introduced in order to present a counter-argument. Engaging with a counter-argument demonstrates to your reader that your research was not limited to positions that confirmed what you already thought.

Introducing quotations from scholarly sources can be used to support your point of view and improve your paper. It can be helpful here to think of these sources as “other voices.” When explaining your argument within a paper, appealing to other voices can help elaborate the specificity of your position. However, it is

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important not to use too many quotations. When this happens, your specific position gets diluted and the strength of your paper is severely impaired. Instead, strategic use of quotations can be a way to provide clarity to your position and increase the argumentative strength of your paper.

Quotations from scholarly sources can play a variety of roles in your writing. They can be introduced as examples or evidence: a particular quotation can be introduced as a way of demonstrating that people have held the general position captured by the quote.

You can also introduce a quotation in order to build upon or refine it. This may be the case if you think a source’s position is similar to your own but overlooks something significant. This method of introducing quotations is especially helpful in allowing you to show the reader how your position maintains continuity with other authors, but is more than just a repetition of their thought.

Quotations can also be introduced in order to present a counter-argument. It may be difficult to see at first glance how a quote that conflicts with your position could be a way of improving your paper. However, engaging with a counter-argument demonstrates to your reader that your research was not limited to positions that confirmed what you already thought. You should be careful not to use quotes as a way of saying to your reader, “See! My position is true because so-and-so agrees!” Additionally, a counter-argument can be an opportunity for you to begin transitioning into the body of your argument by first showing why you think the counter-argument is incorrect. This is an opportunity to show your reader that you have thought about a position besides your own, but that you still have reservations that lead you to take your particular position.

It is important to think about where within the trajectory of your paper quotations are being introduced. For example, early in your paper is best for introducing a quotation that contains a counter-

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This graffiti-style quotation cites its source text and page number.

Figure 3.20 A quote on the wall of Thierry Ehrmann's “Abode of Chaos”

argument in order to articulate how it is problematic and how your position addresses this important problem. When you transition into explicitly providing positive evidence that supports your thesis, introducing a quotation from a relevant source can be used as evidence or support of a claim that you have made. Before introducing quotations, it is beneficial to ask yourself a series of questions in order to ensure that the right quotation is being introduced in the right spot for the right reason. Such questions include:

• Is the context that this quotation comes from similar to or relevant to my paper?

• What work is this quotation doing within the trajectory of the paper?

• Am I using this quotation to support a claim I have made or in place of making my own claim?

• What would the paper lack if I decided against introducing this quotation in the place where I want to deploy it?

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Using Quotations Versus CitationsA citation is using a particular idea that you got from another author. A quotation is using the exact words of another author.

KEY POINTS

• When using your own words, you cite; when you use the words of someone else, you quote. Both methods help you to introduce another author's work as a means of strategically improving the persuasiveness of your paper, by providing an example or evidence relevant to a claim that you have made.

• You might want to change a quote slightly in order to make it fit your essay. In such cases, square brackets should be used around words not contained in the original quote.

• If a quote needs to be substantially changed, it may be better to simply cite the author's ideas in your own words, providing a succinct gloss that not only gets the author's point across, but also prepares you to explain why this is relevant to your essay.

There is an important difference between citations and quotations. A citation is using a particular idea that you took from another author. A quotation is using the exact words of another author.

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Another way of understanding the distinction is this: when using your own words, you cite; when you use the words of someone else, you quote. Both methods help you to introduce another author’s work as a means of strategically improving the persuasiveness of your paper, by introducing a quote in order to provide an example or evidence relevant to a claim that you have made.

When using quotations, you need to be very careful to copy the quote as it appears in an author’s text. However, you may find that a quotation does not grammatically align with how you want to use it, or that the relevance of the quote may not be readily apparent to a reader. In such instance, you might want to change a quote slightly in order to make it fit your essay. In such cases, square brackets should be used around words not contained in the original quote. This will signal to your reader that you have inserted your own words within the original quote. If the quote needs to be

substantially changed, it may be better to simply cite the author’s ideas in your own words, providing a succinct gloss that not only gets the author’s point across, but also prepares you to explain why this is relevant to your essay. As with any instance of appealing to another author's work within your own, whether you use citation or quotation, be aware of the particular context that an idea or quote comes from and try to only utilize quotes that maintain contextual relevance with your own work. This will ensure that you have not decontextualized and misused another author's work for your own purposes.

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When you use a quotation or citation, make sure it fits grammatically into the language that frames it.

Figure 3.21 Interlocking Architectural Components

Avoiding Generalizations about ScholarshipWhen writing a paper, it is important to avoid vague generalizations, especially when it comes to paraphrasing other authors.

KEY POINTS

• Vague terms that attempt to take the place of particular examples should be avoided in writing essays.

• Even if you have a particular instance in mind, using catch-all phrases such as “critics say” or “is widely regarded as” will make your paper appear vague and unconvincing.

• Generalizations may appear to contextualize your position, but they actually tend to look as though you have provided yourself with a situation where you are free to agree or disagree with everyone and no one in particular.

• The goal is to provide all the relevant background information you need, with as much specificity as possible, while remaining concise and to the point.

When writing a paper, it is important to avoid vague generalizations, especially when it comes to characterizing the thoughts of other authors, whether they hold similar or contrary

positions to your own. Even if you have a particular instance in mind, using catch-all phrases such as “critics say” or “is widely regarded as” will make your paper appear vague and unconvincing. You may have used these types of empty phrases in order to condense research or you may have used them where you discovered ubiquitous agreement on a particular position. But in those cases, it would be better to cite a series of authors or quote a particular instance rather than make a sweeping generalization that precludes the reader from all of the reading, researching, and thinking that you did to arrive at your position. A properly utilized quotation can provide you an opportunity to articulate your particular position by contextualizing your insights in a manner that is better than vague generalizations. These generalizations may appear to contextualize your position, but they

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Watch out for “weasel terms,” or empty generalities. Don’t weasel of your responsibility to substantiate your claims!

Figure 3.22 Siberian Weasel

actually tend to look as though you have provided yourself with a situation where you are free to agree or disagree with everyone and no one in particular.

The goal is to provide all the relevant background information you need, with as much specificity as possible, while remaining concise and to the point. This is the balance you must to try to achieve and that is the challenge of writing a great paper. Unverified, broad generalizations will only make your paper seem lazy and will render your argument ineffective.

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Deciphering an Argument

Differentiating Your Argument from Others’

Using the First Person in Academic Writing

Using Sources to Support Your Argument

Developing Your Voice

Section 7

The Practice of Distinguishing Your Argument

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Deciphering an ArgumentLearning how to decipher who is saying what in a text is important so you can avoid misquoting or wrongfully citing an author's position.

KEY POINTS

• Various critical reading strategies can assist a reader in analyzing an author’s argument, as well as decipher the methods an author uses to present his argument.

• Developing critical reading skills can significantly assist in tracking an author's position through its various configurations within a text by helping to analyze and understand how an author has presented the argument.

• To keep track of who is saying what pay attention to these elements: the author's thesis, your responses, and quotes.

When reading a text, it can sometimes be difficult to determine who is saying what, or what the position of the author is relative to the various sources that are being engaged. Learning how to decipher who is saying what in a text is an important skill to develop so that you do not misquote or wrongfully cite an author’s position in your own writing. Developing critical reading skills can significantly assist in tracking an author’s position through its various configurations within a text by helping to analyze and understand

how an author has presented the case for an argument. Critical reading requires thinking about the goal an author is trying to achieve and the writing strategies being deployed to assist in this goal. The following is some advice to assist in critical reading:

Keep the Author’s Thesis in Mind

Every text should contain a thesis, or main point, that an author is demonstrating as a text moves forward. Sometimes the thesis may be buried within the introductory paragraphs, while other times it may be pointed to in the title of the text. Some texts may have a sentence that begins with something like “This article will demonstrate...”, or “My analysis will show that...”, which means that the author is preparing to introduce the thesis. Either way, it is important to discover the author's thesis, as the main body of an argument, however long or divided, should ideally be continually moving toward proving the thesis in the reader’s mind.

Within the body, an author may also suddenly take up a contrary position in order to demonstrate why his or her argument is more accurate than the former. If you keep the author’s thesis in mind, you can figure out who is saying what even if the positional voice of the author seems to suddenly change in a radical way.

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Pay Attention to Your Responses

If in the course of reading a text, you suddenly find yourself lost or confused, stop reading and go back to the last place in it where you could still follow the

author's argument. Some scholarly articles are particularly arduous and require slow, repetitive reading to understand the argument of the author. What can often happen in particularly dense or difficult articles is that authors do not signal to readers that they are transitioning into an engagement with counter-arguments, so suddenly it seems as though authors are arguing for the opposite of their thesis. However, this is unlikely. Moments of feeling confused are important indicators and great opportunities to practice critical reading. Go back over the text that you have read and try to figure out why you got lost or confused. It is likely that you will notice that this was a transitional moment in the structure of the text.

Pay Attention to Quotes

In many scholarly articles, as it should be within your own work, authors will not introduce a quote into a text unless they feel it provides something important to their larger argument. In such instances, authors use quotation marks to explicitly signal that these are not their own words. When this occurs, stop and review what prefaced and followed the quote. Most importantly, you need to ask relevant questions. Why did the author introduce a new voice? What role does this new voice play? How does the author's thesis relate to this quote?

Also remember that it is important to distinguish who is talking within a text so that you do not mistakenly misuse any ideas or excerpts from it. Quotation marks are a helpful tool that authors use to help readers in distinguishing their voice from those of others.

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When you read, don't just passively accept what the author is saying—read critically.

Figure 3.23 A Boy Reading a Book

Differentiating Your Argument from Others’Within the pages of your paper, it is important to differentiate your work from that of others.

KEY POINTS

• One method of distinguishing your sources from your own ideas is quotation marks. Placing these around the exact words from a source tells your reader that these are not my words, but what someone else said.

• Instead of quoting a source, you could also cite it. Refer to the source of the ideas, by the title or by the author’s name. You can also cite a source by placing the last name of the author in parentheses at the end of a sentence that contains the author’s idea.

• You should follow quotes with a description, in your own terms, of what the quote says and why it is relevant to the purpose of your paper. Avoid using quotations or citations in a manner that implies that their importance should be self-evident to a reader.

Within the pages of your paper, it is important to differentiate your work from that of others. While referring to other sources is important in a research or persuasive paper, it is equally important

to signal to your reader who is saying what in your writing. One method of distinguishing your sources from your own ideas is quotation marks. Placing these around the exact words from a source tells your reader, “These are not my words, but what someone else said.” It is important to distinguish your own ideas from those of your sources, not only in order to avoid unintentional plagiarism, but also as a way of improving the strength of your particular position.

Instead of quoting a source, you could also cite it. In this instance, it is equally important to distinguish what the author or work says from your own thoughts. To assist in doing so, refer to the source of the ideas, either by the title of the source or by the author’s name, when you provide the ideas that you feel are relevant to your paper. For example: “In The New Old World, Anderson claims....” By referring to the specific work, along with the author’s last name, the example signals to its readers that the following claim is not the position of the paper’s author but that of the source author. You can also cite a source by placing the last name of the author in parentheses at the end of a sentence that contains the author’s idea. This also tells your reader that the claim in the sentence is not your own but came from another source.

Whether you cite or quote another source, it is important to not only distinguish who is saying what through the guidelines provided

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above, but also to distinguish your thoughts by providing an elaboration that specifically engages with the source’s claims. While the use of quotation marks tells your reader that these are not your own

words, you should follow the quote with a description, in your own terms, of what the quote says and why it is relevant to the purpose of your paper.

In addition, avoid using quotations or citations in a manner that implies that their importance should be self-evident to a reader. Even if it seems obvious to you, a reader will be precluded from all the thinking that you did that led you to believe that this quote succinctly captures something. It is useful to provide a reader some access to that thought process and elaborate on the importance of this quote in the context of your paper. For instance, you might use a source to support a claim, or to introduce a counter-argument. Doing so will help your reader understand why the source was

referenced, while also demonstrating how your specific position is different from the source that has been cited or quoted.

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Signaling who is saying what is an important part of the writing process.

Figure 3.24 The Writing Process

Using the First Person in Academic WritingAvoiding the use of first person pronouns in your paper can improve its persuasive power by changing how it is perceived by a reader.

KEY POINTS

• Scholarly papers, such as those written for college or graduate courses, tend to contain an argumentative structure where objective language is used to make claims in evidence of a particular conclusion.

• One reason why using objective language is beneficial is because your presence is already within the paper. The paper clearly represents the process of your particular thinking about a given topic influenced in a multiplicity of ways by a variety of sources you interacted with while researching.

• Objective language helps shift the emphasis of the paper from you to the position that you are writing to defend or convince others of. Using objective language helps shift your presence into the background in order to foreground the particulars of the argument that you are presenting.

You may have been told before by teachers or professors to take out any first person references to yourself, particularly within

persuasive papers where you trying to convince a reader to take a specific position on a given topic. While this is not an absolute rule, it is important to understand why you have been told to avoid using subjective language, such as “I,” “me,” or “my.”

The primary reason that subjective language should be avoided is to improve how a reader perceives the argument you are presenting. Some forms of non-fiction writing, such as essayistic writing, is enhanced by the use of subjective language, which introduces the author as a presence within the text. Frequently, this use of subjective language can imbue the writing with an affective quality that many feel should be absent from argumentative papers. The use of first person pronouns demonstrates how the author’s biographical particulars enhance or expose something significant about the topic that they are writing about. However, scholarly papers, such as those written for college or graduate courses, tend to contain an argumentative structure where objective language is used to make claims in evidence of a particular conclusion.

One way to think about why using objective language, rather than subjective language, is beneficial is to consider that your presence is already within the paper. The paper clearly represents the process of your particular thinking about a given topic influenced in a multiplicity of ways by a variety of sources you interacted with while researching. In some ways, your reader understands this when they

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come to your paper. Therefore, using subjective language is redundant and distracts from your argument and conclusion.

Avoiding subjective language does not mean you have escaped your subjective position, only that you are trying to demonstrate to readers how to get to the particularity of that position through a series of claims. Objective language helps to shift the emphasis of the paper from you, the writer, to the position that you are writing to

convince others to hold. Using objective language helps shift your presence as a writer into the background in order to foreground the particulars of the argument that you are presenting. This can assist readers in smoothly following the trajectory of your argument toward a particular conclusion, as opposed to being constantly interrupted in order to be reminded that these are your thoughts or opinions.

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Academic writing is not a self-portrait. Be judicious about the use of “I” in your writing.

Figure 3.25 Me, Myself, and I

Using Sources to Support Your ArgumentResearching effectively requires possessing a good understanding of the source, including the context within which it was created.

KEY POINTS

• While researching for sources relevant to a paper topic, one needs to learn how to critically read a source for political or other forms of bias, historical placement, and authorial objective.

• One point to keep in mind for both digital and print sources is age - how old is the source?

• What are the possible biases of the author? For print sources, this may be assessed  by considering the publisher of the book.

• Websites, unlike books, do not necessarily have publishers. Instead, you should be attentive to who is behind the websites you find.

Using Sources

Keep in mind that sources should not be used to replace your voice, but are deployed alongside your voice to support the thesis of a

paper. To do this effectively requires possessing a good understanding of the source, including the context within which it was created. When researching, it is important to determine where the source-author's voice is, the position that author takes, and the reliability of that source-author. As you research, your sources may take print or digital form, but either way it is important to track authorial presence and purpose within the text. This will ensure that your source is both credible and relevant, and that your paper will be assisted rather than undermined by its presence. The following are a few recommendations to approach sources in whatever form they take.

How Old is the Source?

The guidelines for assessing the usability of print sources and digital sources (i.e., sources accessed through the internet) are similar. One point to keep in mind for both digital and print sources is age: how old is the source? Taking note of the source’s age is a way of determining if the information is relevant to your paper topic. While paper topics like 17th-century British poetry will require accessing older primary sources, all topics are likely to require engagement with recent scholarship. For example, if you are writing on 17th-century British poetry, it is not enough to simply find sources from the era, nor is adequate to reference early 20th-century scholarly sources. Instead, it will be helpful to combine the older, primary

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sources with more recent, secondary scholarship. Doing so will make a convincing case for your particular argument. With digital sources, you want to be wary of sites with old, outdated information. The point is to avoid presenting inaccurate or outdated information which will negatively impact your paper.

Author Biases

Possible biases of the author is another consideration in choosing a source. For print sources, this may be assessed by considering the publisher of the book. Books published by a university press undergo significant editing and review to increase their validity and accuracy. Be cautious about “self-published” books or books published by specific organizations like corporation or a nonprofit group. Unlike university presses, these

sources may have different guidelines and requirements to follow, or could have information that is intentionally misleading or uninformed. A similar consideration should be taken with periodicals like scholarly journals or magazines. Scholarly journals tend to be peer-reviewed and contain citations to other sources used, whereas a magazine article may contain information without providing any sources to substantiate purported claims.

Online Resources

Websites, unlike books, do not necessarily have publishers. Instead, you should be attentive to who is behind the websites you find. To avoid the potential of using information that comes from an unreliable source, it might be beneficial to stick to commonly used academic databases like EBSCO and JSTOR. However, if you use broader internet searches, be attentive of domain names. These can tell you who sponsors the site. Some examples are educational (.edu), commercial (.com), nonprofit (.org), military (.mil), or network (.net). Depending on your topic, you may want to avoid dot-com web sites because their primary purpose tends to be commerce, which can significantly affect the content that they publish. Also consider the purpose that the website seems to be serving, along with the purpose of the source-author. Is any contact information provided for the website author? Does the website provide references to support the claims that it makes? If the

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When you evaluate scholarly sources, look out for potential conflicts of interest and hidden agendas. For example: the sources of funding for research are very important, as they may influence the writers’ interpretation of results.

Figure 3.26 Money and Magnifying Glass

answers to these types of questions are not readily available, it may be best to look in other places for a reliable source.

When researching, the goal is not only to gather sources, but to gather reliable resources. To do this, you should be able to not only track the claims contained within a source, but also consider the stakes that may be involved for the author making these claims. While personal motivation may not always be accessible in a document, in some cases there can be context clues like type of publisher or sponsor. These may lead you to decide that one source is more reliable than another.

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Developing Your VoiceEven while following the rules of content and style, you can develop your own unique voice.

KEY POINTS

• While different genres of writing will often employ different voices, there are a range of voices in the academic sphere as well.

• Some writers use a more popular style in their discourse by including contractions, humor, exclamations and/or familiar vocabulary. Others use clause-heavy sentences and esoteric terminology. Still others favor colorful imagery and imaginative metaphors.

• Authorial voice usually refers to a writer having a recognizable style.

• Voice can be developed in academic writing, even if it is subject to stricter stylistic rules than fiction.

• Voice can only be developed over time.

You’ve probably heard that one quality found in good writing is a “distinctive voice;” something about the way the author writes that is recognizably unique to him. This is true to a certain extent, particularly when it comes to genres like fiction or personal essays where the writer has no style guidelines to follow. As an academic

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writer, however, there are rules about format, style and objectivity you must follow. This does not mean you can only write boring, impersonal prose. You can develop an authorial voice no matter what subject you choose to write about.

Saying each writer has a unique voice does not mean that each writer has a radically different style from anyone else. In academic writing, voice comes down to small habits and personal preferences. Think about it this way: if all the students in your class were told to explain a complex concept, none of them would do it in the same way. Each one would use different language and syntax to say the same basic thing. In addition, as each student keeps making those choices in language and syntax over a period of time, you would eventually associate those choices with particularly writers. They would accumulate into an authorial voice.

Keep in mind that voice is not something you can automatically create. It may be tempting to use unusual syntax or fancy vocabulary in the hopes of making your writing stand out, but that would not be your genuine style. There are no quick ways to give yourself a recognizable voice. It is something that can only be developed over time. The best way to develop voice is to keep writing and to think about what kind of writing you like. Pay attention to how you say things – what words you use, what sorts of phrases and sentence structures you favor, even what kind of punctuation appears in your work frequently. These are the choices that will eventually become markers of your authorial voice.

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Every writer has a distinct style. You should maintain the distinctive elements of your voice and style in the academic context. Even when you're out of your comfortable, everyday environment, you can still find ways to express your unique style.

Figure 3.27 Individual Style at the Ohio Renaissance Festival

Using Metacommentary to Elaborate

Section 8

The Practice of Metacommentary

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Using Metacommentary to ElaborateMeta-discussion is a discussion of the nature of a conversation, such as the style and participants of a discussion.

KEY POINTS

• Research papers are interpretive or analytical projects that rely on extensive outside research to validate their arguments.

• In both interpretive and analytic writing, one effective way to legitimize claims is meta-discussion. Meta-discussion is a discussion that takes discussion itself as its topic.

• A meta-discussion deals with issues such as the style, context, participants, and rules of the discussion, and its relationship to other discussions.

• This is a useful technique in academic writing, because it can contextualize the student's argument in relation to pre-existing work on that topic.

Meta-discussion is a discussion about discussion itself – in other words, a discussion that deals with the nature of the discussion, rather than the topic that is being discussed. This self-referential form is very useful in academic writing. Meta-discussion addresses

issues such as the style, context, participants, and rules of the discussion, as well as its relationship to other discussions.

Meta-discussion can help us understand why a particular text is important. No work of art or literature stands alone – the style in which it is discussed, the people who discuss it, and the methods they use to analyze it are all part of its cultural identity. Marcel Duchamp’s Fountain (1917) looks out of place in an art museum – it is a ready-made urinal, signed “R. Mutt.” Nevertheless, it sparked a revolutionary debate about the nature and purpose of art, in which critics focused more on other critics’ ideas than on the work itself. Accordingly, meta-discussion secured a place for Duchamp’s urinal in the annals of art history.

Academic Applications of Meta-discussion

Academic writers frequently legitimize their arguments by engaging in meta-discussion. This practice contextualizes their ideas within an existing body of “legitimate” criticism and suggests that, since they are already aware of the discourse surrounding the topic, they are more likely to have a novel, interesting contribution. An awareness of the conversation surrounding your topic is helpful for many projects, interpretive or analytical, and meta-discussion is essential in most research papers.

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In academic meta-discussion, it is important to use specific sources and cite them in the paper. It is not enough to write, “some critics think Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9 in D minor is his greatest orchestral work, while others stand by his Symphony No. 5 in C minor.” Which critics, and where do they say so? If you use language or ideas from other sources without proper attribution, you are

committing plagiarism. Provide citations for all of your sources, even if you have paraphrased their ideas.

Unsuccessful examples of meta-discussion:

• Swindlers who do not understand basic ethics should not run major companies.

• James Joyce’s Ulysses employs an experimental approach to psychological realism.

• Teacher evaluations may be a trendy method of grading schools, but they can damage the teacher-student relationship.

Successful examples of meta-discussion:

• This website’s comment forum is becoming increasingly venomous – may I suggest a return to civility?

• The initial reception of James Joyce’s novel Ulysses was mixed: some readers appreciated his unconventional approach to psychological realism, but many critics condemned the novel as obscene nonsense.

• Lee’s point about teacher evaluations is interesting, but it would be more productive to continue the discussion of our core topic: educational methods.

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In a similar way that this picture makes a comment on the act of picture taking, using metacommentary in writing is a way to clarify and elaborate your claims. Metacommentary acts as a way for you to step back from your own argument in order to more fully explain to your reader the specifics and implications of your position.

Figure 3.28 A Picture of a Woman Taking a Picture

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Anticipating Objections

Entertaining Objections

Naming Your Naysayers

Introducing Objections Informally

Presenting Objections Fairly

Answering Objections

Making Concessions

Addressing Oppositional Viewpoints

Section 9

The Practice of Responding

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Anticipating ObjectionsWhen you consider and counteract opposing arguments, you strengthen your own argument.

KEY POINTS

• Try to anticipate what objections your readers might have to your argument, and try to understand why they might object.

• An argument is a written or spoken form of defense. An argument should take a stance about a particular point of view, thesis, or claim.

• An academic argument supports its claim with sound reasoning, research, and evidence such as facts, statistics, and quoted opinions from authorities.

• A skeptical reader has a doubtful, questioning attitude, and expects a thorough presentation of logical reasoning and evidence. This can be a helpful audience to keep in mind when writing your paper.

• Meta-discussion addresses the debate surrounding a particular topic, and focuses on the nature and style of the debate.

An argument must, by definition, take a stance on an issue and provide evidence for a particular conclusion. However, writers may neglect the next step, which is just as important: discussing opposing viewpoints and providing counterarguments.

There are at least two sides to every argument. Readers become suspicious when counter-claims and opposing perspectives are simply dismissed. Handling objections in a fair, thorough, and tenacious manner helps build a strong argument and gain the respect of readers.

It is important to anticipate potential objections. When structuring an argument, a helpful exercise is to imagine how a skeptical reader might react to the case. Imagine that this reader is smart, informed, has thought carefully about the issue, and has reached a totally different conclusion. Try to persuade this reader; work hard to demonstrate why your position is more convincing than the alternatives.

Introducing opposing viewpoints is necessary, but do not stop there. The burden of proof is on the author of the argument. If you fail to neutralize a common objection, readers will have an excuse to reject your argument.

The best way to counteract an opposing viewpoint is to anticipate what an opponent might say. When researching the topic, do not limit yourself to sympathetic sources; find sources that disagree with your argument. Take note of their rationale and use of evidence. That way, you will be familiar enough with these opposing viewpoints to argue against them. When you encounter dissenting opinions, try to figure out why smart and rational people would

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hold those positions. What evidence do they look at? How do they interpret that evidence? Why might they disagree with your point of view?

When making an academic argument, include evidence from research studies, statistics, and quoted opinions from experts. In academic contexts, bibliographies that summarize existing scholarship and criticism can provide a valuable overview of different opinions about your topic.

In addition, it can be useful to read sources that engage in meta-discussion, or the nature of the debate surrounding a topic (see the “Meta-discussion” section in “Academic Writing in the Humanities” for more information). Meta-discussion doesn't try to determine whether an argument is true or false. Instead, it analyzes the style in which a topic is discussed, the people who discuss it, and the methods they use to

analyze it. These aspects can help you understand your audience’s demographics and values.

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Anticipating your opponents’ objections can help you structure your arguments more soundly

Figure 3.29 Rugby

Entertaining ObjectionsExplain objections and opposing views in sufficient detail to demonstrate to your readers that you understand opposing views.

KEY POINTS

• Common ground is a belief, value or goal that you and your readers can agree upon. Establishing common ground will give you credibility in your readers’ minds.

• Credibility is the quality of being believable, reliable and trustworthy. Credibility gives a writer authority, and makes readers more willing to consider the writer’s point.

• When you address the opposing point of view and demonstrate how your own claim is stronger, you neutralize their argument.

If you want to convince skeptical readers that your claim is reasonable, try to establish common ground. Appeal to their values, and demonstrate that you have carefully considered their position. Find a shared belief or goal that you can all agree upon. You should establish common ground early on, preferably in the introduction to your paper. That way, you will have more credibility as you analyze opposing views and make your case. Refer to this shared belief or goal throughout your paper to remind

readers that, ultimately, you want the same thing.

Once you gain credibility with your audience, you must work hard to keep it. The best way to lose credibility is to dismiss objections. If you merely give lip service to opposing viewpoints, it will look like you’re just going through the motions without a sincere desire to find the best answer. A cursory mention of an objection won’t sway your readers. You should discuss objections in enough detail to show that you understand what they mean and why they are appealing. Entertain these objections as though they are your own – it will then be much more convincing when you explain why they are not actually valid.

Remember, in order for people to give up their position, they must see how your position is more reasonable than their own. When you address the opposing point of view and demonstrate how your claim is stronger, you neutralize their argument. By failing to address a

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Hearing out your opposition is key to developing a strong argument.

Figure 3.30 Ears

non-coinciding view, you leave reason for your reader to disagree, therefore weakening your persuasive power. Your best bet is to approach the subject as though everybody is on the same team, with the single goal of getting to the truth of the matter.

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Naming Your NaysayersYou can boost your credibility by acknowledging specific sources who disagree with your position, then effectively refuting their arguments.

KEY POINTS

• If the opposing view that you are considering and counteracting comes from another author, be sure to introduce the author and the point of view in a neutral way.

• Neutral language is not emotionally charged, biased, or polemical. Use neutral language when you present opposing viewpoints.

• Examples of neutral words are contends, argues, suggests, admits, claims, and believes.

You can boost your credibility by acknowledging specific sources who disagree with your position. Naming specific sources and summarizing their arguments is a helpful strategy in everyday life, but is crucial in academic writing. If you summarize opposing views without attaching them to actual writers, it may appear as though you haven’t done your research. However, if you cite counterarguments from experts in your field, and then work to refute those arguments effectively, you can lend authority to your own argument.

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Neutral Language

When you introduce another writer’s argument, use neutral language. Make it clear that you are presenting someone else’s viewpoint, but don’t use emotionally charged, biased or polemical language to summarize it. Don’t dismiss your opposition from the outset with language like this: “John Smith idiotically argues...” –instead, you could say, “John Smith contends,” and then summarize John Smith’s view. You can go on to explain exactly why Smith’s opinion is idiotic – but make sure you give it a fair shot first. Here are some examples of neutral verbs you can use to introduce another author’s opposing view:

• contends

• argues

• suggests

• admits

• claims

• believes

There are many valid ways to introduce an opposing view, but do try to present it in a neutral manner before you shoot it down. The more your readers believe that you are “on the same team” at the outset of your paper, the more likely they are to come over to your side of the argument.

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Identifying specific objectors helps focus your argument.

Figure 3.31 No Name Road, Yazoo County, Mississippi

Introducing Objections InformallyIn some cases, a writer can raise an objection that comes from his or her own analysis rather than an outside source.

KEY POINTS

• Rhetorical questions are not intended to elicit answers – they are designed to produce an effect or make an assertion.

• The writer could also use a conditional statement such as, “If we raise our sales tax, consumers might respond by shopping in neighboring states with lower taxes,” to prove a point.

• If the opposing viewpoint you are considering comes from your own thinking instead of from another author, you can introduce the objection informally by signaling to your readers that you are about to consider another point of view.

When we disagree about an issue, care deeply about an outcome, or try to convince others of the validity of our approach, we often resort to argument. Argument as it is depicted on television and experienced in times of stress or conflict carries with it many negative connotations of anger, high emotion, and even irrationality. But each of us also makes arguments every day, and in

settings that help us become more rational, better informed, and more clearly understood. Arguments help us to gather information from our own experience and that of others, to make judgments based on evidence, and to marshal information toward sound conclusions. Argument is appropriate when we seek understanding or agreement, when we want to solve a problem or answer a question, and when we want others to act or think in ways we deem beneficial, suitable, or necessary. Argument also comes in handy when we seek to convince, persuade, or produce change in our audience, and when circumstances require trust, respect, belief in our evidence, or agreement with our reasoning.

In some cases, a writer can raise an objection that comes from his or her own analysis rather than an outside source (Figure 3.32). If the objection is based on logic or common knowledge rather than research or specialist knowledge, it may not be necessary to cite

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The tone with which you introduce objections to your argument will affect how your readers perceive your level of engagement with your subject material.

Figure 3.32 Objections

outside sources. A writer can introduce these viewpoints with informal devices such as rhetorical questions and conditional statements.

For example, if a writer wants to acknowledge a common concern that raising state sales taxes may hurt commerce, the writer could use a rhetorical question: “Isn’t it possible that consumers might shop in neighboring states to avoid our high sales tax?” The writer could also use a conditional statement: “If we raise our sales tax, consumers might respond by shopping in neighboring states with lower taxes.” These informal devices can help authors entertain another opinion in a neutral manner.

It is important to gracefully acknowledge potential objections when it can produce trust and reinforce the fairness and authority of the author's perspective. The author should try to anticipate the difficulties that different types of readers might have with the author's evidence or reasoning.

The writer should think about where readers are most likely to object or feel unsettled, and how can the writers concede potential problems while still advancing the authority of his or her claim.

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Presenting Objections FairlyPresenting opposing views fairly is essential to good writing, and demonstrates why an intelligent person might disagree with your argument.

KEY POINTS

• A sympathetic presentation explains a position with respect for its goals, values and beliefs.

• Don't set up a “straw man,” or a counterargument that is easy to knock down.

• Your argument will be much stronger if you present opposing viewpoints in a sympathetic light.

Presenting opposing views fairly is essential to good writing. Support your balanced outlook by demonstrating that you understand why an intelligent person might disagree with your argument.

You may be tempted to weaken an objection to your argument by turning it into a “straw man,” or a flimsy version of the original point. A straw man argument can make a point overly simplistic, describe an incomplete concept or take a point out of context. You may have heard talk radio hosts and opinion columnists employ this

strategy. This tactic, however, results in the unfair labeling of others' arguments as uninformed, feeble or otherwise unworthy of a considerate response. In truth, the straw man is a well-known tactic, and readers can detect it quite easily. If you shortchange the opposing viewpoint, your readers will suspect that you are trying to compensate for shortcomings in your own argument.

Your argument will be much stronger if you present opposing viewpoints in a sympathetic light. Compare these examples:

1. Students claim that they cheat on tests because they are too busy to study. In reality, students can find the time to study if they learn time management skills.

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Be sure to represent your opponents’ views fairly.

Figure 3.33 Central Criminal Court, London

2. Students face many time constraints: between work and family obligations, social responsibilities, sports, clubs and the expectations of professors who all think their class should be the top priority, students can have trouble finding time to study for all of their tests. Some students admit that they see cheating as the only way to reconcile their conflicting obligations. However, students can find the time to study if they work on their time management skills.

The second example presents the argument more sympathetically. It acknowledges that students may face legitimate difficulties as they try to find time to study for all of their classes. Clearly, the second writer has considered this issue from the students’ perspective, and has attempted to find a solution that takes their concerns into account.

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Answering ObjectionsAfter you present the likely objections to your argument, you can show your readers why they should be willing to take your side.

KEY POINTS

• Consider and counteract objections and opposing viewpoints in order to strengthen your own argument.

• Counteract these objections by showing your reader that your position is more reasonable than the opposing position.

• It is important to clearly state and support your position.

After you present the likely objections to your argument (sympathetically, of course!), you can show your readers why they should be willing to take your side. Remember, skeptical readers need to be convinced that your position is more reasonable than their own. One persuasive strategy is to introduce new evidence, or to interpret familiar evidence in a different way.

Structuring Your Argument

Depending on your writing style and material, your argument could follow various structural formats:

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• Present your own argument first, and then present and counteract the opposing viewpoints.

• Present the opposition's views first, and then prove that your argument is more reasonable than the opposing views.

• Alternate back and forth between your argument and opposing points.

It is important to clearly state and support your position. However, it is just as important to present all of the information that you've gathered in an objective manner. Using language that is demeaning or non-objective will undermine the strength of your argument. This destroys your credibility and will reduce your audience on the spot. For example, a student writing an argument about why a

particular football team has a good chance of “going all the way” is making a strategic error by stating that “anyone who doesn't think

that the Minnesota Vikings deserve to win the Super Bowl is a total idiot.” Not only has the writer risked alienating any number of her readers, she has also made her argument seem shallow and poorly researched. In addition, she has committed a third mistake: making a sweeping generalization that cannot be supported.

No matter what structure you choose, your goal is the same: Present your views, present the opposing views accurately and fairly, and show skeptical readers why they should consider changing their minds.

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Answering objections to your argument begins with analyzing and fully understanding those objections.

Figure 3.34 Answering Objections

Making ConcessionsIf you encounter an objection that is supported by a good argument, you should admit the point.

KEY POINTS

• When the opposition has a good point, it is okay to agree partially while pointing out what is weak or lacking with the rest of the position.

• A concession is an admission that the opposing side has a good point. Concessions are especially effective when a writer can agree partially with the opposing position, but also point out a flaw.

• You can recognize the validity of another author's argument without fully rejecting it.

If you encounter an objection that is supported by a good argument, you should admit the point. You can recognize the validity of another author's argument and counterargue it without rejecting it fully. Acknowledging the value of an opposing view is known as “making a concession.” Since most arguments we take the time to entertain have some merit, it is good to point out what is right about them before simply stating what is weak or flawed.

Think about the difficulties or questions your argument is likely to produce. Indicate these difficulties with a phrase that signals your concession. For example:

• to be sure

• admittedly

You could say, “Admittedly, Jane Doe has a point when she says...” You would then follow up with a response to Doe's point: “However, Doe fails to take into account...”

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Sometimes, making concessions can involve finding points of agreement, building a bridge between your views and your opposition's views.

Figure 3.35 Bridge Over Kilfillan Burn

Be specific when you address opposing viewpoints. For example, if you do not think an author provided enough information to prove his or her point, draw attention to specific flaws and gaps.

Here are some other phrases you can use to respond to this sort of objection:

• however

• but

• on the other hand

• nevertheless

No matter what phrases you use to make concessions, your goal is the same: To demonstrate that you have considered the opposing viewpoint fairly, that you can recognize when the opposition brings up a good point, and that your argument still holds true despite this valid objection (Figure 3.35). Then you are better able to return to the common ground you established in the beginning of your paper.

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Addressing Oppositional ViewpointsExplaining why you disagree with an opposing position demonstrates how your position captures something that other positions leave out.

KEY POINTS

• Anticipating and addressing oppositional viewpoints strengthens the persuasive power of your argument.

• In academic writing, the strength of your argument depends largely on the quality of evidence you bring to support your argument.

• It is helpful to not only search for materials that support your argument, but also those that oppose your argument.

When preparing to write a persuasive paper, it is helpful to not only search for materials that support your argument, but also those that oppose your argument. Being familiar with oppositional viewpoints is a way of strengthening your understanding of your own position. Additionally, addressing arguments that oppose your own within the body of an essay can strengthen the persuasive power of your own argument and provide a useful framework for

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your paper. Explaining why you disagree with an opposing position can be used to introduce your argument and begin demonstrating how your position captures something important that other positions leave out.

In academic writing, the strength of an argument depends largely on the quality of evidence you bring to support it. Colorful language, appeals to emotion, and rhetorical devices have little weight against a clearly fleshed out position supported by appropriate examples and evidence (Figure 3.36). When arguing against a traditional viewpoint, this becomes especially important as you will have a more challenging case to argue.

There are multiple ways to address opposing arguments within the body of a paper. You may choose to state your main points, then address and refute the opposition, and then conclude. You might summarize the opposition's views early in the body of your paper, and then revisit them with rebuttals after you have presented your side or the argument. While the previous two examples use the addressing of oppositional arguments to provide a framework to the paper, it is important to include a brief engagement with opposing viewpoints in the opening paragraph. Doing so gives readers a succinct version of the position that will be articulated in the remainder of the paper, as well as a brief explanation of why that position is stronger than opposing viewpoints.

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It is important to anticipate opposing viewpoints and to respond to them fairly and adequately.

Figure 3.36 An Argument From Opposite Premises (Ralph Hedley, 1913)

Mixing Academic and Colloquial Styles

Section 10

The Practice of Writing Styles

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Mixing Academic and Colloquial StylesIt is important to follow the stylistic rules of academic writing, but scholarly writers can still adopt techniques from colloquial style.

KEY POINTS

• Academic writing and colloquial writing seem very different, but they also share some fundamental similarities.

• Colloquial language appears in casual writing and speech, such as journalism, lectures, conversation, and personal communication.

• Combining colloquial and academic languages can help to make your writing both more approachable and more informative.

Academic Style and Colloquial Style

What, exactly, is the difference between academic writing and colloquial writing? Colloquial writing tries to imitate casual speech – this category includes journalism, non-academic essays, advertising, personal communication, and some types of film, TV, and comedy. The formal conventions of academic writing distance it

from colloquial writing, and certain types of casual expression, such as slang, clichés, and vague language, are forbidden. However, some academic writers take formality too far, using obscure, elaborate language when simple, direct language would be more effective.

Academic writers should avoid colloquial diction, but colloquial writing can still offer valuable insights about structure and style. The following section will discuss the differences between academic and colloquial conventions, with the ultimate goal of using models from colloquial writing to improve academic style.

Content

Academic writing and colloquial writing cover many of the same topics: academic papers address the same issues we read about in the news and discuss with our friends, from politics to human psychology to the arts. However, academic writers are expected to make novel contributions to their fields, and this goal shifts their focus toward very specific questions that can be illuminated by solid evidence. This narrow focus attracts criticism from readers who complain that academia’s minutiae have little relevance to the average person. Of course, if all writers aimed at the broadest possible audience, written culture would consist mainly of short articles with titles like, “10 Ways to Have a Better Day...Today!”

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In all seriousness, academic writers can learn a lot from colloquial writers, especially journalists, whose professional survival depends on making a wide variety of topics seem important. Academic writers' narrow questions can illuminate larger issues, and it is unfortunate when broadly applicable research languishes because the writers fail to express its relevance. Ultimately, academic writers must convince readers that their work is valuable, and it does not hurt to borrow a few persuasive techniques from colloquial writing.

Structure

The structural conventions for academic and colloquial writing are actually similar. Just like academics, journalists (and, really, anyone who is making a point or an argument) generally try to provide context for their issue, explain why anyone should care, make a claim, provide evidence to support that claim, and sum up their conclusions. Of course, colloquial writers and speakers are not required to follow this format, but it remains popular because it is effective.

Colloquial writing is full of informal introductions, theses, analyses of evidence, and conclusions. Once you start paying attention to these elements while you scan the news, watch TV, and read emails, do not be surprised if you discover some techniques that would translate well into academic writing. When you see something that does not work, ask yourself why it fails, and what could make it better. If you really want to improve your writing, the whole world is your composition textbook.

Both academic writing and colloquial writing are governed by one principle: direct expression. There is a saying: “If several roads lead to the destination you seek, choose the most direct path.” This maxim holds true for academic writing. The level of detail and complexity in academic writing can be misleading: some students mistake a high density of ideas for a convoluted prose style.

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Academic writing does not have to boring, though it should be focused. Mixing a colloquial style with an academic style can be a way to enliven academic prose. Doing so will keep your reader engaged and is a rhetorical way of helping your overall argument.

Figure 3.37 Mixing Writing Styles Can Add Flavor

However, the academy expects writers to express intricate ideas as clearly as possible, so check your inflated faux-academic prose at the door.

Writers should strive for clear, direct prose, but varied sentence structure is important too. Using different sentence lengths and structures will help you convey the drama of a situation and emphasize the stakes at hand.

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Using Transitions

Using Pointing Words

Repeating Key Terms and Phrases

Avoiding Repetition

Section 11

Making Connections Within Your Paper

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Using TransitionsTransitions connect your ideas together and make it easier for your readers to follow your thoughts.

KEY POINTS

• Transitions can make connections between different paragraphs or they can make connections between sentences within a paragraph.

• Transitions can also connect ideas within a paragraph or they can connect different paragraphs together.

• See the full text for examples of words and phrases used in transitioning from one idea to another.

Transitions

Using transitions will make your writing easier to understand by providing connections between paragraphs or between sentences within a paragraph. Transitions can be a word, phrase or sentence –in longer works, a transition can even be a whole paragraph. The goal of a transition is to clarify to your readers exactly how your ideas are connected.

Transitions refer to both the preceding and ensuing sentence, paragraph or section of a written work. They remind your readers of

what they just read, and tell them what will come next. By doing so, transitions help your writing feel like a unified whole.

Transitions Between Paragraphs

Transitions between paragraphs highlight the relationship between two paragraphs. For example, imagine you have three paragraphs with three different topics:

1. The sun is powered by nuclear fusion.

2. Nuclear fusion here on Earth could meet all of our energy demands.

3. There are significant technological problems that make harnessing nuclear fusion power difficult.

The three topics need to be connected somehow. The first and the second ideas could be connected like this:

• Since nuclear fusion produces enough energy to power the sun, we could use the same process here on Earth to produce all the power we would ever need.

This transition references the topic of the first paragraph (the sun is powered by fusion) and the topic of the second paragraph (fusion could meet all of our energy needs). The word “since” acts as a

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logical connector (“since...then...”) that demonstrates how the two apparently separate ideas are actually connected.

We could connect the second and third paragraphs in a similar way:

• Although nuclear fusion could provide ample energy, there are several technological problems that make harnessing nuclear fusion power difficult.

Again, notice how this transition links the topic of the second paragraph (fusion could meet all our energy needs) with the topic of the third paragraph (there are some difficulties with fusion).

Transitions Within Paragraphs

Transitions within a paragraph help readers to anticipate what is coming before they read it. Within paragraphs, transitions tend to be single words or short phrases. Words like “however,” “nevertheless,” “but” and “similarly,” as well as phrases like “on the other hand” and “for example” can serve as transitions between sentences. See the “List of Common Transitional Devices” below for more examples.

Transition Paragraphs

In longer works, you might need an entire paragraph to connect the ideas presented in two separate sections. The purpose of a transitional paragraph is to summarize the information in the

previous paragraph, and to tell your reader how this information is related to the information in the next paragraph. Transition paragraphs are good places to review for your reader where you have been and how it relates to the next step of your argument.

Before using a particular transitional word or phrase, be sure you understand its meaning and usage completely and that it is the right match for the logic in your paper. With that said, here are a few transitional devices:

Transitional words and phrases that indicate addition:

and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what’s more, moreover, in addition, still, first (second, etc.)

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Transitions are used to connect ideas and can appear from one sentence to the next, one paragraph to the next, or as an entire paragraph that ties together the ideas of two separate paragraphs.

Figure 3.38 The transition of the sun

Transitional words and phrases that indicate comparison:

whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, although, conversely, in contrast, although this may be true, likewise

Transitional words and phrases that indicate a logical connection:

because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is

Transitional words and phrases that show exception:

yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes

Transitional words and phrases that show time:

immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then

Transitional words and phrases that indicate repetition or summarize:

in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted

Transitional words and phrases that indicate emphasis:

definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly

Transitional words and phrases that indicate sequence:

first, second, third, and so forth, next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently

Transitional words and phrases that indicate an example:

for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate

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Using Pointing WordsPointing words help orient your reader and establish continuity within your writing.

KEY POINTS

• Use pointing words to help orient your readers.

• Pointing words point forward or backward to other sentences.

• Pointing words help to give your paragraphs continuity.

Pointing words are words, such as “this,” “these,” or “those,” which are used to help orient your reader and establish continuity within your writing. These words are used to refer to terms or ideas contained in previous sentences, thereby establishing continuity between by connecting two separate ideas. For example:

Mike and I went to the store. This trip was uneventful.

In the example, the word “this” is a pointing word that refers back to the previous sentence, while simultaneously pointing toward how the ensuing sentence will take up and comment on the initial sentence. The pointing word establishes continuity between the two sentences by acting as a pivot that both points backward to the previous sentence and points forward.

Pointing words let you refer back to complex ideas without becoming vague and confusing the reader. Look at these sentences taken from the conclusion of the essay about “Caliban Upon Setebos.”

Example with Pointing Words: “There is nothing overtly deviant about the poem’s formal elements. But upon close examination, those intricacies of form are even more suggestive of a problem in the island hierarchy than the content of Caliban’s speech is.”

Example without Pointing Words: “There is nothing overtly deviant about the poem’s formal elements. But upon close examination, the intricacies of form are even more suggestive of a problem in the island hierarchy than the content of Caliban’s speech is.”

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In the title, the word “these” acts as a pointing word that points back to the noun, “wild animals,” contained in the first sentence. Pointing words are used to produce continuity in your writing.

Figure 3.39 We saw many wild animals. These were no house cats.

The phrase “those intricacies of form” lets the reader know that the writer is referring to the same specific instances of metrical variation that were discussed earlier in the poem. The phrase “the intricacies of form” would make the reader think that the writer was referring to all instances of metrical variation in the entire poem.

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Repeating Key Terms and PhrasesRepeating key terms and phrases helps readers keep track of your ideas and it will give your writing a sense of flow and continuity.

KEY POINTS

• By repeating key words and phrases, you help your reader understand your writing.

• Repeat key terms and phrases to help keep your reader feel oriented.

• When using key terms or phrases, be sure to provide a definition or explanation to elaborate on the meaning of the terms. This can highlight that a specific term is important for your argument and give readers an opportunity to understand what the key terms or phrases mean as they are repeated.

Repeating key terms and phrases helps readers keep track of your ideas. It will also give your writing a sense of flow and continuity. Repetition of key words and phrases is especially important when transitioning from one paragraph to another. For example, consider the following two short paragraphs:

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The study shows that too much sodium can lead to an increased blood pressure. The study finds that as Sodium increases blood pressure this excess strain on the heart can double the risk of heart attack.

While the study clearly shows that too much sodium can double the risk of heart attack, the study fails to define how much sodium is “too much” for healthy adults. It fails to account for how a person may reduce their risk factor. For example, active people with plenty of access to fresh water will sweat out a lot of the sodium they ingest. The study shows that a sedentary, individual, or a chronically dehydrated person is more likely to feel the health consequences of ingesting sodium.

The second paragraph repeats the phrase “the study shows that too much sodium can.” This provides a sense of continuity between the two paragraphs, making it clear that the writing is centered around the study of sodium's impact on health. The first paragraph is concerned with what the study shows, while the second paragraph explains what the study fails to provide. In the example, “the study shows” acts as a key phrase that orients the readers to what the writing is about, while also providing continuity between the two paragraphs.

When using key terms or phrases, be sure to provide a definition or explanation to elaborate on the meaning of the terms. By doing so, you not only highlight for your reader that a specific word or phrase is important for your argument but you also give readers an opportunity to clearly understand what the key terms or phrases mean as they are repeated throughout the remainder of your writing.

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Repeating keywords and phrases in your writing highlights for your readers the important aspects of your argument. Repeating keywords and phrases also helps to provide a sense of continuity throughout your writing.

Figure 3.40 Repeating keywords and phrases is one of many keys to successful writing!

Avoiding RepetitionAlthough repeating key terms and phrases brings continuity to your writing, you must avoid being overly repetitive or boring.

KEY POINTS

• While it may be a good idea to repeat key terms and phrases for continuity or emphasis, you must avoid being overly repetitive or boring.

• Using synonyms is a good way to avoid using the same word too often.

• If you repeat a key phrase, try to alter the structure of rest of the sentence in order to provide some variety.

• Thinking of different ways to communicate essential elements of your argument will allow you to revisit what makes these elements essential, which should also push you to consider the central argument you are making in your writing.

Repeating key terms and phrases brings continuity to your writing. This practice also highlights important aspects of your argument for your reader. That being said, you must also avoid appearing overly repetitive or boring. Using the exact same words within the same paragraph or the same phrase multiple times can make you appear

to have a limited vocabulary, in addition to making your paper arduous or tedious to read. Essentially, you should repeat yourself, but with a difference!

One way to avoid appearing overly repetitive is to consult a thesaurus and use synonyms. However, when using synonyms, you should make sure that the word you choose means exactly what you think it means. Pay attention to the connotation of synonyms. In addition, try to avoid excessive or overly flowery language. Avoid starting sentences with the same words or phrases. If you choose to repeat a key phrase, try to alter the structure of rest of the sentence in order to provide some variety.

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While repetition of key terms and phrases can provide continuity and orient your reader, be sure to also include some variability within this repetition to avoid being overly repetitive or boring.

Figure 3.41 Repeat yourself, but with variation!

Introducing variation benefits not only your reader, but also yourself, the writer. Conceiving of different ways to communicate essential elements of your argument will allow you to revisit what makes these elements essential, and to consider the central argument you are making. Repeating ideas or revisiting concepts in different ways gives you the chance to say convey the importance of your argument by approaching it from varied angles and fleshing out the ideas thoroughly; each variation is a chance to think through your argument and introduce nuance into your writing while driving your point home.

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“Who Cares?”

Indicating Who Cares

“So What?”

Establishing Why Your Claims Matter

Section 12

“So What?”

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“Who Cares?”When approaching the writing process, understand what motivates your audience to care about the topic you are writing about.

KEY POINTS

• Consider who constitutes your audience and why they would want to read what you’ve written.

• When approaching the writing process, you should try to understand your audience and what characterizes them.

• Ask the question, “So what?” from your audience’s perspective. You must make it clear why your argument has merit and ought to be heard.

Before you begin writing, you must identify your target audience (Figure 3.42). While your actual audience may consist of one person – for instance, your instructor – you should still think of your instructor as representative of a wider audience. Consider the nature of the assignment and the scope of your project, and determine your intended audience accordingly. This wider audience could consist of fellow classmates, general readers or specialists and experts in your field.

After identifying your audience, consider why this audience might care about your topic. Imagine that you have described your topic to a representative reader, and the reader has just asked, “So what?” To relate your argument to your audience, ask these questions:

• Who is my intended audience?

• What knowledge does my audience already possess?

• What is important to my audience?

• What are the stakes of my particular argument? Why does the truth or falsity of my argument matter to my audience?

• What are the costs and benefits associated with my argument?

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When undertaking a writing assignment, it is important to take into consideration who your target audience is. For example, what do they know about the topic, and want might they want to know? Considering your audience will help shape your writing.

Figure 3.42 Who's the audience for your writing?

• Why undertake this argument? What am I adding to the discussion?

The answers to these questions become clearer if you write for a specific subset of the population or a specialist audience. Some assignments, however, are directed at a general audience, and therefore require careful thought about the dominant concerns of the public discourse. In these cases, it can be helpful to look at articles about your topic in general interest publications.

Asking the question, “So what?” from your audience’s perspective will encourage you to consider your argument from a different angle, and thereby stir the motivation of your audience. Why should anyone care about what you're bringing to the table? You must clarify why your argument has merit and ought to be heard. Once you find a good rationale, you can tailor your argument to meet the needs of your audience.

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Indicating Who CaresOnce you figure out who is in your audience, you can appeal to those readers by describing their stakes in the issue (Figure 3.43).

KEY POINTS

• After you explain why your topic is important, provide context to show how your argument fits into the larger discussion at hand.

• It’s also important to signal what level of expertise readers should have in order to understand your argument.

• Show why your position has merit, and what changes it can bring about.

Once determine who your audience is and why they might care about your topic, you can appeal to them by describing their stakes in the issue. If readers recognize themselves as part of your intended audience, they are more likely to pay attention to your argument and evaluate your claims. If you're writing to an audience of grade school teachers, for instance, they are likely to be interested in the merits and drawbacks of all-day Kindergarten. You should clarify your intended audience in your introduction – no later. While it isn't necessary to name the audience directly, you

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should outline the costs and benefits of your position in order to give the audience incentive to keep reading. What common ground do you share with your audience (Figure 3.44)? The most effective persuasive writing shows how the stakes are important for everyone involved.

After you establish the importance of your topic, provide context to show how your argument fits into the larger discussion at hand. Give readers the information they will need to understand your claims. Signify what level of expertise readers should have in order to understand your argument; this step is crucial if you are writing for a specialist audience. Specialist readers like to know what degree of familiarity with the material is expected so they can gauge whether a paper is “too hard” (dependent on unfamiliar contexts, methods and language), or “too easy” (pertinent to general issues that are obvious to experts in the field).

To put these ideas into practice, let’s return to the example of the solar energy essay. If you want to show a various selection of readers that they should care about your argument, discuss widespread problems that could be solved by using solar energy. Your introduction could mention the cost of energy, problems with importing oil from other countries or the environmental impact of fossil fuels. When you offer a preview of these hot-button issues in your introduction, you may convince lukewarm readers that your topic is actually relevant to their lives.

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Once you have decided who your intended audience is in your writing, you need to indicate this choice in the writing itself. One way to achieve this is to present the stakes of your argument, so that your audience knows if they are the intended audience or not.

Figure 3.43 Fill the seats!

Establishing common ground with your audience helps make your argument more convincing.

Figure 3.44 Common Ground

“So What?”Your writing should provide a clear answer to the question of why the problem matters.

KEY POINTS

• In your writing, you should articulate why your argument is important by answering the “so what” question.

• Without an explicit statement of why we should care, we cannot get down to the issue of what we should do.

• If it is impossible to make a convincing case within the given page limit, narrow the focus of your argument.

Problem statements should always give readers a clear answer to the question, “So what?” Without an explicit statement of why we should care, we cannot get down to the issue of what we should do about the problem.

A problem statement introduces and gives an approach to a given problem. For example:

The properties of water at the nanoscale are crucial in many areas of biology, but the confinement of water molecules in sub-nanometre channels in biological systems has received relatively little attention. Advances in nanotechnology make it possible to explore

the role played by water molecules in living systems, potentially leading to the development of ultrasensitive biosensors (Mertens, J., et al., 2008).

It is your responsibility to make your readers understand why they should care. Establish common ground to show them that, ultimately, you all want the same thing. Do not make your readers guess why your argument is important, or they may conclude that it is not important at all. As you revise your paper, ask yourself again: What is significant about this argument? How does the argument align with the concerns of my intended audience?

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“So what?”

Figure 3.45 “So what?”

Sometimes, you may find that your argument is too large for the size and scope of the assignment. If it is impossible to make a convincing case within the given page limit, narrow the focus of your argument. You can do this by choosing a more specific audience, focusing on specific costs or benefits, or imposing limitations such as restrictive time frames, geographic ranges, or types of evidence for your project.

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Establishing Why Your Claims MatterIn your writing, you should establish why the claims you are making matter for your reader.

KEY POINTS

• In order to meet your audience's needs, you need to establish why the claims you are making matter.

• You need to show your readers not just why they should care about your topic but also why they should care about your claims or your solutions.

• Stating the importance of your argument is a good start, but your claims will fall flat if you can’t support them with appropriate evidence.

After you build the foundation of your argument, illustrate your general claims with specific examples. If you have convinced your readers that your argument is important and relevant, don’t let them down. Follow through with evidence that grounds your argument in the real world or, alternatively, the academic world. As you look for evidence, it may be helpful to decide what type of evidence would be the most appropriate. What serves your

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argument best: pragmatic details, which deal with real-world outcomes, or conceptual details, which relate to the pursuit of knowledge? Do you need to find a moment that destabilizes the status quo in the current discussion of your topic?

Supporting claims with evidence: Let’s return to the essay about renewable energy, which argues for increased funding for solar research. Since the argument favors a real-world outcome, pragmatic evidence is the most persuasive variety. The case for solar power’s superiority to wind power needs a real-world example to support it: “Currently, our state spends more money on developing wind power than it does on solar power. However, investing in solar energy would be more effective than investing in wind power, since solar technology would be simpler to implement on a widespread basis. It is much easier to install a flat solar power on a roof than it is to build an obtrusive wind turbine. Practically speaking, solar power has more potential to decrease our reliance on fossil fuels than wind power. The U.S. government should increase its investments in solar energy, and decrease its investments in wind energy.” This passage explains a specific advantage of solar energy and infers a general recommendation from that evidence. The pragmatic evidence works well.

Putting Your Claims in Context: Tell your readers where things currently stand with your topic. Is it an age-old philosophical

question? Is it a new policy debate that is nearly resolved? Does it build respectfully on existing research? Or is it a new interpretation that flies in the face of decades of scholarship? In any case, situate your reader within the contemporary discussion of your topic, and then explain how your claims complicate, challenge, or differ from that tradition. You must understand the current conversation about your topic in order to put it in context. If you feel lost at this point, it is advisable to do more research. Contrasting structures are helpful for contextualizing your topic: distinguish your claims by showing your readers how your approach diverges from a popular trend.

Claim in Context: This passage describes the current conversation about sustainable energy, uses pragmatic evidence to make a contribution to that conversation, and infers a larger

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In the course of your writing, be sure to articulate why the claims you are making matter. It should be clear to your reader the stakes of your argumentative claims, not only locally within the logic of your paper but also more broadly in the world of the topic.

Figure 3.46 “But why does this claim matter?”

conclusion about the future impact on energy usage: “The contemporary debate about renewable energy is still fragmented: solar energy has its loyal defenders, but so do wind energy, biomass energy, and hydropower. While it is wise to continue funding research for different sources of sustainable energy, I contend that a unified move toward solar power would be more effective. Solar power is easier for individuals to adopt than wind energy or hydropower, and it doesn’t have the negative effects on the environment that biomass energy can cause. The solar revolution has the potential to reduce fossil fuel use significantly, if only the movement would mobilize.”

Stating the importance of your argument is a good start, but your claims will fall flat if you can’t support them with appropriate evidence.

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Chapter 4

Conversations

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Class Discussions

Responding to Others in Class Discussions

Section 1

The Practice of Class Discussions

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Class DiscussionsClass discussion provides a space for students to communicate differing views and use textual evidence to support or refute claims.

KEY POINTS

• The goal of classroom discussion is not only to promote comprehension of a shared text, but also to encourage students to listen to, understand, and exchange their assessments of a text.

• As a learning method, classroom discussions are generally more fun and interactive than simply listening to a teacher lecture or taking a written test.

• Class discussions encourage learning through active participation, comprehension, and listening. They help students to think, solve problems, listen to others, and analyze the ideas of other students, all while backing up their own thoughts with evidence from past class teachings.

Classroom discussion is a form of assessment that takes place during the learning process to help the teacher and student understand information presented (Figure 4.1). Class discussion is often used together with other forms of assessment, such as written response, selected response, and performance assessment. Class

discussion is a teaching technique used in conjunction with lectures and individual study.

The Purpose of Discussion

As a learning method, classroom discussions are generally more fun and interactive than simply listening to a teacher lecture or taking a written test. When presenting a question to a class of students, teachers can open up the classroom for discussion and can mediate while students come up with their own conclusions. Class discussions encourage learning through active participation,

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This class discussion is engaging.

Figure 4.1 Classroom Discussion

comprehension, and listening. They help students to think, solve problems, listen to others, and analyze the ideas of other students, all while backing up their own thoughts with evidence from past class teachings. Discussions also encourage the practice of informal oral communication, which is a much-needed skill later in life.

When participating in a class discussion, the following strategies are effective:

• Try to stay on topic.

• Try to show an understanding of the subject matter by using vocabulary appropriately.

• Use concepts and vocabulary learned in the classroom to add weight to your opinions and ideas.

• Try to build upon the ideas of others.

• Always be respectful to others, especially if someone in the discussion offers an opinion that differs from your own.

• Try to provide constructive criticism to others regarding their thoughts, comments, or work.

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Responding to Others in Class DiscussionsIn classroom discussions, students can respond to others, answer each other’s questions, and present new questions or thoughts based on others responses.

KEY POINTS

• This is as important as responding directly to the teacher, or to questions posed by the teacher.

• Dialogue among students not only makes classroom discussion more lively and robust, but building on multiple points of view is more intellectually stimulating.

• As a student, a one way to think about participating in this discussion would be to respond to classmates’ comments, rather than the teacher's original prompt.

Classroom discussions can be used for more than the expression of raw knowledge. Classroom conversation allows the expression of students’ opinions, thoughts, and questions about the subject being discussed. Students can respond to others, answer each other’s questions, and present new questions or thoughts based on others’ responses. Students can also share their own experiences pertaining to the discussed topic, which can help others learn

because they are given clearer and more practical examples.

For students, one important component of classroom discussion is responding to others, answering each other’s questions, and presenting new questions or thoughts based on others responses. This is as important as responding directly to the teacher, or to questions posed by the teacher – dialogue among students not only makes classroom discussion more lively and robust, but building on multiple points of view is more intellectually stimulating.

An example of this would be a high school art teacher mediating a weekly artwork critique of his or her students’ artwork. The teacher can assess not only the artwork, but also each students thoughts about the artwork based on information presented in class. After

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During class discussion, it is important that comments be framed as responses to something that has been said. Framing comments in this way, similar to the framing of a photo, ensures that the discussion will be focused and will maintain continuity.

Figure 4.2 Comments should be framed (much like a good photograph)

the students post each of their works at the front of the class, the teacher goes through each piece and opens a class discussion by asking the students what they like and dislike about the artworks.

As a student, a one way to think about participating in this discussion would be to respond to classmates' comments, rather than the teacher's original prompt. For example, if you disagree with the opinion of a fellow student on a piece of art, expressing your disagreement (respectfully) may be more productive for class discussion than coming up with a new comment on a different piece of art.

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The Practice of Conversation

Deciphering the Conversation

Section 2

The Practice of Conversation

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The Practice of ConversationWhen writing for an academic community, one must take into consideration the current scholastic conversation that exists on that topic.

KEY POINTS

• Rather than thinking of essays or books as isolated units of scholarship, try envisioning them as parts of larger networks of information, built by scholars who converse with each other via scholarly documents, conference presentations, e-mail, phone calls, and other forms of communication.

• When approaching your own work, instead of writing in isolation, try to make a new contribution to one of these many ongoing conversations in your chosen field.

• When conducting your research, make sure to review the opposing side of your argument.

Developing an Idea and Topic

When writing for an academic community – regardless of topic – one must often take into consideration the current scholastic conversation that exists for that topic. In other words, if you want to write meaningfully about something, you must first find out what’s already been said about it.

In essence, the easiest way to pick a topic is to find out what other writers are writing about and join their conversation (Figure 4.3). Rather than thinking of essays or books as isolated units of scholarship, try envisioning them as parts of larger networks of information, built by scholars who converse with each other via scholarly documents, conference presentations, e-mail, phone calls, and other forms of communication. If you keep reading and

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As these cowboys are demonstrating, the practice of conversation is important. Similar to actual spoken conversation, the practice of conversation in writing requires that you decide who the audience is. Deciding who your writing is in conversation with is helpful in many ways, including helping you decide what is common knowledge and what needs further explanation.

Figure 4.3 Cowboys Practicing Conversation

skimming articles and books, you'll find many different discussions and possibilities for writing topics.

When approaching your own work, instead of writing in isolation, try to make a new contribution to one of these many ongoing conversations in your chosen field. This approach can be especially helpful if you hope to publish your work, since some publishers tend to favor works that fit with their existing line of publications. Academic readers also expect you to be familiar with, and probably refer to, works of other scholars who have written on your topic. Think of your work as either extending existing work or taking it in a new direction. Don’t be afraid to freshen up an old article with new supporting evidence, or to challenge one whose conclusions are called into question by subsequent research.

Addressing Opposition

Once you’ve found a topic and an academic conversation to enter into and you’ve begun forming your own arguments, expect that you will encounter opposition. When conducting your research, make sure to review the opposing sides of your argument. By addressing opposing points of view in your paper and demonstrating how your own claim is stronger, you neutralize those other arguments.

Methods of addressing opposing arguments vary. You may choose to state your main points, address and refute the opposition, and

then conclude. Conversely, you might summarize the opposition's views early in your text, and then revisit them after you've presented your side of the argument. Regardless of the argumentative tactics that you use, by the time readers get to the end of your paper, they should have learned something new about the topic that you’re addressing.

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Deciphering the ConversationOnce you’ve chosen a topic, you must research that topic deeply in order to develop and inform your own point of view.

KEY POINTS

• Research can be an intimidating but rewarding process. It allows you to gain additional knowledge on a topic, assemble outside support, and provide credibility for your assertions.

• As important as it is to find sources specific to your topic, it is equally vital to correctly assess each source's credibility – that is, to discern how trustworthy, accurate and verifiable the sources are.

• Using an outdated source, even if the source has a solid reputation among scholars, will likely provide inaccurate information regarding contemporary issues and current controversies.

• With any source that you find, you must also be aware of the author’s possible bias. Even the most credible sources may exhibit forms of bias, as most authors’ past experiences and/or personal ties to special interest groups may come into play.

Once you’ve chosen a topic and an academic conversation with which to engage, the next step is to research that conversation more deeply in order to develop and inform your own point of view.

Research can be an intimidating process, but it’s certainly a rewarding one. It allows you to gain additional knowledge on a topic, assemble outside support and provide credibility for your assertions.

As important as it is to find sources specific to your topic, it is equally vital to correctly assess each source’s credibility – that is, to discern how trustworthy, accurate and verifiable the sources are. A scholarly source is a source written by a professional in a given field. In many fields, there exists a number of academic journals or publications that detail the publishing of scholarly articles related to the subject. By accessing these journals, you ensure that the piece you’re reading is a scholarly

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When entering the conversation that surrounds your topic, it is easy to feel lost in a sea of voices. However, it is important to decipher the conversation relevant to your writing. One way to make the conversation more approachable is to narrow your topic, make it more specific, in order to reduce the parameters of who your argument is in conversation with.

Figure 4.4 Decipher the conversation that surrounds your topic

source. Oftentimes in academic writing, you will also want to consult scholarly secondary sources to accompany primary sources.

Using an outdated source, even if the source has a solid reputation among other scholars, will likely provide inaccurate information regarding contemporary issues and current controversies. For example, a book on euthanasia published in 1978 probably isn't the best choice for a paper about end-of-life issues today.

With any source, you must also be aware of the author's possible bias. Even the most credible sources may exhibit forms of bias, as most authors’ past experiences and/or personal ties to special interest groups may affect their writing. Be sure to evaluate the author’s fairness in assessing opposing viewpoints. Complete objectivity is very rare in writing, but try to find sources that are not overly subjective.

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Chapter 5

Style, Structure, Grammar

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Incorporating Core Sentence Components

Choosing Appropriate Verb Tenses

Making Sure Subjects and Verbs Agree

Avoiding Misplaced Modifiers, Dangling Modifiers, and Split Infinitives

Using a Variety of Sentence Formats

Creating Paragraphs

Section 1

Sentence Building

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Incorporating Core Sentence ComponentsEnglish features four core sentence elements: subjects, predicates, complements, and modifiers.

KEY POINTS

• The subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun, which commonly performs the action or actions of the sentence.

• The predicate in the sentence is the verb or verb phrase, linked to the subject, that tells what action is being performed.

• A complement in a sentence is a noun or adjective that completes the meaning begun by the subject and predicate.

• There are subdivisions within the category of compliments: direct object, predicate nominative, and predicate adjective.

• Beyond the subject, predicate, and complement, pretty much everything else in a sentence is a modifier.

• There are different types of modifiers: single-word modifiers, phrase modifiers, and clause modifiers.

In order to successfully craft sentences in the English language, one must first understand the four core sentence elements: subjects, predicates, complements, and modifiers.

To initiate a discussion of these elements, we will start with the basics and use simple examples. It is important to understand that there are many gray areas of definition and usage when it comes to English-language sentence construction. The following examples will not cover most of those gray areas, but they should provide a solid starting point.

Subject

The subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun. In active-voice sentences, it is the noun or pronoun performing the action in the sentence. In the examples below, “boy,” “she,” and “Mark” are all subjects.

• The boy crossed the street.

• She works in the city.

• Mark is a good athlete.

Predicate

The predicate of a sentence is the verb or verb phrase, linked to the subject, which tells what action is being performed by that subject. In the examples above, “crossed the street,” “works in the city,” and “is a good athlete” are all predicates.

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One thing to keep in mind in terms of predicates is that forms of the verb “to be” (am, is, are, was, were, be, been, etc.) are sometimes as predicates and sometimes used as tense or mood indicators in a verb phrase. For example:

• The boy was tall. (Verb used as a predicate.)

• We should be arriving soon. (Verb phrase used as a mood indicator—in this case, the subjunctive mood).

Forms of the verb “to be” are also tricky because they do not show a physical action, which we normally expect verbs to do. Instead, forms of the verb “to be” belong to category of verbs called linking verbs. These verbs serve as a kind of verbal equivalent to an equal sign in math. For example:

• The house is green.

• She seems angry.

• The burden became excessive.

Complement

Some verbs require a complement (usually a noun or adjective) to complete the meaning begun by the subject and a verb. There are called transitive verbs. For example:

• The student raised his hand.

• The plants in the lobby are beautiful.

Some verbs never need a complement – these are called intransitive verbs. For example:

• Mary smiled.

• Fred died.

Some verbs can be used transitively or intransitively, depending on the context. For example:

• The parents left their daughter at school. (In this sentence, “left” is used transitively, with the noun phrase “their daughter” acting as the complement).

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This diagram shows some of the component parts of a sentence, and demonstrates how they relate to each other.

Figure 5.1 Sentence Diagram 1

• After the concert, the audience left. (In this sentence, “left” is used intransitively, as it does not need a complement to complete the meaning of the subject-predicate combination.)

Within the category of complements, there are several sub-categories:

• Direct object: A noun complement following an action verb.

- George carried the plants to the car. ("plants" is the direct object)

• Predicate nominative: A noun complement following a linking verb.

- George is a marathoner.

• Predicate adjective: An adjective complement following and a linking verb.

- George ran fast.

Modifier

A modifier is a phrase in a sentence that provides additional information about an element within that sentence. Pretty much everything else in a sentence beyond the subject, predicate, and

complement, is a modifier of one kind or another. There are three basic kinds of modifying constructions:

• Single-word modifiers (adjectives and adverbs)

• Modifying phrases (e.g. prepositional, participial, infinitive, and appositive phrases)

• Modifying clauses (a clause is any group of words with its own subject and predicate)

Compound Elements

In a given sentence, there may be more than one of any of the four core sentence elements. Compound elements can include:

• Compound Subject: Mary and Tom went to the dance.

• Compound Predicate: He ran to the house and knocked on the door.

• Compound Complement: I bought pencils and paper at the store.

• Compound Modifier: He rode a black and white pony.

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Choosing Appropriate Verb TensesTenses are grammatical modifications of a verb which distinguish time; in the English language, there are three basic verb tenses.

KEY POINTS

• In English, the three basic verb tenses are past, present, and future.

• There are twelve verb tenses: simple present, present progressive, present perfect, present perfect progressive, simple past, past progressive, past perfect, past perfect progressive, simple future, future progressive, future perfect, and future perfect progressive.

• Each verb tense can be in the simple or progressive form.

Tenses are grammatical modifications of a verb which distinguish time. In the English language, there are three basic verb tenses – present, past, and future – which can be in the simple, progressive, perfect, or perfect progressive form.

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Present Tenses

The simple present expresses what exists now, or general facts:

• There is a shady park down the block.

• I paint a portrait of my cat every week.

• Mary hears a noise in the attic.

The present progressive expresses what is temporary or continuous:

• I am reading a letter.

• The car is running at high speed.

• Michael and Anna are always working in the library.

The present perfect (or simply the perfect tense)

expresses what began or occurred in the past and is still relevant to the current situation:

• I have read several of Shaw’s novels.

• She has seen him every Saturday this month.

• Jed has sampled six ice cream flavors so far.

Finally, the present perfect progressive expresses what began in the past and still continues in the present:

• I have been standing on this corner for six hours.

• She has been dreaming of becoming an actress since she was ten.

• Even though it’s raining, that Girl Scout has been selling cookies all day.

Past Tenses

First, the simple past expresses what took place in the past:

• Last week, I read several of Shaw’s novels.

• The mother took her son to the beach every day last summer.

• The book sat on the shelf, collecting dust.

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Whether an action takes place in the past, present, or future is indicated by a sentence's verb.

Figure 5.2 Clock Store Cartoon

The past progressive expresses what took place continually during a certain amount of time in the past, but is not necessarily relevant to the current situation:

• She was giving a presentation when the microphone broke.

• The computer was downloading the file for 20 minutes.

• During their first year, the puppies were growing at an alarming rate.

The past perfect expresses what took place in the past, often before something else happened.

• I had already seen him that morning, when I met you for lunch.

• As soon as my car had been repaired, I continued my trip.

• The power had gone out, so we found the flashlights.

The past perfect progressive expresses what took place continually during a certain amount of time in the past, when something else occurred:

• I had been listening to the radio when she dropped in.

• The car had been running smoothly until the exhaust pipe fell off.

• She realized she had been standing on his foot when he gently shoved her.

Future Tenses

The simple future expresses what will take place hereafter:

• I shall see him this afternoon, and I will inform him then.

• Next week, her uncle will be in town.

• Will you carry this bag for me?

The future progressive expresses what will take place continually at a certain time in the future:

• I will be swimming in the sea by the time you wake up.

• He will be conducting a meeting every day between noon and one o’clock this week.

• Next summer, Jake will be traveling through South America.

The future perfect expresses what will have taken place in the future.

• I shall have seen him by tomorrow at noon.

• We will have finished cooking by the time you arrive.

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• Margaret will have dropped her niece at the airport before meeting Joe.

Lastly, the future perfect progressive expresses what will have taken place continually at a certain time in the future:

• I will have been swimming in the sea for four hours by the time you wake up tomorrow.

• When they arrive, they will have been traveling for 12 hours straight.

• By tomorrow, the cat will have been dead for a week.

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Making Sure Subjects and Verbs AgreeSubject-verb agreement requires that the number represented by a subject agree with the number shown in the verb being used.

KEY POINTS

• Subject-verb agreement can become more complicated in sentences where the subject is a pronoun; is complex; is modified as part of an adjectival phrase; is modified by parenthetic expressions; is clarified in meaning by common knowledge; or is something that occurs later in the sentence.

• When faced with complicates subject-verb agreement, it is generally best to consider the entire complex subject phrase as one subject, and then think about what kind of thing it represents.

• The verb should agree with the idea that the subject represents, which could have a different number (singularity or plurality) than the actual subject as a word. Whatever the subject represents can be considered singular or plural, and that is what the verb should agree with.

Subject-verb agreement is a grammatical rule which states that the number (either singular or plural) represented by a subject in a

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sentence must agree with the number communicated by the conjugated form of the verb that is being used with that subject. Subject-verb agreement also requires that the person of the subject must agree with the person of the conjugated form of the verb being used with that subject. For example:

• Singular first person: I work

• Singular second person: You work

• Singular third person: He works

• Plural first person: We work

• Plural second person: You work

• Plural third person: They work

Subject-verb agreement can become a little more complicated in other situations. This is the case, for example, where the subject in a sentence is a pronoun; is complex; is modified as part of an adjectival phrase; is modified by parenthetic expressions; is clarified in meaning by common knowledge; or is something that occurs later in the sentence. When faced with situations like these, it is generally best to consider the entire complex subject phrase as one subject, and then think about what kind of thing it represents.

Here are some examples of common grammatical constructions and the ways in which they adhere to subject-verb agreement:

Compound sentences have a subject and verb (which should agree) in each independent clause.

• The peanut butter is on the counter and the beans are in the bag.

• The children have a snow day, so I am going home early.

Compound subjects (joined with “and”) take plural verbs.

• The president and the children are at the party.

• My brothers and I are at the party.

When a singular and a plural subject are joined by “or,” “nor,” or “but also,” the verb should agree with the nearest subject.

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The title demonstrates the necessity of subject-verb agreement. The third person subject “The child” requires that the verb also take a third person singular form “stands.”

Figure 5.3 The child stands near the door.

• Either the president or the children are at the party.

• Neither my brothers nor I am at the party.

When a positive subject and a negative subject are compounded and have different numbers, the verb should agree with the positive subject.

• It is not the assistant coaches but the head coach who calls the plays.

• It is the soup, but not the appetizers, that has poisoned the queen.

Five indefinite pronouns always take plural verbs: others, both, many, few, and several.

• Both are arriving at the same time.

• Many will follow.

Most indefinite pronouns take singular verbs.

• Everybody is at the party.

• Either restaurant sounds good.

Some indefinite pronouns can take a singular or plural verb based on whether the noun to which they are referring is uncountable (singular) or countable (plural).

• Some (sand) is in my shoe.

• Some (pebbles) are in my shoe.

Collective nouns (which refer to a group of beings or things as a single unit) are singular, and so take singular verbs.

• The audience was silent at the end of the play.

• The class has plenty of homework for the weekend.

Amounts take singular verbs because they are treated as units, which are singular nouns.

• Ten dollars is enough to buy the book.

• All I need is fifteen minutes to finish the exam.

Some non-amount words end in “s” but also take singular verbs because they refer to units or single entities.

• Economics is an interesting subject.

• The news airs at six o’clock.

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Sometimes modifying phrases can come between the subject and verb of a sentence. This should not affect the subject-verb agreement.

• The idea of serving frankfurters is a good one.

• The children, along with their father, are taking a cab to the station.

Sometimes the subject of a sentence can come after its verb. Even in these cases, the verb should still agree with the subject.

• Where are the candles for the cake?

• There is a quiet spot by the pond.

Some words ending in “s” refer to single objects but are considered plural and so should take plural verbs, unless they are preceded by “pair of” (in which case “pair” would be the subject).

• Your pants are bright yellow.

• My favorite pair of pants is in the wash.

The title of a book or work of art is always singular even if a noun in the title is plural.

• The Three Musketeers is sitting on the shelf by the window.

Sums and products take singular verbs in mathematical equations. Fractional expressions vary depending on the meaning.

• Three plus four equals seven.

• Three-fourths of the professors vote Republican.

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Avoiding Misplaced Modifiers, Dangling Modifiers, and Split InfinitivesA modifier is a phrase in a sentence that provides additional information about another element of the sentence.

KEY POINTS

• The rule for using modifiers at the beginning of a sentence is that the word or phrase being modified should immediately follow the modifier.

• A dangling modifier is a modifier whose referent is either unclear or missing altogether.

• A misplaced modifier is a modifier whose referent is present and accounted for, but is out of place within the sentence, and thus seems to modify another referent in the sentence. This results in ambiguity and confusion.

• A squinting modifier is placed right next to the word to which it refers, but is also near another word that it might be modifying. This can cause confusion for the reader.

Modifiers

A modifier is a phrase in a sentence that provides additional information about another element of the sentence. For example:

• Responsible for representing students to the faculty and administration and overseeing student organizations, the Student Council plays an important role in campus life. (The modifying phrase provides additional information about the subject of the sentence: the Student Council.)

• An example of bottom-of-the-pyramid targeting, microcredit ventures lend small amounts of money to those with minimal assets. (The modifying phrase modifies “microcredit ventures.”)

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The title of this image is an example of a sentence that contains a dangling modifier, because it is unclear whether the fierce winds trekked across the desert or the riders. A corrected version would be, “Fierce winds swirled around the riders as they trekked across the desert.”

Figure 5.4 Trekking across the desert, fierce winds swirled around the riders.

• Starving after her morning workout, Jamie ate three bagels. (The modifying phrase modifies “Jamie.”)

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a modifying phrase that, due to its location in a sentence, seems to modify a sentence element that it was not intended to modify. For example:

• After completing the experiment, the most bacteria appeared in the scraping taken from the drinking fountain. (Due to proximity, the modifying phrase seems to modify “bacteria,” which doesn’t make much sense!)

Most dangling modifiers can be fixed by instead placing the modifying phrase next to the element of the sentence that it is intended to modify:

• Dangling: Covering most of Minnesota, the illustration showed the glacier that left the state with its thousands of lakes.

• Corrected: Covering most of Minnesota, the glacier left the state with its thousands of lakes, as depicted on the illustration.

• Dangling: Trekking across the desert, fierce winds swirled around the riders.

• Corrected: Fierce winds swirled around the riders as they trekked across the desert.

Misplaced Modifiers

Similar to a dangling modifier, a misplaced modifier is a modifying phrase, the intended referent of which is ambiguous due to its location in the sentence. For example:

• Erik couldn’t ride his bicycle with a broken leg.

• The little girl walked the dog wearing a tutu.

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To avoid dangling and misplaced modifiers in your writing, make sure the entity being modified appears immediately after the modifier.

Figure 5.5 Statue of a Man Dangling from a Roof in Prague

• Just don’t stand there!

As with dangling modifiers, misplaced modifiers can often be corrected by rearranging the sentence:

• With his broken leg, Erik couldn’t ride his bicycle.

• Still wearing a tutu, the little girl walked the dog.

• Don’t just stand there!

Squinting Modifiers

A squinting modifier is a modifier that is placed right next to the word it refers to, but is also near another word that it might be modifying, which causes confusion:

• Cycling uphill quickly strengthens the leg muscles. (Wherein, based on its placement, “quickly” could modify either “cycling uphill” or “strengthens the leg muscles.”)

• Using modifiers clearly will improve your writing.

Squinting modifiers can also be corrected by rearranging the sentence:

• Quickly cycling uphill strengthens the leg muscles.

Or: Cycling uphill can quickly strengthen the leg muscles.

• Clearly using modifiers will improve your writing.

Or: Using modifiers will clearly improve your writing.

Source: https://www.boundless.com/writing/style-structure-grammar/sentence-building/avoiding-misplaced-modifiers-dangling-modifiers-and-split-infinitives/CC-BY-SA

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Using a Variety of Sentence FormatsArgumentation is a matter of persuasion and needs to include effective communication by the author.

KEY POINTS

• Tone, voice, register and style are as important as the actual facts brought to support a thesis.

• Papers will be boring for the reader if every sentence uses the same structure. Some of the best ways to vary sentence format are by adding and moving around clauses. Using different sentence lengths is also very helpful.

• Another way to keep your paper interesting is to use rhetorical questions or vary the tone.

Argumentation isn't just about what you say, it’s about how you say it. Audiences will find your argument easier to follow if your paper is well-written. Just as good arguments rely on evidence, good writing relies on a variety of different sentence structures.

There are no codified rules on how to vary sentence structure, nor are there lists of all the different types of phrasing you can use. The English language allows for so much flexibility that such a list would

be never-ending. However, there are some aspects of writing that you should consider when looking for different sentence formats.

Clauses: the easiest way to vary sentence length and structure is with clauses. Multi-clause sentences can connect related ideas, provide additional detail and vary the pattern of your language.

Length: longer sentences are better suited for expressing complex thoughts. Shorter sentences, in contrast, are useful when you want to emphasize a concise point. Clauses can vary in length, too.

Rhetorical questions: when used sparingly, rhetorical questions can catch your reader’s attention. They also implicate your reader as a participant in your argument by asking them to think about how they would answer the question posed by your paper.

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Use a variety of types of sentences to keep your paper interesting.

Figure 5.6 There are several methods to connect the components of a sentence together

Tone: if you really want a sentence to stand out, you can change the tone of your writing. Using different tones can catch the reader’s attention and liven up your work. Be careful that the tone you choose is appropriate – do not segue into overly-folksy language or obviously partisan speech.

While you may not use all of these variations, you will surely be able to include some. Particularly with clauses and sentence length, there are many possible combinations of how to put sentences together. As you gain more practice writing, you will discover particular combinations and structures. You will also get more comfortable changing a sentence’s language around to make it sound different than the ones around it.

Regardless of how you choose to vary the structure of your sentences, you must always make sure those sentences remain readable. Variation is a nice stylistic touch; something that makes your paper sound more interesting to the reader. However, variation should never be your main goal – don't sacrifice audience comprehension to achieve stylistic virtuosity. Instead, use variation as a way of enriching your writing and helping prove your argument.

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Creating ParagraphsSeparating key points by paragraph allows the reader to feel the cumulative effects of the mounting evidence for your claim.

KEY POINTS

• Introduce paragraphs with topic statements that tell the audience what you will argue in the paragraph. The final sentence in the paragraph will either relate back to the overall point of the paper or introduce the next paragraph's topic.

• By providing the reader with expectations at the start of the paragraph, you help them understand where you are going and how the paragraph fits in with the overall structure of your argument.

• A paragraph should make only one claim and should contain all the necessary evidence for that claim. This is key to making an argument flow smoothly and thus persuading the reader to understand your point.

A paragraph is a self-contained portion of your argument. Paragraphs will begin by making a claim that connects back to your thesis. The body of the paragraph will present the evidence, reasoning and conclusions that prove that claim. Usually, paragraphs will end by connecting their claim to the larger

argument or by setting up the claim that the next paragraph will contain.

How Many Paragraphs Do You Need?

There is no set number for how many paragraphs a paper should have. You will need one for an introduction and one for a conclusion, but after that the number can vary. However, you will need one paragraph for every claim that makes up your argument.

Paragraphs should be used to develop one idea at a time rather than contain many different ideas and claims. If you have a lot of ideas and claims to address, you may be tempted to combine related claims into the same paragraph. Combining different points in the same paragraph cuts down on how much space you have to argue each point. This

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Well structured paragraphs make your paper easier to understand and more enjoyable for your readers.

Figure 5.7 Papers

will divide your reader’s attention and make your argument less thorough.

By dedicating each paragraph to only one part of your argument, you will give the reader time to fully evaluate and understand each claim before going on to the next one. Think of paragraphs as a way of guiding your reader’s attention – by giving them a single topic, you force them to focus on it. When you direct their focus, they will have a much easier time following your argument.

Some writing manuals will direct you to have one paragraph for every point made in your thesis. The general idea behind this rule is a good one – you need to address every point, and you will need at least a paragraph for each. However, do not feel like you can only devote one paragraph to each point. If your argument is complex, you may need to have subsections for each of your main points. Each one of those supporting points should be its own paragraph.

Using Topic Sentences

Every paragraph of argument should begin with a topic sentence that tells the reader what the paragraph will prove. By providing the reader with expectations at the start of the paragraph, you help them understand where you are going and how the paragraph fits in with the overall structure of your argument. Topic sentences should always connect back to your thesis statement – if you cannot find a

way to describe a paragraph in relation to your thesis, you probably do not need it for your argument.

Source: https://www.boundless.com/writing/style-structure-grammar/sentence-building/creating-paragraphs/CC-BY-SA

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Using Varied Sentence Lengths and Styles

Writing in Active Voice and Uses of Passive Voice

Using Subordination and Coordination

Using Parallelism

Avoiding Sexist Language

Managing Mood

Section 2

Sentence Style

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Using Varied Sentence Lengths and StylesVarying sentence lengths in academic writing keeps the material interesting and is a way to indicate connections between different points.

KEY POINTS

• Sentences can be classified by the number and types of clauses which they incorporate. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no dependent clauses. A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent clauses.

• The clauses of a compound sentence are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or both.

• A complex sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause. A complex-compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one dependent clause.

• Sentences can be classified by their purpose. A declarative sentence makes a statement. An interrogative sentence or question is used to request information. An exclamatory sentence is a more emphatic statement expressing emotion. An imperative sentence tells someone to do something.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

• Sentence complexity generally increases as length increases. The length of a sentence can factor into its comprehensibility.

Varieties of Sentences

In order to work with a variety of sentences in your writing, it is helpful to first understand the basic building blocks of a sentence, how they relate to each other, and how they can be manipulated.

Sentences are defined as grammatical units consisting of one or more words, which bear minimal syntactic relation to each other. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command, or suggestion.

Clauses

Structurally speaking, sentences are generally composed of clauses. A clause typically contains at least a subject noun phrase and a finite verb. The two main categories of clauses are independent clauses and subordinate (or dependent) clauses.

Independent clauses are full sentence patterns that can operate on their own and do not function within other sentence patterns. They contain a subject and a verb, plus any objects and/or modifiers. For example:

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• I went to the movie alone.

• May studied in the library for her final exam.

Subordinate (or dependent) clauses include sentence-like patterns in terms of including subjects and verbs, but they cannot stand alone as complete sentences. They can, however, function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. For example:

• I went to the movie alone because my friends were out of town.

• After May studied in the library for her final exam, she went home.

Classifying Sentences

Sentences can be classified by their structure or by their purpose.

Structural classifications for sentences include: simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.

A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no subordinate clauses. For example:

• I love chocolate cake with rainbow sprinkles.

• Without love, life would be empty.

- This sentence contains a subject (life), a verb (would be) and two types of modifiers (without love and empty).

A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no subordinate clauses. These clauses are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or both. For example:

• I love chocolate cake with rainbow sprinkles and I eat it all the time for breakfast.

• Together we stand, but united we fall.

A complex sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one subordinate clause. For example:

• While I love him dearly, I will get rid of my pterodactyl for the sake of the community.

• Those who eat chocolate cake will be happy.

- “who eat chocolate cake” is the subordinate clause in this sentence.

A compound-complex sentence (or complex-compound sentence) consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one subordinate clause. For example:

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• I love my pet pterodactyl, but since he’s been eating neighborhood cats, I will donate him to the city zoo.

• Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are.

- This sentence contains two independent clauses (one before and one after the comma) and each independent clause contains a subordinate clause (“what you eat” and “what you are”).

English sentences can also be classified based on their purpose:

A declarative sentence, or declaration, is the most common type of sentence. It commonly makes a statement. For example:

• I have to go to work.

• I love taking long walks in the park with my dog.

An interrogative sentence, or question, is commonly used to request information. For example:

• Do I have to go to work?

• Why has the sky suddenly turned green?

An exclamatory sentence, or exclamation, is a more emphatic form of statement expressing emotion. For example:

• I have to go to work!

• Get away from me!

An imperative sentence, or command, tells someone to do something (and may be considered both imperative and exclamatory).

• Go to work.

• Get away from me!

Sentences in English can also be classified as either major sentences or minor sentences:

A major sentence is a regular sentence with a subject and a predicate. For example:

• I have a ball.

• You are a real pain and I wish you would move to Alaska.

A minor sentence is an irregular type of sentence, which does not contain a finite verb. For example:

• Yes.

• Hello.

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• Wow!

• The more, the merrier.

Varying Sentence Lengths and Types in Prose

When writing for an academic or professional audience, choosing between simple, compound, and complex sentences and mixing them up throughout the material can help keep the reader interested. Varying the length of the sentences can also be a way to help keep the reader involved (Figure 5.8).

Reading material that uses the same types of sentences over and over can become tedious. For example:

The band marched along the street, and the director signaled for the drums to play. A red car stopped at the intersection, and the parents walked beside the band. The parents squirted water into the musicians’ mouths, and the trumpet players started to play. The band marched past the intersection, and the red car proceeded down the street.

If, instead of using the same sentence type repeatedly, the writer uses several different sentence types, the material can seem to flow more easily for the reader:

As the band marched along the street, the director signaled for the drums to play. A red car stopped at the intersection. While the

parents walked beside the band, they squirted water into the trumpet players’ mouths. The trumpet players started to play. The band marched past the intersection, and the red car proceeded down the street.

In this varied version, the first sentence is complex, and the second one is simple. The third is again complex while the fourth is simple. The fifth sentence is compound. In this way, the choppiness and repetitiveness of the original version is alleviated.

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Good writing should deploy a combination of different sentence lengths and styles. Familiarizing yourself with the various styles of sentences is a good way to add variation that will improve the flow and readability of your writing.

Figure 5.8 Like Knots, Good Writing Requires Different Lengths and Styles

Writing in Active Voice and Uses of Passive VoiceVoice is the relationship between the subject and the verb in a clause or the transfer of action.

KEY POINTS

• In an active-voice grammatical construction, the subject performs the action of the verb. The subject in this construction is known as an "agent." A clause with an active, transitive verb will be in the form of subject-verb-object.

• Most sentences are ultimately about action, yet many writers bury the action of their sentences in nouns, adjectives and other parts of speech. Try to use active voice unless there is a reason to use passive voice.

• Converting a clause from one grammatical voice to another does not necessarily change meaning of the clause, but it can alter its tone, emphasis and/or readability.

Active vs. Passive Voice Grammatical Constructions

In an active-voice grammatical construction, the subject performs the action of the verb. The subject in this construction is also known as an “agent.” A clause with an active, transitive verb will be in the form of subject-verb-object.

• The student finishes the exercise.

• Fred ate his sandwich.

In a passive-voice grammatical construction, the subject receives the action of the verb. The subject in this construction is also known as a “patient.”

• The exercise was finished by the student.

• The sandwich was eaten by Fred.

The tense and subject-verb agreement in the passive voice are always shown through the auxiliary verb “to be,” and the main verbs are always the past participles. In other words, passive voice = “to be” + past participle.

Many active-voice clauses can be passivized, or recast in the passive voice by making the object of the active clause the subject of the passive clause. The subject of the active-voice clause can be included in the passivized version through the use of a prepositional phrase.

• Active voice: The teacher sent the student to the principal’s office.

• Passive voice: The student was sent to the principal’s office by the teacher.

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Intransitive verbs (verbs that do not take direct objects) without prepositional phrases, however, cannot be passivized because there is no word available to become the subject of the sentence.

• Millions of people lived.

• We arrived yesterday.

Linking verbs (such as “to be” verbs) are intransitive verbs that can never be used in the passive voice. They do not show action, and are thus neither active nor passive. They are called neuter verbs.

• Shelly is asleep.

• The movie seemed really long.

Writing Active Sentences

Most sentences are ultimately about action, yet many writers bury the action of their sentences in nouns, adjectives, and other parts of speech. To emphasize the action in your sentences, consider the following guidelines:

1. Avoid sentences that use the verb "to be" or its variation (is, was, will be). The verb "to be" often describes what something is rather than what it does.

2. Avoid beginning sentences with “It is…” or “There are…”

3. Avoid sentences where the action is frozen in a word that ends with one of the following suffixes: -tion; -ment; -ing; -ion; -ance. These words petrify the action that should be in verbs by converting them into nouns.

4. Use the passive voice only when necessary. Active-voice grammatical constructions are often quicker and more direct than passive-voice constructions.

The active voice can also help eliminate the vagueness and ambiguity that the passive voice often evinces. Consider, for example, “the ball was hit” vs. “Linda hit the ball.” The use of active voice in the second example clarifies who committed the action.

Uses of the Passive Voice

Converting a clause from one grammatical voice to another does not necessarily change the meaning of the clause, but it can alter its tone, emphasis and/or readability. In some instances, however, the passive voice may be preferred to the active voice. The passive voice

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The majority of your sentences should have an active voice construction. However, there are also effective uses of the passive voice.

Figure 5.9 Knowing how the different uses of voice is as important in writing as in singing!

can emphasize an agent, a patient or an adverb, and can be used for narrative flow and continuity in conversations.

• “Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.” Here, the passive voice emphasizes “Shakespeare,” the most important part of the sentence.

• “Jamey was fascinated by Language Arts.” The passive-voice construction of this sentence emphasizes Jamey more effectively than the active-voice equivalent.

• “Smoking is strictly prohibited.” Because a passive verb consists of two words, an adverb (like strictly) is accentuated when placed between “to be” and the past participle.

The passive voice can also eliminate pronouns in formal or academic writing. Research studies, for example, are generally described in the passive voice insofar as an experiment should be the same no matter who performs it.

• Active voice: I found that the frog population decreased by 10% last year.

• Passive voice: It was found that the frog population decreased by 10% last year.

Passive-voice constructions that avoid indicating a particular agent are often referred to as being in the institutional passive voice.

• Active voice: The landlord expects the rent check on the first of the month.

• Institutional passive: The rent check is expected on the first of the month.

Sentences in the imperative mood can be rewritten in this way in order to make them more formal and/or less harsh.

• Active voice: Do not smoke.

• Passive voice: Smoking is prohibited.

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Using Subordination and CoordinationCoordination is a frequently occurring complex syntactic structure that links together two or more elements, known as conjuncts or conjoins.

KEY POINTS

• The presence of coordination is often signaled by the appearance of a coordinator (coordinating conjunction), e.g. and; or; but (in English).

• The words “and” and “or” are the most frequently occurring coordinators in English. Coordinators, like “but,” “as well as,” and “then,” occur less frequently, and have unique properties.

• Coordination is not limited to coordinating just constituents, but rather it is quite capable of coordinating non-constituent strings.

• There is a limitation on material that precedes the conjuncts of a coordinate structure that restricts the ensuing material.

• The dependent clause is called a “subordinate clause,” and the independent clause is called the "main clause" or matrix clause.

• Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by subordinators (subordinate conjunctions) such as: after; because; before; if; so that; that; when; while.

In English grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses. Conjunctions can be used to join different combinations of independent and subordinate clauses together in order to create sentences of varied styles and emphases.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that link two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as words, main clauses or sentences. Here are some examples of the most common coordinating conjunctions in English and their respective functions:

• “For” presents a reason:

- He is gambling with his health, for he has been smoking far too long.

• “And” presents non-contrasting items or ideas:

- They gamble and they smoke.

• “Nor” presents a non-contrasting negative idea:

- They neither gamble nor smoke.

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• “But” presents a contrast or exception:

- They gamble, but they don’t smoke.

• “Or” presents an alternative item or idea:

- Every day, they gamble or they smoke.

• “Yet” presents a contrast or exception:

- They gamble, yet they don’t smoke.

• “So” presents a consequence:

- He gambled well last night, so he smoked a cigar to celebrate.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs in order to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. There are six different pairs of correlative conjunctions: either; or; not only; but also; neither; n/or; both; and; whether; or; just as; and so. For example:

• You either do your work or prepare for a trip to the office.

• Not only is he handsome, but he is also brilliant.

• Neither the basketball team nor the football team is doing well.

• Both the cross-country team and the swimming team are doing well.

• Whether you stay or go is your decision.

• Just as many Americans love football, so many Canadians love ice hockey.

Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs (or adverbial conjunctions) express a relationship or transition between two independent clauses. Common conjunctive adverbs are: so; otherwise; also; consequently; for example; furthermore; however; in addition; in contrast; in fact; instead; likewise; moreover; nevertheless; otherwise; still; then; and therefore. For example:

• The CEO will be attending the lecture; accordingly, the vice president will be available for the luncheon at noon.

• Jaime wanted to see Billy Madison; however, Nick wanted to see Happy Gilmore.

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Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that conjoin an independent clause and a dependent clause. The most common subordinating conjunctions in the English language include: after; although; as; as far as; as if; as long as; as soon as; as though; because; before; if; in order that; since; so; than; though; unless; until; when; whenever; where; whereas; wherever; and while. For example:

• Joe went to the store because he needed some orange juice.

• After the movie is over, we can have dinner at my house.

Complementizers can be considered to be special subordinating conjunctions that introduce complement clauses. For example:

• I wonder whether he'll be late.

• I hope that he'll be on time.

Conjunction Punctuation Patterns to Remember

Compound sentences:

1. Independent clause, coordinating conjunction independent clause.

• Suzanne wanted me to babysit, but I already had plans.

2. Independent clause; independent clause.

• Suzanne wanted me to babysit; I already had plans.

3. Independent clause; conjunctive adverb, independent clause.

• Suzanne wanted me to babysit; however, I already had plans.

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The title contains an example of a correlative conjunction: “not only...but also.” A correlative conjunction is just one type of conjunction, which is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses. Conjunctions can assist in creating sentences of various styles and emphases.

Figure 5.10 Not only is the Sphinx in the picture, but the Pyramids are also in the picture.

Complex sentences:

1. Independent clause subordinate clause.

• I could not babysit for Suzanne because I already had plans.

2. Subordinate clause, independent clause.

• Because I already had plans, I could not babysit for Suzanne.

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Using ParallelismParallelism requires that similar ideas be presented in similar form and that elements that are similar in function appear in similar form.

KEY POINTS

• Parallelism is a balance of two or more similar words, phrases, or clauses.

• Parallelism may also be known as parallel structure or parallel construction.

• Parallel markers are words that link or contrast items and that force those items to be parallel. The most important parallel markers are the three common conjunctions: and, but, and or.

• Parallel clauses should start with the same word.

• Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also; either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction.

• When making comparisons, the things you compare should be couched in parallel structures whenever that is possible and appropriate.

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Parallelism in a sentence requires that similar ideas and elements be presented in similar forms (Figure 5.11). Parallelism is an important principle of both grammar and style; it helps promote balance, emphasis, clarity, and readability. How do you know if particular parts of a sentence need to be parallel to each other? Often, we know by spotting words that link or contrast items, such as and, or, and but.

Examples of Parallelism

Here are a few examples of parallelism:

• Nonparallel: Students spend their time going to classes, studying, working, and they wish they had time for a social life.

• Parallel: Students spend their time going to classes, studying, working, and wishing for a social life.

• Nonparallel: By the end of the quarter they're exhausted, irritable, but have learned a lot.

• Parallel: By the end of the quarter they're exhausted, irritable, but smarter.

• Nonparallel: High-school students hope for short school days, or four-day weeks would be great, too.

• Parallel: High-school students hope for short school days or four-day weeks.

Parallelism requires that an article (a, an, or the) or a preposition applying to all members of a series must either appear before the

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The title sentence is a non-parallel statement. Parallelism in a sentence requires that similar ideas and elements be presented in similar forms. Therefore, the parallel form of the title would be: “Students spend their time going to classes, studying, working, and wishing for a social life.” Parallelism helps promote balance, emphasis, clarity, and readability.

Figure 5.11 Students spend their time going to classes, studying, working, and they wish they had time for a social life.

first item only or be repeated before each item. Here are a few examples of the rule in action:

• Nonparallel: We can pay with a mark, a yen, buck, or pound.

• Parallel: We can pay with a mark, a yen, a buck, or a pound.

• Nonparallel: I went to the store on Monday, Wednesday, and on Friday.

• Parallel: I went to the store on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday.

Some words require that certain prepositions precede them. When such words appear in parallel structure, it is important to include all of the appropriate prepositions, since the first one may not apply to the whole series of items. Here are a few examples of the rule in action:

• Nonparallel: His speech was marked by disagreement and scorn for his opponent’s position.

• Parallel: His speech was marked by disagreement with and scorn for his opponent's position.

• Nonparallel: This is a time not for words but action.

• Parallel: This is a time not for words but for action.

Sentences with correlative expressions (both / and; not / but; not only / but also; either / or; first, second, third) should employ parallel structure as well. Simple rewriting can often remedy errors in these types of sentences. Here are a few examples of the rule in action:

• Nonparallel: Either you must grant her request or incur her ill will.

• Parallel: You must either grant her request or incur her ill will.

• Nonparallel: My objections are first, the injustice of the measure, and second, that it is unconstitutional.

• Parallel: My objections are first, that the measure is unjust, and second, that it is unconstitutional.

In some instances, you must figure out which grammatical structures are logically parallel before making them structurally parallel. Here is an example:

• Correct: Sal applied himself in his new job, arriving early every day, skipping lunch regularly, and leaving late every night.

In the sentence above, the -ing participle phrases (arriving early every day, skipping lunch regularly, and leaving late every night) are parallel. The main clause – applied himself in his new job – is not parallel to these participle phrases. This is correct because the main

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verb is applied, and the -ing phrases provide additional information about how Sal applied himself. It would distort the meaning to change the sentence to this superficially parallel version:

• Incorrect: Sal applied himself in his new job, arrived early every day, skipped lunch regularly, and left late every night.

This version gives all the activities equal emphasis, instead of making the last three activities subordinate to the main activity (applied himself in his new job).

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Avoiding Sexist LanguageGender neutrality in language minimizes assumptions about the gender or sex of people referred to in writing or speech.

KEY POINTS

• Gender neutrality in English aims to minimize assumptions about the gender or biological sex of people referred to in speech.

• Proponents of gender-neutral language argue that the use of gender-specific language often implies male superiority or reflects an unequal state of society.

• Proponents of gender-neutral language claim that linguistic clarity, as well as equality, would be better served by having "man" refer unambiguously to males, and "human" to all persons.

• Proposed alternatives to the generic “he” include “he or she,” “s/he” or the use of “they” in the singular.

• In some cases, when writing or speaking about a person whose gender is unknown, ambiguous or unimportant, gender-neutral language may be achieved by using gender-inclusive, gender-neutral or epicene words in place of gender-specific ones.

• Gender-neutral language may also be achieved by parallel usage of existing gender-specific terms.

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The purpose of gender neutrality in writing is to minimize assumptions about the gender or sex of people referenced within a work.

Proponents of gender-inclusive language argue that gender-specific language often implies male superiority or reflects an unequal state of society. According to The Handbook of English Linguistics, generic masculine pronouns and gender-specific job titles serve as examples “where English linguistic convention has historically treated men as prototypical of the human species.” Words referring to women often devolve in meaning, and frequently take on sexual overtones. In other words, the use of masculine pronouns when referring to antecedents of mixed or indeterminate gender – while sometimes called “traditional,” – is ultimately linguistically problematic.

In most cases of writing or speaking about a person whose gender is unknown, ambiguous or irrelevant, gender-neutral language may be achieved through the use of gender-inclusive, gender-neutral or epicene words (having characteristics of both sexes) in place of gender-specific ones. If no gender-inclusive terms exist, new ones may be coined. It is also important to consider parallel usage of existing gender-specific terms. Some specific guidelines include the following:

1. When possible and contextually appropriate, use nouns and pronouns that are gender-neutral rather than gender-specific ().

• Instead of: waitress; businessman; workman; mailman

• Use: server; businessperson; worker; mail carrier

• Instead of: mankind; man-made; man hours; man-sized job

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Avoid using gender specific pronouns such as he, him or men, when the subject is not gender-specific. Instead, either try to use gender-neutral pronouns such as “they,” or inclusive terms like “s/he” or “him/her.”

Figure 5.12 Avoid using sexist language

• Use: humankind; synthetic; working hours; large job

2. When referring to people in general, use plural pronouns, “s/he,” “he or she,” or “he or she” instead of gender-linked pronouns.

• Instead of: Our home electronics cater to the affluent shopper. She looks for premium products and appreciates a stylish design.

• Use: Our home electronics cater to affluent shoppers. They look for premium products and appreciate a stylish design.

• Instead of: Before a new business-owner files tax returns, he should seek advice from a certified public accountant.

• Use: Before a new business-owner files tax returns, she or he should seek advice from a certified public accountant.Refer to individual men and women in a parallel manner.

• Instead of: Mr. Sundquist and Anna represented us at the trade fair.

• Use: Mr. Sundquist and Ms. Tokagawa represented us at the trade fair

• Instead of: They are now man and wife.

• Use: They are now husband and wife.

• Instead of: Men should proceed to the left, ladies to the right.

• Use: Men should proceed to the left, women to the right.

3. When in doubt, use gender-neutral salutations.

• Instead of: Dear Sir; Dear Gentlemen

• Use: Dear Personnel Department; Dear Switzer Plastics Corporation; Dear Director of Research

4. Unless otherwise specified by the woman to whom you’re referring, defer to the title “Ms.” rather than “Mrs.” or “Miss.”

Additional Resources

Many editing houses, corporations, and government bodies have official policies favoring in-house use of gender-neutral language. In some cases, laws exist to enforce the use of gender-neutral language in certain situations, such as job advertisements. Different authorities have presented guidelines on when and how to use gender-neutral, or “non-sexist” language. Several are listed below:

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• The “Publication Manual” of the American Psychological Association has an oft-cited section on “Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language.”

• American Philosophical Association — published 1986

• The Guardian — see section “gender issues”

• Avoiding Heterosexual Bias in Language, published by the Committee on Lesbian and Gay Concerns, American Psychological Association.

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Managing MoodGrammatical mood is a verb feature that allows speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying.

KEY POINTS

• Grammatical mood is a verb feature that allows speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying.

• In English, the indicative mood, or evidential mood, is used for factual statements, positive beliefs, and questions.

• The subjunctive mood discusses imaginary or hypothetical events and situations, expresses opinions or emotions, or makes polite requests.

• The conditional mood is used to speak of an event whose realization is dependent upon another condition, particularly, but not exclusively, in conditional sentences.

• The imperative mood expresses direct commands, prohibitions, and requests.

• English has five moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive, infinitive, and potential.

Grammatical Mood Defined

Grammatical mood is the use of verb inflections that allow speakers and writers to express their attitudes toward what they are

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saying (for example, whether it is intended as a statement of fact, of desire, or of command). In English, there are generally thought to be up to five expressible grammatical moods, those being the indicative, the imperative, the subjunctive, the infinitive, and the potential. English also expresses conditionality, but not with a mood (that is, not inflectionally). Rather, conditionality is expressed periphrastically using the modal auxiliary verb would.

Other languages work with additional and different grammatical moods, but for the sake of concision, we’ll focus on those relevant to English.

The Indicative Mood

In English, the indicative mood, or evidential mood, is the most commonly used mood. It is used to express factual statements, positive beliefs, and questions. Here are a few examples of the indicative mood:

• I write clearly when I’ve had a good night’s sleep.

• She will leave for New York tomorrow morning.

• Who are you?

The Imperative Mood

The imperative mood expresses direct commands, prohibitions, and requests (Figure 5.13). In other words, it is used to tell someone to do something without argument. In English, the bare verb stem is used to form the imperative. The second person is implied by the imperative except when first-person plural is specified. Examples of the imperative mood include:

• Paul, do your homework now.

• Let’s go.

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The title is an example of the imperative mood, which expresses direct commands, prohibitions, and requests. The imperative mood is one type of grammatical mood.

Figure 5.13 Let's go.

• Don’t leave your bag there.

In English, the imperative is also sometimes used to form a conditional sentence, as in this instance:

• Go eastwards a mile, and you'll see it. (This sentence means the same as, “If you go eastwards a mile, you will see it.”)

The Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive mood, sometimes called the conjunctive mood, has several uses in dependent clauses, though its use in modern English is somewhat uncommon. It is used for discussing imaginary or hypothetical events and situations, expressing opinions or emotions, or making polite requests. Here are a few examples of the subjunctive mood:

• I suggest that Paul eat an apple.

• I suggest that Paul should eat an apple.

• It is important that volunteer work be done in today’s society.

The Infinitive Mood

The infinitive mood expresses being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number. Here are a few examples of the infinitive mood:

• To err is human.

• “To die, to sleep; To sleep, perchance to dream!” (from Shakespeare’s Hamlet)

The Potential Mood

The potential mood is a mood of probability indicating that, in the opinion of the speaker, the action or occurrence is considered likely. In English, it is formed by means of the auxiliaries may, can, ought, and must. Here are a few examples of the potential mood:

• She may go to the store this afternoon.

• I can let the dogs out tonight.

Conditionality

The conditional mood is used to speak of an event whose realization is dependent upon another condition. In modern English, this type of modality is expressed with the form would + infinitive, (e.g., I would buy), and thus is a mood only in the broad sense and not in the more common narrow sense of the term “mood.” Thus, the conditional version of John eats if he is hungry is: John would eat if he were hungry.

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Controlling Wordiness and Writing Concisely

Using Appropriate Language

Choosing Precise Wording

Using the Dictionary and Thesaurus Effectively

Section 3

Word Choice

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Controlling Wordiness and Writing ConciselyThe longer and more complicated a sentence gets, the harder it is for a reader to interpret that sentence. Keep it short whenever possible!

KEY POINTS

• Making your writing concise increases clarity, which makes it more likely that your reader will understand the argument you are presenting.

• Concision makes writing more forceful, memorable and persuasive.

• Using fewer words requires editing, and can be challenging to master!

Simplifying Sentences

While varying sentence lengths and types of sentences can help to break up otherwise tedious prose blocks, it is important to keep in mind that, the longer and more complicated a sentence gets, the more difficult it can be for a reader to interpret that sentence. For example:

“While Fred understood that his pterodactyl, Bill, was making life in the community difficult, particularly for the neighborhood cats, which were disappearing one-by-one, usually in the afternoons, he was loathe to give up his beloved dinosaur because since he had found him as an egg in the back of the local grocery store; Bill had proved invaluable as a companion for Fred.”

In cases such as this, it’s often a good idea to break things up into shorter, more easily digestible sentences to improve readability and clarity:

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Though the title communicates the information, it does so in a way that deploys an excessive amount of words. A simplified version of the sentence is: “The workroom is too small for this equipment.” Look for places in your own writing to remove excessive and unnecessary words in order to make your writing more concise and efficient. Your readers will appreciate it!

Figure 5.14 The physical size of the workroom is too small to accommodate this equipment.

“Fred understood that his pterodactyl, Bill, was making life in the community difficult. The neighborhood cats were disappearing one-by-one, usually in the afternoons. Still, Fred was loathe to give up his beloved dinosaur. Since Fred had found Bill as an egg in the back of the local grocery store, Bill had proved invaluable as a companion for Fred.”

Students often make the mistake of using more words to show understanding or expertise in their writing. Instructors and other readers easily see through this, and usually just want you to get your point across! Always consider your reader, and make your writing easy for them to grasp. Consider the following guidelines for revision:

1. Eliminate unnecessary words. Look for places where you can convey your meaning more directly. By removing unnecessary words, sentences can retain their clarity while becoming more emphatic. For example:

• Original: The physical size of the workroom is too small to accommodate this equipment.

• Revised: The workroom is too small for this equipment.

• Also, try to avoid redundant phrasings, such as: Absolutely essential, my personal opinion, basic fundamentals, past

memories, each and every, small in size, first and foremost, an example to illustrate or very unique.

2. Place modifiers next to the words they modify. If you don't keep related words together, your sentence may say something different from what you mean. For example:

• Original: A large number of un-deposited checks were found in the file cabinets, which were worth over $41,000.

• Revised: A large number of un-deposited checks, which were worth over $41,000, were found in the file cabinets.

3. Combine short sentences. Often, combining two or more short sentences makes reading easier by reducing the total number of words and helping the reader see the relationships between the points.

• Original: Water quality in Fairfield declined in March. This decline occurred because of the heavy rainfall that month. All the extra water overloaded Tomlin County's water treatment plant.

• Revised: Water quality in Fairfield declined in March because heavy rainfalls overloaded Tomlin County’s water treatment plant.

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Additional examples:

• Original: According to optimal quality-control practices in manufacturing any product, it is important that every component part that is constituent of the product be examined and checked individually after being received from its supplier or other source but before the final, finished product is assembled. (45 words)

• Revised: Effective quality control requires that every component be checked individually before the final product is assembled. (16 words)

• Original: Over the most recent monthly period, there has been a large increase in the number of complaints that customers have made about service that has been slow. (27 words)

• Revised: Last month, many more customers complained about slow service. (9 words)

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Using Appropriate LanguageThe goal of academic writing is to present and articulate an argument to your readers.

KEY POINTS

• Avoid writing that is pretentious and jargon heavy.

• Therefore, in your own writing, strive for clarity by using appropriate and concise language. This will make your overall argument much clearer for your reader.

• Longer words and sentences may confuse your readers, or can make the writing sound arrogant.

Based on the kind of language that readers encounter in a given piece of writing, they will draw conclusions about the writer that can enhance or distract from the persuasiveness of the argument. The ability to craft and control language is essential to writing effectively. Effective language matches the reader’s sense of what is appropriate for a given topic. Given that readers of academic papers expect a more formal level of interaction with a topic than do readers of popular writing, a certain level of technical prose is expected. Nonetheless, one should avoid unnecessarily complicated language, jargon, and clichés. It is important to remember that complicated ideas can be expressed clearly.

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The Use of Simple Language

The goal of academic writing is to present and articulate an argument. While utilizing a large vocabulary can be helpful in terms of explaining complicated ideas in different ways, one does not want to complicate the language of a text. While contractions and colloquial words and phrases often make writing sound informal, the use of shorter words does not necessarily indicate an informal style. In fact, many writers prefer simpler language as it can help to clearly

convey difficult ideas or concepts. Longer words and sentences may

confuse your readers, or can make the writing sound arrogant. Here is an example:

• Overly complicated: The process of narrativization makes present, within a realm of the imaginary, a social and historical awareness that is unavailable within in simple, material facticity (Figure 5.15).

• Simplified: Narratives demonstrate something about the world from which they emerge, despite being classified as fiction.

It’s a good rule of thumb, even in academic work, to err on the side of simplicity rather than linguistic ornamentation. In other words, avoid using needlessly inflated words that bloat your prose and distract your readers from your central argument.

Jargon

Jargon is specialized or technical language specific to a field or concentration. In some situations, specialized terms can help you communicate effectively. They convey precise, technical meanings economically insofar as many specialized terms have no exact equivalent in everyday speech. They can also help you establish credibility in your field by showing that you are familiar with established conventions.

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The title demonstrates an example of a sentence that is pretentious and jargon heavy. Avoiding pretentious writing and defining any technical jargon will endow your writing with a clarity that readers will appreciate.

Figure 5.15 The process of narrativization makes present, within a realm of the imaginary, a social and historical awareness that is unavailable within in simple, material facticity.

Still, while there are situations were the use of jargon is appropriate, in academic writing, it’s best to consider the audience first. Here is an example:

• Jargon-heavy: The patient lost distal and radia CMS on lower left foot after the direct impact trauma, but otherwise is AOx4.

• Simplified: The patient lost feeling in her foot after the car accident, but everything else was fine with her.

The first sentence is filled with medical jargon that makes the situation very clear and would provide precise information for someone trained in the medical field. However, those not in the field would likely have a difficult time understanding the information. The second sentence, on the other hand, while less medically precise, would be accessible to almost all readers. Determining which linguistic route to take depends on the expectations of the audience.

Defining Terms for New Audiences

Sometimes you may need to use specialized terms even though some people in your audience may not understand them. For instance, you may be writing to a group of readers that includes people in your field and others outside of it, or you may be explaining an entirely new subject to your readers. In such cases,

there are several ways to define the terms for readers who are not familiar with them:

1. Give a synonym.

• On a boat, a rope or cord is called a line.

2. Give a description.

• The exit gate consists of tow arms that hold a jug while it is being painted and then allow it to proceed down the production line.

3. Make an analogy.

• An atom is like a miniature solar system in which the nucleus is the sun and the electrons are the planets that revolve around it.

4. Give a classical definition, wherein you define the term by naming some familiar group of things to which it belongs and then identifying the key distinction between the object being defined and the other members of the group.

• A burrow is a hole in the ground dug by an animal for shelter or habitation.

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Clichés

While clichés have a certain usefulness insofar as they can quickly communicate familiar ideas, they are rarely appropriate in academic writing. The reason we want to avoid using clichés in academic writing is that they tend to be ambiguous and can come off as overly colloquial and informal.

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Choosing Precise WordingYou can increase the clarity of your writing by using concrete, specific words rather than abstract, general ones.

KEY POINTS

• When possible, replace vague generalizations with more specific and concise wording. This clarifies for your reader the topic of your paper and the conceptual plane of your ensuing argument.

• You can increase the clarity, and therefore the usability, of your writing by using concrete, specific words rather than abstract, general ones.

• Your objective when choosing words is not to avoid abstract general words altogether, but rather to avoid using them when your readers will want more specific ones.

• By using the special terms of your field accurately, you show your fellow specialists that you are adept in it. Alternatively, you should avoid using technical terms your readers won't understand.

• If you must use them, explain unfamiliar terms by giving a synonym, a description, an analogy or a definition.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

• Be especially sensitive to the connotation and register of words. Connotation is the extended or suggested meaning of a word has beyond its literal meaning. Register identifies a word's association with certain situations or contexts.

Through precise word selection, you can increase the clarity of your argument by enabling your readers to grasp your intended meaning quickly and accurately. At the same time, it is important to keep in mind that your word choices affect a reader’s attitudes toward your presentation and your subject matter. Therefore, you also need to choose words that will increase your writing’s persuasiveness.

General vs. Specific Words

Almost anything can be described either in relatively abstract, general words or in relatively concrete, specific ones. You can increase the clarity of your writing by choosing the latter route. Concrete words help your readers understand precisely what you mean as you present your argument. For example:

• General: Her employer produces consumer goods.

• Specific: Her employer manufactures cell phones.

Of course, abstract and general terms do have other important purposes. In scientific, technical and other specialized fields, for instance, writers often need to make general points, describe general circumstances or provide general guidance for action. Your objective when choosing words is not to avoid abstract, general words altogether, but rather to avoid using them when you could be more specific.

Word Accuracy

Regardless of the types of words you use, you must use all words accurately. Usage errors can distract readers from your argument. How can you

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The title demonstrates the necessity of choosing words carefully when writing. As it stands, the sales team is only “constantly trying,” and it is unclear whether they are successful or not. Being aware of the connotation and register of the words you choose in your writing will help increase your writing's clarity.

Figure 5.16 Our sales team is constantly trying to locate new markets for our various product lines.

ensure that words are used accurately? Unfortunately, there is no easy way, but there are some solutions. You can revisit a text that uses the word and observe how the word is used in that instance. Additionally, you can consult a dictionary whenever you are uncertain. Be especially careful when using words that are not yet part of your usual vocabulary.

Connotation and Register

In addition to the literal or dictionary meanings of a word, writers must also consider the associations that readers might make to the word, such as its connotation and register.

Connotation is the extended or suggested meaning of a word beyond its literal meaning. For example, flatfoot and police detective are often thought to be synonyms, but they connote very different things: flatfoot suggests a plodding, perhaps not very bright cop, while police detective suggests a trained professional.

Verbs, too, have connotations. For instance, to suggest that someone has overlooked a key fact is not the same as to insinuate it. To devote your time to working on a client’s project is not the same as to spend your time on it. The connotations of your words can shape your audience’s perception of your argument. For example:

• Our sales team is constantly trying to locate new markets for our various product lines.

• Our sales team is constantly driving to locate new markets for our various product lines.

Register refers to a word’s association with certain situations or contexts. In a restaurant ad, for example, we might expect to see the claim that it offers amazingly delicious food. However, we would not expect to see a research company boast in a proposal for a government contract that it is capable of conducting amazingly good studies. Here, the word “amazingly” is in the register of consumer advertising, but not in the register of research proposals.

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Using the Dictionary and Thesaurus EffectivelyBefore concluding a written assignment, it is a good idea to use your word processor’s spell-check feature.

KEY POINTS

• Spell-check features on word processors are helpful tools, but will not catch all mistakes.

• Thesauruses can help add variety to dry prose by helping you identify words with similar meanings.

• Always use a dictionary to confirm the meaning of any word about which you are unsure.

Before concluding any written assignment, it’s a good idea to utilize your word processor’s spell-check feature in order to identify any possibly overlooked spelling mistakes in your work. Although automated spell-checking is helpful, a real-live human can often catch errors that computer software will miss because people are more capable of understanding words in context. For example, spell-check software can't always tell whether “their,” “there” or “they’re” fits in a specific sentence, but a person always can. Before concluding your written work, therefore, it is helpful to print it out

and read it over, which will give you a new perspective on your writing.

Always use a dictionary to confirm the meaning of any word about which you are unsure. Although the built-in dictionary that comes with your word processor is a great time-saver, it falls far short of college-edition dictionaries, or the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). If spell-check suggests bizarre corrections for one of your words, it could be that you know a word it does not. When in doubt, always check a dictionary to be sure.

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When in doubt about how a word is spelled, it is always a good idea to check a dictionary. The spell check feature of word processors won't always catch every spelling mistake, so be sure to look over your writing carefully for misspelled or incorrectly used words.

Figure 5.17 Use a dictionary and avoid looking foolish!

If it feels like you keep repeating a word throughout your writing, pull out a thesaurus for ideas on different, more creative choices. A thesaurus can add some color and depth to a piece that may otherwise seem repetitive and mundane. However, make sure that the word you substitute has the intended meaning you wish to convey. Thesauruses provide words with similar meanings, not identical meanings. If you are unsure about the precise meaning of a replacement word, look up the new word in a dictionary.

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Using Commas Properly

Avoiding Unnecessary Commas

Eliminating Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

Writing with Semicolons and Colons

Using Apostrophes

Using Quotation Marks

Incorporating Dashes and Parentheses

Choosing Correct End Punctuation

Knowing When to Use Hyphens

Section 4

Punctuation

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Using Commas ProperlyThe comma is a punctuation mark that indicates a slight break or pause, suggesting a transition of some kind.

KEY POINTS

• The comma is used to separate the parts of a sentence that are so nearly connected in sense, as to be only one degree removed from that close connection which admits no point.

• When the infinitive follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, it is generally set off by the comma along with its adjuncts.

• Participles (with their adjuncts) should be set off by commas when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood.

• When adverbs break the connection of a simple sentence, or when don’t have a close dependence on some particular word in the context, they should be set off with a comma along with their adjuncts.

• When conjunctions are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, they are generally set off by the comma.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

• When prepositions and their objects break the connection of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, they are generally set off by the comma.

Using Commas Properly

The comma is a punctuation mark that indicates a slight break or pause, suggesting a transition of some kind. It serves many different grammatical functions, providing clarity for readers and a sense of direction for sentences. While there are many different ways to use commas in writing, most comma usages fall into three situations. If you know the basic rules for these three cases, you should be set for comma usage.

1. Put a comma before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) that separates two independent clauses.

2. Put a comma after introductory words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence.

3. Use commas to set off elements that interrupt or add information in a sentence.

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Commas are primarily used to join, emphasize, contain, and separate.

Used with coordinating conjunctions, commas allow writers to express how their complete thoughts relate to one another (as expressed in independent clauses). They also help avoid the choppy, flat style that comes when every thought stands as a separate sentence. Place a comma before the conjunction when joining two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction. However, the comma may be omitted if the second independent clause is very short, typically when the second independent clause is an imperative. In the following sentences, it is sometimes considered acceptable to omit the comma, even though the second clause is independent:

A dependent clause is a group of words that can’t stand on its own as a sentence because it does not express a complete thought. When a dependent clause comes before an independent clause, use a comma after the dependent clause. Complete the sentence without a comma when the dependent clause comes after the independent clause.

Writers often want to give readers some information that limits or otherwise modifies the information in a main thought that follows. To do so, writers can use introductory words or introductory phrases. These introductory elements can be one word or several, so long as they do not contain a finite verb. Common introductory elements include transition words and statements about time, place, manner, or condition. Introductory words are set off with a comma when the introductory word is a participle, it modifies the entire clause following it, or when not including it might lead to misreading. Introductory phrases are set off with a comma for good reason.

Commas are always used to set off certain adverbs, including the following:

• however,

• in fact,

• therefore,

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The title contains a verb in its introductory phrase, which warrants a comma before the final clause. The comma serves a variety of grammatical functions, including to indicate pauses or set off introductory phrases, as in the title example.

Figure 5.18 Calling in sick for work, Beth hoped her boss would not suspect anything.

• nevertheless,

• moreover,

• furthermore,

• still.

If one of these adverbs appears in the middle of a sentence, within one clause, it should be set off by a pair of commas. If one of these adverbs appears in the middle of a sentence, between clauses, it should be preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. Using commas to offset particular adverbs is optional:

• then,

• so,

• yet,

• instead,

• too.

Another type of relationship between ideas that writers signal to readers with a comma is that of accumulation. Occurring at the end of a sentence, cumulative clauses hook up to a main clause and add further information. Using cumulative clauses is a good way to avoid having to use two sentences when one will do.

Modifiers are words or clauses that are added to sentences in order to make their meanings more specific. Some modifiers are nonrestrictive, meaning that you can drop them out of a sentence without changing the meaning. Restrictive modifiers, on the other hand, are ones whose use is essential to the overall meaning of the sentence. In other words, if you dropped a restrictive modifier from a sentence, the meaning of the sentence would change.

Much like a nonrestrictive modifier, a parenthetical expression provides extra information or commentary in the middle of a sentence. A parenthetical element, however, often sounds more obviously interjectory. A pair of commas should be used to set off a parenthetical element.

Use a comma between adjectives used to describe a noun if they work independently. Adjectives that work independently to modify a noun are called coordinate adjectives. If, however, the adjectives work together to modify a noun, there should not be a comma between them.

One way to tell if adjectives are working independently or together is to reverse their order. If reversing the order does not change the meaning, they are coordinate adjectives and should be separated by a comma. If reversing the order makes no sense, the adjectives are working together and should not be separated by a comma.

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Use a comma to set off the attribution (who said or wrote a quotation) from the quotation itself. The comma should go inside the quotation marks, even if the quotation is a complete sentence and would, if appearing on its own, take a period at the end. A pair of commas should be used to set off the attribution when it appears in the middle of the quotation. Do not replace a question mark or exclamation point in a quotation with a comma. Do not use a comma to set off quotations that occupy a subordinate position in a sentence, often signaled by the words that, which, or because.

When there are three or more items in a list, commas should be used between the items. The final comma, the one before and or or, is known as the Oxford or Harvard comma, or serial comma. The serial comma should always be used where it is needed to avoid confusion; for example, where one or more items in the list already include the word and. Otherwise, depending on the chosen style guide, it is considered optional. Still, not using the serial comma is relatively uncommon in American English, except in newspapers and magazines.

Source: https://www.boundless.com/writing/style-structure-grammar/punctuation/using-commas-properly/CC-BY-SA

Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

Avoiding Unnecessary CommasOftentimes, avoiding unnecessary commas is simply a matter of understanding the rules of correct comma usage.

KEY POINTS

• Adjectives (with their adjuncts) should be set off with a comma when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause.

• The infinitive, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma.

• Participles (with their adjuncts) should be set off by commas when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause or when they relate to something understood.

Avoiding Unnecessary Commas

Oftentimes, avoiding unnecessary commas is simply a matter of understanding the rules of correct comma usage. By knowing when to use commas, you’ll also know when not to use them.

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Still, it’s never a bad idea to keep a few rules of thumb in mind:

• Do not use a comma to separate a subject from its predicate. For example:

- Incorrect: Registering for our fitness programs before September 15, will save you thirty percent of the membership cost.

- Correct: Registering for our fitness programs before September 15 will save you thirty percent of the membership cost.

• Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its object or its subject complement, or a preposition from its object. For example:

- Incorrect: I hope to mail to you before Christmas, a current snapshot of my dog Benji.

- Incorrect: She traveled around the world with, a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent and a camera.

- Correct: I hope to mail to you before Christmas a current snapshot of my dog Benji.

- Correct: She traveled around the world with a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent and a camera.

• Do not misuse a comma after a coordinating conjunction. For example:

- Incorrect: Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof but, the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention.

- Correct: Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof, but the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention.

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The title contains an incorrect use of a comma. You want to avoid using a comma to separate a verb from its object or its subject complement, or a preposition from its object. The correct usage of the comma would make the title read: “She traveled around the world with a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup, and a camera.” Learning how to correctly use commas in your writing will improve the quality and flow of your prose.

Figure 5.19 She traveled around the world with, a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup, and a camera.

• Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements. For example:

- Incorrect: The fingers, on his left hand, are bigger than those on his right.

- Correct: The fingers on his left hand are bigger than those on his right.

• Do not use a comma before a dependent clause that comes after an independent clause. This is called a disruptive comma. For example:

- Incorrect: The future of print newspapers appears uncertain, due to rising production costs and the increasing popularity of online news sources.

- Incorrect: Some argue that print newspapers will never disappear, because of their many readers.

- Correct: The future of print newspapers appears uncertain due to rising production costs and the increasing popularity of online news sources.

- Correct: Some argue that print newspapers will never disappear because of their many readers.

• Do not use a comma after a short introductory prepositional phrase unless you mean to add extra emphasis. For example:

- Correct: Before the parade I want to eat pizza.

• Do not use a comma between adjectives that work together to modify a noun. For example:

• Incorrect: I like your dancing, cat t-shirt.

• Correct: I like your dancing cat t-shirt.

• Do not use a comma to set off quotations that occupy a subordinate position in a sentence, often signaled by the words “that,” “which” or “because.” For example:

- Correct: Participating in a democracy takes a strong stomach because “it requires a certain relish for confusion,” writes Molly Ivins.

• Do not use a comma when naming only a month and a year. For example:

- Correct: The next presidential election will take place in November 2008.

• Do not use a comma in street addresses or page numbers, or before a ZIP or other postal code. For example:

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- Correct: The table appears on page 1397.

- Correct: The fire occurred at 5509 Avenida Valencia.

- Correct: Write to the program advisor at 645 5th Street, Minerton, Indiana 55555.

Source: https://www.boundless.com/writing/style-structure-grammar/punctuation/avoiding-unnecessary-commas/CC-BY-SA

Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

Eliminating Comma Splices and Fused SentencesEstablishing the proper relationship between two independent clauses is essential.

KEY POINTS

• It is important to establish the proper relationship between two independent clauses, either by using coordinating conjunctions or by separating them into two different sentences. In this way, you can avoid comma splices and run-on sentences in your own writing.

• A “comma splice” is two independent clauses joined by a comma rather than an acceptable form of punctuation.

• Comma splice sentences may have a coordinating conjunction separating them, but without the comma needed to accompany it when separating two independent clauses.

• There are many ways to fix a comma splice, such as inserting a period in order to make two sentences, or using a semicolon between the two clauses (if they are of equal importance).

A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses (or in other words, two clauses that each express a complete thought and could stand on its own as a full sentence) are joined only by a comma instead of an acceptable form of punctuation, such as a

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comma with a coordinating conjunction, a period or a semicolon. For example:

• Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids, there is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.

• Many daycares have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious, enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

• Daycare providers often undergo extreme pressure to accept a sick child “just this once,” the parent has no other care options and cannot miss work.

Once you discover where the two independent clauses are “spliced,” you can then decide how best to separate the clauses:

• You can make two complete sentences by inserting a period. This is the strongest level of separation.

• You can use a semicolon between the two clauses if they are of equal importance; this allows your reader to consider the points together.

• You can use a semicolon with a transition word to indicate a specific relation between the two clauses; however, you should use this sparingly.

• You can use a coordinating conjunction following the comma, and this also will indicate a relationship.

Or, you can add a word to one clause to make it dependent. For example:

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The title contains a comma splice, which is where a comma is used to bind together two independent clauses. One way to fix a comma splice is to use a semi-colon, or separate the two independent clauses into two sentences: Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids. There is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.

Figure 5.20 Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids, there is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.

• Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids. There is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.

• Many daycares have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious; however, enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

• Many daycares have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious, but enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

• Daycare providers often undergo extreme pressure to accept a sick child “just this once” because the parent has no other care options and cannot miss work.

While a run-on sentence, also known as a fused sentence, might just seem like a type of sentence that goes on and on without a clear point, the technical grammatical definition of a run-on sentence is one that fuses, or “runs together,” two or more independent clauses without using punctuation to separate them. Run-on sentences may not have any punctuation separating them, or they may have a coordinating conjunction between them, but without the comma that needs to accompany the coordinating conjunction in order to separate two independent clauses. For example:

• Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids there is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.

• Many daycare centers have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious but enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

• Daycare providers often undergo extreme pressure to accept a sick child “just this once” the parent has no other care options and cannot miss work.

If you locate a run-on sentence and find where the two independent clauses “collide,” you can then decide how best to separate the clauses. Fixing run-on sentences is very similar to fixing comma splices:

• You can make two complete sentences by inserting a period. This is the strongest level of separation.

• You can use a semicolon between the two clauses if they are of equal importance; this allows your reader to consider the points together.

• You can use a semicolon with a transition word to indicate a specific relation between the two clauses; however, you should use this sparingly.

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• You can use a coordinating conjunction and a comma, and this also will indicate a relationship.

Or, you can add a word to one clause to make it dependent. For example:

• Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids. There is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.

• Many daycares have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious; however, enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

• Many daycares have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious, but enforcing those rules can be very difficult.

• Daycare providers often undergo extreme pressure to accept a sick child “just this once” because the parent has no other care options and cannot miss work.

Source: https://www.boundless.com/writing/style-structure-grammar/punctuation/eliminating-comma-splices-and-fused-sentences/CC-BY-SA

Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

Writing with Semicolons and ColonsThe semicolon relates to the listing of items or the linking of related clauses, while the colon is used to explain or start an enumeration.

KEY POINTS

• While terminal marks (i.e., full stops, exclamation marks, and question marks) mark the end of a sentence, the semicolon and colon - along with the comma - are normally sentence internal, making them secondary boundary marks.

• The semicolon is often used between items in a series containing internal punctuation, between closely related independent clauses not conjoined with a coordinating conjunction, or between independent clauses linked with a transitional phrase or a conjunctive adverb.

• The most common use of the colon is to inform the reader that what follows the colon proves, explains, or lists elements of what preceded it.

• Luca Serianni, an Italian scholar who helped to define and develop the colon as a punctuation mark, identified four punctuational modes for it: syntactical-deductive, syntactical-descriptive, appositive, and segmental.

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While terminal marks (i.e., full stops, exclamation marks, and question marks) mark the end of a sentence, the semicolon and colon - along with the comma - are normally sentence internal, making them secondary boundary marks.

The semicolon

The modern uses of the semicolon (Figure 5.21) relate either to the listing of items or to the linking of related clauses. Applications of the semicolon in English include:

Between items in a series or listing containing internal punctuation, especially parenthetic commas, where the semicolons function as serial commas. This is its most frequent use.

• The people present were Jamie, who came from New Zealand; John, the milkman's son; and George, a gaunt kind of man.

• Several fast food restaurants can be found within the following cities: London, England; Paris, France; Dublin, Ireland; Madrid, Spain.

• Here are three examples of familiar sequences: one, two, and three; a, b, and c; first, second, and third.

• She stood at the edge, deciding her course of action; changed her mind and walked home.

Between closely related independent clauses not conjoined with a coordinating conjunction:

• I went to the basketball court; I was told it was closed for cleaning.

• I told Kate she's running for the hills; I wonder if she knew I was joking.

• Nothing is true; everything is permitted.

• At the mall I bought four things; my sister bought only two things.

Between independent clauses linked with a transitional phrase or a conjunctive adverb. This is the least common use, and is mostly confined to academic texts.

• Everyone knows he is guilty of committing the crime; of course, it will never be proven.

• Of these patients, 6 were not enrolled; thus, the cohort was composed of 141 patients at baseline.

Semicolons are followed by a lower case letter, unless that letter is the first letter of a proper noun like the word I or Paris. Modern style guides recommend no space before them, and one space after.

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The semicolon is often used between items in a series or listing containing internal punctuation.

Figure 5.21 Semicolon

Modern style guides also typically recommend placing semicolons outside of ending quotation marks -- although this was not always the case. For example, the first edition of the Chicago Manual of Style (1906) recommended placing the semicolon inside ending quotation marks.

The colon

The colon (Figure 5.22) is a punctuation mark used to explain or start an enumeration. A colon is also used with ratios, titles and subtitles of books, city and publisher in biographies, hours and minutes, and formal letters.

The most common use of the colon is to inform the reader that what follows the colon proves, explains, or lists elements of what preceded it. Luca Serianni, an Italian scholar who helped to define and develop the colon as a punctuation mark, identified four punctuational modes for it: syntactical-deductive, syntactical-descriptive, appositive, and segmental.

Syntactical-deductive: The colon introduces the logical consequence, or effect, of a fact stated before.

• There was only one possible explanation: the train had never arrived.

Syntactical-descriptive: In this sense the colon introduces a description; in particular, it makes explicit the elements of a set.

• I have three sisters: Daphne, Rose, and Suzanne.

Similarly, the syntactical-descriptive colon separates chapter and verse numbers in citations of passages in widely-studied texts, such as epic poetry, religious texts, and the plays of William Shakespeare.

• John 3:14-16 or John III:14-16 refers to verses 14 to 16 of chapter three of the Gospel of John.

Syntactical-descriptive colons may separate the numbers indicating hours, minutes, and seconds in abbreviated measures of time.

• The concert begins at 21:45.

• The rocket launched at 09:15:05.

Appositive: The colon introduces an appositive independent clause. In other words, the sentence after the colon is in apposition to the one before the colon.

• Bob could not speak: He was drunk.

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A colon is used to explain or start an enumeration.

Figure 5.22 Colon

An appositive colon also separates the subtitle of a work from its principal title.

• Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope

Segmental: Like a dash or quotation mark, a segmental colon introduces speech.

• Benjamin Franklin proclaimed the virtue of frugality: A penny saved is a penny earned.

This form is still used in written dialogues, such as in a play. The colon indicates that the words following an individual's name are spoken by that individual.

• Patient: Doctor, I feel like a pair of curtains. Doctor: Pull yourself together!

In American English, many writers capitalize the word following a colon if it begins an independent clause, i.e. a clause that could stand as a complete sentence. The Chicago Manual of Style, however, requires capitalization only when the colon introduces a direct quotation or two or more complete sentences.

Source: https://www.boundless.com/writing/style-structure-grammar/punctuation/writing-with-semicolons-and-colons/CC-BY-SA

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Using ApostrophesApostrophes are used to indicate possession by adding an ‘s at the end of a singular possessive subject.

KEY POINTS

• The apostrophe usually denotes either the possessive case of a noun, or the elision of one or more letters of a word.

• Apostrophes can be used to form contractions, where they indicate the omission of characters.

• Apostrophes can also be used to form plurals for abbreviations, acronyms and symbols where only adding s as opposed to ‘s would make sentences ambiguous.

Apostrophes are used to indicate possession, contractions and (occasionally) certain plurals.

Possession

To indicate possession, add an ’s when the noun does not end in an s, or when the noun is singular and ends in ans. For example:

• The car belonging to the driver = the driver’s car.

• The sandwich belonging to Lois = Lois’s sandwich.

• Hats belonging to children = children’s hats.

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However, if the pronunciation of such a word would be awkward with the s added, it is acceptable not to use the extra s. For example:

• The house belonging to Ms. Peters = Ms. Peters’ house. (Even though Ms. Peters is singular.)

Plural nouns already ending in s only take an apostrophe after the pre-existing s when the possessive is formed. For example:

• Three cats’ toys are on the floor.

• The two ships’ lights shone through the dark.

In sentences featuring joint possession, add the possessive apostrophe to the last noun. If, however, a noun phrase indicates individual possession, add the apostrophe to both nouns. For example:

• Joint: I went to see Anthony and Anders’ new apartment. (The apartment belongs to both Anthony and Anders.)

• Individual: Anders’ and Anthony’s senses of style were quite different. (Anders and Anthony have individual senses of style.)

In cases of compound nouns composed of more than one word, place the apostrophe after the last noun. For example:

• Dashes: My brother-in-law’s house is down the block.

• Multi-word: The Minister for Justice’s intervention was required.

• Plural compound: All my brothers-in-law’s wives are my sisters.

If the word or compound includes, or even ends with, a punctuation mark, an apostrophe and an s are still added in the usual way. For example:

• Westward Ho!’s railway station

• Louis C.K.’s HBO special

If an original apostrophe, or apostrophe with s, is already included at the end of a noun, it is left by itself to perform double duty. For example:

• Our employees are better paid than McDonald’s employees.

• Standard & Poor’s indexes are widely used.

(The fixed forms of McDonald’s and Standard & Poor’s already include possessive apostrophes.)

Do not use apostrophes in nouns that are not possessive. For example:

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• Incorrect: Some parents are more strict than mine.

Do not use an apostrophe in possessive pronouns such as its, whose, his, hers, ours, yours and theirs. For example:

• Incorrect: That parakeet is her’s.

Contraction

In addition to serving as a marker for possession, apostrophes are also commonly used to indicate omitted characters, normally letters. For example:

• Can’t, from cannot

• It’s, from it has or it is

• You’ve, from you have

• Gov’t, from government

• ‘70s, from 1970s

• ‘bout, from about

• Friday’s, from Friday is

An apostrophe is also sometimes used when the normal form of an inflection seems awkward or unnatural. For example:

• KO’d rather than KOed (where KO is used as a verb meaning “to knock out”)

Plurals

Apostrophes are sometimes used to form plurals for abbreviations, acronyms and symbols where adding just s as opposed to ‘s may leave things ambiguous or inelegant. For example:

• All of your sentences end with a’s. (As opposed to “All of your sentences end with as.”)

• She tops all of her i’s with hearts. (As opposed to “She tops all of her is with hearts.”)

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The title contains an example of how to use apostrophes. Apostrophes are commonly used to indicate possession, but are also used to create a conjunction.

Figure 5.23 That is the driver’s car.

In such cases where there is little or no chance of misreading, however, it is generally preferable to omit the apostrophe. For example:

• He scored three 8s for his floor routine. (As opposed to “three 8’s.”)

• She holds two MAs, both from Princeton. (As oppose to “two MA’s.”)

Source: https://www.boundless.com/writing/style-structure-grammar/punctuation/using-apostrophes/CC-BY-SA

Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

Using Quotation MarksQuotation marks are used to mark direct quotations, direct speech, or a literal title or name.

KEY POINTS

• Quotation points distinguish words that are exhibited as those of another author or speaker.

• A quotation within a quotation is usually marked with single points, which, when both are employed, are placed within the others.

• You can set off words by using quotation marks instead of italicizing or underlining them.

Quotation marks are used to mark direct quotations, direct speech, or a literal title or name. Quotation marks can also be used to indicate a use-mention distinction or unusual usage of a word or phrase, and are sometimes used to express irony.

Single or double quotation marks denote either speech or a quotation. Double quotes are preferred in the United States. Regardless, the style of opening and closing quotation marks must be matched. For example:

• ‘Good morning, Frank,’ said Hal.

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• “Good morning, Frank,” said Hal.

For speech within speech, the other style is used as inner quotation marks. For example:

• ‘Hal said, “Good morning, Dave,”’ recalled Frank.

• “Hal said, ‘Good morning, Dave,’” recalled Frank.

In most cases, quotations that span multiple paragraphs should be set as block quotations, and thus do not require quotation marks. When quotation marks are used for multiple-paragraph quotations, the convention in English is to give opening quotation marks to the first and each subsequent paragraph, using closing quotation marks only for the final paragraph of the quotation.

When quoted text is interrupted, such as with the phrase he said, a closing quotation mark is used before the interruption, and an opening quotation mark is used after the interruption. Commas are also often used before and after the interruption. For example:

• “Hal,” noted Frank, “said that everything was going extremely well.”

Quotation marks are not used for paraphrased speech because a paraphrase is not a direct quote.

Titles and Nicknames

As a rule, a whole publication would be italicized, whereas the titles of minor works within, or a subset of, the larger publication (such as poems, short stories, named chapters, journal papers, newspaper articles, TV show episodes, editorial sections of websites, etc.) would be written with quotation marks. For example:

• Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet

• Dahl’s “Taste” in Completely Unexpected Tales

• Arthur C. Clarke’s “The Sentinel”

• The first chapter of 3001: The Final Odyssey is “Comet Cowboy”

• “Extra-Terrestrial Relays,” Wireless World, October 1945

• David Bowie’s song “Space Oddity” from the album David Bowie

Quotation marks can also offset a nickname embedded in an actual name, or a false or ironic title embedded in an actual title. For example:

• Nat “King” Cole

• Miles “Tails” Prower

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• Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson

Use-Mention Distinctions

Either quotation marks or italic type can emphasize that an instance of a word refers to the word itself rather than its associated concept.

• Cheese is derived from milk.

• “Cheese” is derived from a word in Old English.

• Cheese has calcium, protein, and phosphorus.

• Cheese has three e’s.

A three-way distinction is occasionally made between normal use of a word (no quotation marks), the concept behind the word (single quotation marks), and the word itself (double quotation marks):

• When discussing ‘use,’ use “use.”

Unusual Usage

Quotes indicating verbal irony or other special use are sometimes called scare quotes. For example:

• He shared his “wisdom” with me.

• The lunch lady plopped a glob of “food” onto my tray.

Quotation marks are also sometimes used to indicate that the writer realizes that a word is not being used in its current commonly accepted sense. In these cases, the quotation marks can call attention to a neologism, slang, or special terminology, or they can indicate words or phrases that are descriptive but unusual, colloquial, folksy, startling, humorous, metaphoric, or contain a pun. For example:

• Crystals somehow “know” which shape to grow into.

• I hope your diving meet goes “swimmingly!”

Using quotation marks in these ways should be avoided when possible.

Punctuation

In English, question marks and exclamation marks are placed inside or outside quoted material depending on whether they apply to the whole sentence or just the quoted portion, but colons and semicolons are always placed outside.

• Did he say, “Good morning, Dave”? (Figure 5.24)

• No, he said, “Where are you, Dave?”

• “Is there anybody out there?” she asked into the void.

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• There are three major definitions of the word “gender”: vernacular, sociological, and linguistic.

In American English, commas and periods are usually placed inside quotation marks, except in the few cases where they may cause serious ambiguity. For example:

• “Carefree,” in general, means “free from care or anxiety.”

• The name of the song was “Gloria,” which many already knew.

• She said she felt “free from care and anxiety.”

• “Today,” said the Prime Minister, “I feel free from care and anxiety.”

• To use a long dash on Wikipedia, type in “—”.

Source: https://www.boundless.com/writing/style-structure-grammar/punctuation/using-quotation-marks/CC-BY-SA

Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

The title contains an example of when to use quotation marks. Quotation marks can be used to indicate the exact words of a speaker, as in the title. Quotation marks can be used in other ways as well, such as to denote the title of a short work or indicate a nick name.

Figure 5.24 Did he say, “Good morning, Dave”?

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Incorporating Dashes and ParenthesesThe dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or emphatic pause, of variable length.

KEY POINTS

• A dash is sometimes a sign of faltering, or of the irregular stops of one who hesitates in speaking.

• A sudden interruption, break or transition should be marked with the dash.

• To indicate a considerable pause greater than the structure or the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed.

• Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite, are generally treated as errors in punctuation.

Much like parentheses, dashes are often used to mark interruptions within sentences. They can also be used to demarcate value ranges, attributive compounds and relationships between words. There are two kinds of dashes: em dashes (“—”) and shorter en dashes (“–”). The em dash often demarcates a break of thought or some similar interpolation stronger than the interpolation

demarcated by parentheses. Em dashes are also sometimes used to summarize or define prior information in a sentence. For example:

• When he saw his brother—his long-lost brother who disappeared six years prior—he broke down in tears.

• Today is St. Patrick’s Day—a day for family.

Em dashes are also used to indicate that a sentence is unfinished because the speaker has been interrupted. Similarly, it can be used in place of an ellipsis to illustrate an instance where a sentence is stopped short because the speaker is too emotional to continue. For example:

• “Hey,”said Paul, “where do you think—”

• “Leave me alone!” Bernadette interrupted.

• “I never understood why you—” Cesar trailed off.

In these cases, it is acceptable to either use em dashes without spacing or en dashes with spacing, but not em dashes with spacing. For example:

• Three unlikely companions—a canary, an eagle and a parrot—flew by my window in an odd flock.

• Three unlikely companions – a canary, an eagle and a parrot – flew by my window in an odd flock.

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En dashes should be used to demonstrate definite ranges of values. In these cases, there should not be any spaces around the en dash. For example:

• June–July 1967

• 1:00–2:00 p.m.

• For ages 3–5

• pp. 38–55

• President Jimmy Carter (1977–1981)

The en dash can also be used to contrast values, or illustrate a relationship between two things. For example:

• Radical–Unionist coalition

• New York–London flight

• Mother–daughter relationship

• The Supreme Court voted 5–4 to uphold the decision

• The McCain–Feingold bill

Additionally, the en dash is normally used in place of a hyphen in compound (phrasal) attributives in which one or both elements is itself a compound. This is especially true when the compound

element is an open compound, meaning it is not hyphenated itself. For example:

• Post–Vietnam War generation

• Academy Award–winning film

• Non–New York natives

• Community college–state university credit transfer

An exception to the use of en dashes is made, however, when prefixing an already hyphenated compound. In these cases, using an en dash is is distracting and should be avoided. For example:

• Non-English-speaking air traffic controllers

• Semi-labor-intensive industries

Parentheses

Parentheses can be used to enclose an interjected, explanatory or qualifying remark, or a mathematical quantity. The words placed inside the brackets are not necessary to the completion of the interrupted sentence. For example:

• Ahab (who we all know is nuts) said we should keep searching.

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• Be sure to call me (extension 2104) when you get this message.

• Copyright affects how much regulation is enforced (Lessig 2004).

• Sen. John McCain (R., Arizona) ran for president in 2008.

Any punctuation inside parentheses or other brackets is independent of the rest of the text. When several sentences of supplemental material are used in parentheses, the final full stop would be within the parentheses. For example:

• Mrs. Pennyfarthing (What? Yes, that was her name!) was my landlady.

Parentheses may also be nested (generally with one set (such as this) inside another set). This is not commonly in formal writing (though sometimes other brackets [especially square brackets] will be used for one or more inner set of parentheses [in other words, secondary {or even tertiary} phrases can be found within the main parenthetical sentence]).

Square brackets are mainly used to enclose explanatory or missing material, which is usually added by someone other than the original author. This is especially prevalent in quoted text.6 For example:

“I appreciate it [the honor], but I must refuse.”

“The future of psionics [see definition] is in doubt.”

Square brackets may also be used to modify quotations. For example, if referring to someone's statement “I hate to do laundry,” one could write: He “hate[s] to do laundry.”

The bracketed expression “[sic]” is used after a quote or reprinted text to indicate the passage appears exactly as in the original source; a bracketed ellipsis “[...]” is often used to indicate deleted material; bracketed comments indicate when original text has been modified for

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The title contains an example of em dash usage, which demarcates a break of thought or some similar interpolation stronger than the interpolation demarcated by parentheses. Dashes are commonly used to indicate an unexpected or emphatic pause, but dashes serve other specific functions as well.

Figure 5.25 When he saw his brother—his long-lost brother who disappeared six years prior—he broke down in tears.

clarity. For example:

“I'd like to thank [several unimportant people] and my parentals [sic] for their love, tolerance [...] and assistance [emphasis added]”.

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Choosing Correct End PunctuationTerminal punctuation identifies the end of a sentence, and most commonly includes periods, question marks, and exclamation points.

KEY POINTS

• Terminal punctuation, also referred to as end marks or stops, refers to the punctuation marks used to identify the end of a portion of text. Most commonly these include periods, question marks, and exclamation points.

• A period (also known as a full stop in British English) is the punctuation mark placed to indicate the end of sentences.

• The question mark replaces the full stop (period) at the end of an interrogative sentence.

• The exclamation mark is used to indicate strong feelings, high volume (shouting), an exclamation (such as "Wow!", "Boo!"), an imperative ("Stop!"), or astonishment.

• In "aesthetic" or "typesetters" punctuation, full stops are included inside quotation marks even if they are not part of the quoted sentence. In "logical punctuation", sentence structure stays true to the punctuation used by the original source.

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Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud. Terminal punctuation, also referred to as end marks or stops, refers to the punctuation marks used to identify the end of a portion of text. Most commonly these include periods, question marks, and exclamation points.

A period (also known as a full stop in British English) is the punctuation mark placed to indicate the end of sentences. The question mark (?; also known as an interrogation point, interrogation mark, or question point) is a punctuation mark that replaces the full stop (period) at the end of an interrogative sentence. The question mark is not used for indirect questions. The question mark character is also often used in place of missing or unknown data.

The exclamation mark or exclamation point is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high volume (shouting), and often marks the end of a sentence. A sentence ending in an exclamation mark may be an exclamation (such as "Wow!", "Boo!"), or an imperative ("Stop!"), or may indicate astonishment: "They were the footprints of a gigantic duck!" Exclamation marks are occasionally placed mid-sentence with a function similar to a comma, for dramatic effect, although

this usage is obsolescent: "On the walk, oh! there was a frightful noise."

Informally, exclamation marks may be repeated for additional emphasis ("That's great!!!"), but this practice is generally considered unacceptable in formal prose. The exclamation mark is sometimes used in conjunction with the question mark. This can be in protest or astonishment ("Out of all places, the squatter-camp?!"); again, this is informal. Overly frequent use of the exclamation mark is generally considered poor writing, for it distracts the reader and devalues the mark's significance (Figure 5.26).

The traditional convention in American English and in Canada is "aesthetic" punctuation, or "typesetters' quotation", where full stops are included inside quotation marks even if they are not part of the quoted sentence. The style used in the UK, and to a lesser extent in the U.S., is "logical punctuation", which stays true to the punctuation used by the original source, placing commas and full stops inside or outside quotation marks depending on where they were placed in the material that is being quoted.

• "Carefree" means "free from care or anxiety." (aesthetic or typesetters' style)

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• "Carefree" means "free from care or anxiety". (logical style used here because the full stop was not part of the original quotation)

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Knowing When to Use HyphensHyphens are used to link certain prefixes to their main word and to link related terms in compound modifiers.

KEY POINTS

• Hyphens are never inserted into proper-name-based compounds.

• Many compounds that are hyphenated when used attributively are not hyphenated when used predicatively.

• A hyphen is not used after a standard “-ly” adverb unless it’s part of a larger compound.

• A hyphen is normally used when the adverb “well” precedes an attributively used participle. It can even be used when preceding a predicatively used participle, if “well” alters the sense of the adjective, or is needed to clarify it.

• A hanging hyphen is used when two compound modifiers are separated.

• Values and units used as compound modifiers are hyphenated only when the unit is given as a whole word.

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Hyphens (“-”) indicate conjunction. They have three main purposes: to distinguish between homographs, to link certain prefixes with their main word and to link related terms in compound modifiers.

Distinguishing Homographs

Homographs are words that are spelled the same, but mean different things and may be pronounced differently. In cases of potential ambiguity, hyphens can be used to distinguish between homographs. For example:

• Re-dress (to dress again)

• Redress (to remedy or set right)

Prefixes

Hyphens can be used to link prefixes such as non-, sub-, and super- to their main words. While it is possible (especially in American English) to attach these prefixes without hyphens, it is generally helpful to hyphenate when the letters brought into contact are the

same. It’s also helpful when the letters are vowels, when a word is uncommon or when the word could easily be misread. For example:

• Non-negotiable

• Sub-basement

• Pre-industrial

Compound Modifiers

Hyphens can also be used to link related terms in compound modifiers, specifically compound attributives, which are modifiers of a noun that occur within the noun phrase.

Hyphens can ease the reading process. A

The title contains an example of how to use hyphens. Hyphens indicate conjunction. There are three main uses for hyphens: to distinguish between homographs, to link certain prefixes with their main word and to link related terms in compound modifiers.

Figure 5.27 They cut down a three-hundred-year-old tree.

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Figure 5.26 Cut out all those exclamation points.The famous author F. Scott Fitzgerald was not a fan of exclamation points; in his words:"Cut out all those exclamation points. An exclamation point is like laughing at your own jokes."

hyphen is particularly useful in long noun phrases when the readership includes non-experts. However, hyphens are never inserted into the middle of proper-name-based compounds. For example:

• Face-to-face discussion

• Hard-boiled egg

• Gas-phase reaction dynamics

Hyphens can help clarify potentially troublesome phrasings. For example:

• Little-celebrated paintings (underappreciated paintings)

• Little celebrated paintings (small, appreciated paintings)

• Government-monitoring program (a program that monitors the government)

Many compounds that are hyphenated when used attributively (before the noun they qualify) are not hyphenated when used predicatively (separated from the noun). The hyphen may also be used in the predicative case when there would otherwise be a lack of clarity. For example:

• A light-blue handbag sat on the bench.

• The handbag was light blue.

• Hand-fed turkeys roamed the farm.

Hyphens are not used after standard “-ly” adverbs unless part of a larger compound. A few words ending in -ly function as both adjectives and adverbs. Some such dual-purpose words (like early, only, northerly) are not standard -ly adverbs, since they are not formed by the addition of -ly to an independent current-English adjective. These need careful treatment. For example:

• A newly available home

• A wholly owned subsidiary

• A slowly-but-surely strategy

Hyphens are normally used when the adverb “well” precedes an attributively used participle. It can even be used when preceding a predicatively used participle, if “well” alters the sense of the adjective, or is needed to clarify it. For example:

• A well-meaning gesture

• A very well managed firm (since well itself is modified)

• The gesture was well-meaning.

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In some cases, the independent status of the linked elements requires an en dash instead of a hyphen. For example:

• Diode–transistor logic

• Father–son bonding

A hanging hyphen is used when two compound modifiers are separated. For example:

• Two- and three-digit numbers

• A ten-car or -truck convoy

• Sloping right- or leftward

Values and units (including fractions) used as compound modifiers are hyphenated only where the unit is given as a whole word. For example:

• 30-year-old man

• One-half dose

• — 9 mm gap

Multi-word hyphenated modifiers can often be avoided simply by rewording them. This is particularly important when converted units are involved. For example:

• A four-CD soundtrack album

• A soundtrack album of four CDs

• The 6-hectare-limit (14.8-acre-limit) rule

A hyphen is never followed or preceded by a space, except when hanging or when used to display parts of words independently, such as the prefix “sub-” and the suffix “-less.”

Some strong examples of semantic changes caused by the placement of hyphens:

• Disease-causing poor nutrition, meaning poor nutrition that causes disease.

• Disease causing poor nutrition, meaning a disease that causes poor nutrition.

• A man-eating shark is a shark that eats humans.

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Mastering Commonly Misspelled Words

Using Capital Letters

Abbreviating Words and Using Acronyms

Inserting Numbers into Text

Marking Words with Italics

Section 5

Mechanics

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Mastering Commonly Misspelled WordsIt is important to be familiar with spelling errors that writers frequently make.

KEY POINTS

• It is important to be familiar with spelling errors that writers frequently make.

• Knowing why these mistakes occur will help you become more aware of spelling errors in your writing.

• Word editing documents usually have a spell check application, but you should still be careful to check that your words have been changed correctly. Otherwise, you may still have errors in your writing.

Misspelling a word is a mistake that reflects very poorly on a writer. It suggests one of two things: either the writer does not care enough about his work to proofread it, or he does not know his topic well enough to spell words related to it properly. Either way, spelling errors will make a reader less likely to trust a writer’s authority.

The best way to ensure that a paper has no spelling errors is to look for them while proofreading. Being familiar with the most common

errors that people make helps a writer immensely during the writing and proofreading process.

Sometimes, a writer just doesn’t know how to spell the word he or she wants to use. This may be because the word is technical jargon or comes from a language other than the writer’s own. Other times, it may be a proper name that the writer has not encountered before. Any time you want to use a word but are unsure of how to spell it, avoid guessing. Instead, check a dictionary or other reference work to find its proper spelling.

English phonetics can be tricky, so you should never assume that a word’s spelling is obvious based on how it sounds. Here are some common phonetic irregularities:

• A word can sound like it could be spelled multiple ways. For example: “concede” and “conceed” are the same phonetically, but only “concede” is the proper spelling.

• A word has silent letters that the writer may forget to include. You cannot hear the “a” in “realize,” but you need it to spell the word correctly.

• A word has double letters that the writer may forget to include. “Accommodate,” for example, is frequently misspelled as “acommodate” or “accomodate.”

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• The writer may use double letters when they are not needed. The word “amend” has only one “m,” but it is commonly misspelled with two.

Sometimes, words just aren’t spelled the way they sound. “Right,” for example, does not resemble its phonetic spelling whatsoever. Try to become familiar with words that have unusual or non-phonetic spellings so you can be on the lookout for them in your writing. But again, the best way to avoid these misspellings is to consult a dictionary whenever you’re unsure of the correct spelling.

“Bread” and “bred” sound the same, but they are spelled

differently, and mean completely different things. If you don’t know which homophone is the right one to use, look both up in the dictionary to see which meaning (and spelling) you want.

Most spelling errors are unintentional, and are caused by the writer accidentally typing the wrong thing. Common typos include:

• Omitting letters from a word (typing “brthday” instead of “birthday,” for example).

• Adding extra letters (typing “birthdayy”)

• Transposing two letters in a word (typing “brithday”)

• Spacing words improperly (such as “myb irthday” instead of “my birthday”)

The solution for preventing this is simple: proofread everything you write. Even if you think you know how to spell a word, go back and check that you typed it correctly. If you’re writing on a computer, you probably have a program that will alert you about any misspellings and typos. While such programs are very useful, you should never rely solely on them when proofreading. They will not notice, for instance, if you used the wrong homophone, and in some cases, they may not know the correct spelling of every word, particularly proper nouns. By all means, use spellcheck to help you proofread, but always review your paper by yourself as well.

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When unsure of how a word is spelled, look it up in a dictionary. Also, look out for homophones, or words that sound similar to other words but have different meanings.

Figure 5.28 Don’t lose your head over spelling!

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Using Capital LettersIn English grammar, words are usually capitalized for two reasons: It occurs in a certain grammatical context, or it's a proper noun.

KEY POINTS

• Most writers are familiar with the common rules of capitalization, such as always capitalizing “I,” but things can get tricky around proper nouns! It's important to be familiar with these rules.

• As a general rule, very specific nouns or nouns that refer only to one thing, be it a person, location, day, or work of art, use a capital letter in their title.

• Within titles, capitalization rules can get tricky. Generally, you should capitalize the first and major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs, movies, and other works.

In English grammar, the first letter of words is usually capitalized for one of two reasons: The word occurs in a certain grammatical context, or it is a proper noun. Within each of these categories, there are specific rules governing which word should be capitalized.

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Capitalizing Based on Grammatical Context

First person singular pronouns should be capitalized when you are using their subjective form (“I”). Contractions that use “I” are also capitalized. Other forms of the pronoun, such as “me” and “my,” are not normally capitalized.

You should capitalize the first letter of every sentence, regardless of what the word is. Also capitalize the first and major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs, movies, e.g.. This Side of Paradise or “The End of Apartheid in South Africa.”

Within titles, capitalization rules can get tricky. Generally, you should capitalize any nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and

subordinate conjunctions. Articles, conjunctions and prepositions are usually not capitalized. However, these are guidelines rather than hard-and-fast rules, and you will find instances where you may capitalize some of those words. If you are not sure which words of a title are capitalized, check how its author or creator capitalized the title and follow that example. If you have no such reference, make a choice and then be consistent with it. If you choose to capitalize one preposition in a title, for example, you should do the same with all the others (Figure 5.29).

Capitalization of Names

Proper nouns, including personal names, are almost always capitalized. If the name contains multiple words, it follows the rules for capitalizing titles. So “Robert the Bruce” capitalizes the name “Robert” and the noun “Bruce,” but not the word “the.” In a similar vein, familial words like “aunt” aren't capitalized unless they refer to a specific person, like "Aunt Julia."

The first line of a quote is always capitalized.

The names of months and days of the week are considered proper nouns, so they should be capitalized.

Brand names and trademarks are capitalized like proper nouns unless the company chooses to break normal capitalization rules. In that case, always follow the company’s chosen capitalization. The

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It’s important to keep your capitalization scheme consistent, and to only capitalize words when you need to. Examples of bad grammar abound.

Figure 5.29 Inconsistent Capitalization

first letters of eBay and iPod, for example, should never be capitalized.

Adjectives derived from proper nouns are also capitalized. The exception is when those adjectives are derived from names of fictional characters. You would capitalize “Shakespearean” but not “quixotic” because Shakespeare is considered a historical person while Don Quixote is a figure from literature.

Names of languages are capitalized even if they do not derive from a place name. “Tagalog” should be capitalized just like “French” or “Japanese” would be.

Seasons, like fall and spring, are generally not capitalized, except when referring to a title, e.g. ,“The Winter Quarter of 2010.”

Lastly, it is standard practice to capitalize nouns and pronouns referring to a specific god, such as “the Lord.” This applies to all religious figures, such as Yahweh, Shiva, or Allah. If, however, you’re using a deity it in a non-specific context, like “monotheism is the belief in one god,” you don’t need to capitalize the word.

Geographical Terms

Capitalizing geographic terms can get complicated, since many combine proper names with nouns that would not normally be capitalized. There are many instances of variation, but there are some guidelines that are almost always followed.

In general, geographic names are capitalized if they are proper nouns rather than general terms.

In the name of a clearly defined region, all the words are capitalized, including cardinal directions. If a region is not well-defined, the proper name but not its directional adjective will be capitalized. The difference is usually determined by whether an area has set boundaries. South Carolina has demarcated borders, so “South” is capitalized. However, south Texas is an area of the state but not its own distinct region, so “south” is not capitalized.

Geographic features follow a similar rule. If the term is part of a place name, it should be capitalized. For instance, you should capitalize the word mountain in “the Appalachian Mountains” and

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Capital letters are sometimes incorrectly, as in this sign where they're used for emphasis.

Figure 5.30 Incorrect Use of Capital Letters

the word river in “the River Thames.” However, do not capitalize a generic term that follows a capitalized name. “Atlantic Ocean” is capitalized but not “Atlantic Ocean coastline,” since it refers to a general area, not a specific one.

This rule also applies to street names. Words like “avenue” and “boulevard” are capitalized only when they are included in a proper name. The same goes for the word “the” in place names.

The name of an area’s citizens is capitalized just like the name of the area is, as in “Texan” or “New Yorker.”

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Abbreviating Words and Using AcronymsAn abbreviation is the shortened form of a word or phrase.

KEY POINTS

• There are rules that explain how a writer may shorten a long word or phrase into an abbreviation or acronym.

• Following abbreviation and acronym rules ensures that the reader always understands what these abbreviations mean.

• Phrases like “lol” or “brb” are considered inappropriate for formal papers.

An abbreviation is the shortened form of a word or phrase. Most abbreviations are formed from a letter or group of letters taken from the original word. A subcategory of abbreviation, the acronym, is formed differently and has different usage conventions (which will be detailed later).

Abbreviations are rarely used to stand in for major concepts or terms in a paper. Instead, they are usually shortened forms of commonly used but relatively minor words, such as “km” for “kilometer” or “Dr.” for “doctor.” Most are common enough that a

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writer does not need to provide the reader with an expanded definition. If an abbreviation is not particularly well-known, consider whether you should use it or use the longer (but easier to understand) word.

Style Conventions for Abbreviations

Style guides may differ somewhat on how to punctuate abbreviations. Listed below are the most common guidelines, which cover most of the scenarios for using abbreviations. However, this is not a completely comprehensive list. If told to use a specific style manual, such as MLA or Turabian, be sure to check what it says about specific usage rules. And whatever style you decide to use,

remember to be consistent with how you use and punctuate abbreviations.

Abbreviations should be capitalized just like their expanded forms would be. If the original word or phrase is capitalized, then you should capitalize the abbreviation. If the original is lower case, then the abbreviation should be too. Abbreviations usually end with a period, particularly if they were formed by dropping the end of a word (the major exception being the use of acronyms). When a sentence ends with an abbreviation, use only one period for both the abbreviation and the sentence.

Acronyms

Acronyms are abbreviations formed from the initial components of a series of words. These components are usually individual letters, but some may use the first syllables of words.The main purpose of acronyms is to act as shorthand for longer terms, particularly those a writer wants to reference frequently. In the right circumstances, acronyms can make these terms more manageable for the writer to use and for the reader to understand.

While acronyms can be very useful, only some of them are considered appropriate for use in scholarly writing. In general, acronyms can be used to stand in for job titles (such as CEO), statistical categories (such as RBI) or the name of companies and

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The title contains an abbreviation, “Mt..” which abbreviates the word “Mountain.” There are various rules to follow when using abbreviations and acronyms.

Figure 5.31 In the morning, we set out to climb Mt. McKinley.

organizations (such as FBI). Other instances may arise depending on the type of paper you are writing – a scientific essay, for example, might have acronyms for the names of chemical compounds or scientific terms. In most cases, you will be able to judge whether or not an acronym is appropriate based on the context of what you are writing. The only category of acronym that you should never use is slang, especially terms derived from texting. Phrases like “lol” and “brb” may be fine in casual conversation, but would make a writer seem unprofessional in a serious paper. For all acronyms you choose to use, making sure that the reader knows what they mean is essential. The first time you use any acronym, make sure to note its expanded form as well.

Style Conventions for Acronyms

Most acronyms are written in all-uppercase with no punctuation between letters. This differs from abbreviations, which are normally written with periods in order to note the deleted parts of words. A small number of acronyms use slashes to show ellipsis, as in “w/o” for “without.” Spaces are not used between the different letters of acronyms. Apostrophes are generally not used to pluralize abbreviations. They are, however, used to form possessives.

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Inserting Numbers into TextWhether numbers should be written as words or numerals depends upon what kind of writing is being done.

KEY POINTS

• In academic writing, numbers of one or two words should be spelled out with letters.

• Numbers that are more than two words long should be written as numerals.

• The proper usage of numbers in technical writing varies considerably.

Rules for Writing Numbers

Grammatical rules for inserting numbers into text vary considerably. Whether numbers should be written out or written as numerals depends upon what kind of writing is being done.

In strictly academic writing, numbers of one or two words should be spelled out with letters. For example: ‘Anthony was able to bike five miles in less than an hour.’ Notice that ‘5’ is written out because it is one word. Another example: ‘Maria bought five bananas, two bunches of grapes, and six oranges for her fruit salad. She needed

twenty-one servings for the luncheon.’ Notice that each number is written out, including ‘21.’

Numbers that are more than two words long should be written as numerals. For example: ‘Our vacation to North Carolina ended up being 728 miles, as a round trip.’ In the case of years: ‘Tony was born in the fall of 1966.’

Also, the following numbers are written as numerals:

• Dates – December 7, 1941, 32 BC, AD 1066

• Addresses – 119 Lakewood Lane, 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue

• Percentages – 45 percent or 45%

• Fractions and Decimals – 1/3 and 0.25

• Scores – 20 to 13 or 15-18

• Statistics – average age 25

• Surveys – 2 out of 5

• Exact amounts of money – $861.34 or $0.67

• Divisions of books – volume 6 or chapter 5

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• Divisions of plays – act 2, scene 4

• Time of day – 12:00 AM or 4:35 PM

The proper usage of numbers in technical writing varies substantially. Typical rules to follow in technical writing include:

• Technical quantities of any amount are expressed in numerals (3 feet, 12 grams, et cetera).

• Nontechnical quantities of fewer than 10 are expressed in words (three people, six whales).

• Nontechnical quantities of 10 or more are expressed in numerals (300 people, 12 whales).

• Approximations are written out as letters (approximately ten thousand people).

• Round numbers over nine million are expressed in both words and numerals (14 million light-years).

• Decimals are expressed in numerals (3.14).

• Decimals of less than one should be preceded by a zero (0.146).

• Fractions are written out, unless they are linked to technical units (two-thirds of the members, 3 1/2 hp).

• The time of day is expressed in numerals if ‘AM’ or ‘PM’ is used; otherwise, it is written out as letters (6:10 AM, six o’clock).

• Page numbers and the titles of figures and tables are expressed in numerals.

• Back-to-back numbers are written using both words and numerals (six 3-inch screws).

• Numbers in legal contracts or in documents intended for international readers should be represented as both words and numerals (thirty-seven thousand dollars [$37,000]).

• Street addresses may require both words and numerals (3801 Fifteenth Street).

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When numbers are used in text, many basic formatting rules apply.

Figure 5.32 Numbers in the News

There are many special cases of writing numbers. A number at the beginning of a sentence should be spelled out as words. Within a sentence, the same unit of measurement should be expressed consistently in either numerals or words. In general, months should not be expressed in terms of numbers.

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Marking Words with ItalicsThere are a variety of technical and rhetorical uses for italicizing words.

KEY POINTS

• The following should be italicized: titles of art work, books, film, TV shows, name of ships, technical terms, and foreign words (Figure 5.33).

• Italicization can be used to add emphasis and draw the reader's attention to an important term.

• A writer can also italicize some part of a quote she would like to draw the reader's attention to, if she footnotes the italicized word or phrase with the phrase “emphasis added” or “emphasis my own” to show that she is the one placing the emphasis, not the speaker.

There are a variety of technical and rhetorical uses for italicizing words.

In writing, most titles should be denoted by using italics rather than quotes or bolding. The title or name of a book, play (with three acts or more), newspaper, journal, film, TV show, long poem, album, ship or aircraft should be italicized, though short poems, short stories, book chapters, and articles should not. Instead, the

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latter should be set off with quotation marks.

Foreign words and terms should be italicized. This would include words like cul de sac and Latin phrases commonly used in writing such as de facto or de jure.

Similarly, in order to denote the technical nature of a word, you may want to italicize it, which demonstrates to your reader that the term is important for your argument.

This can also be done in order to mark a word that is being defined in a sentence. For example, in the sentence, “An even number is one that is a multiple of two,” the italicization signals to the reader that this word is being defined.

Generally, italicizing a word is a way to indicate to your reader that the word is significant in some way. A similar strategy can be used when using quotations from another source. Within a specific quotation, you can italicize particular words that you want the reader to notice as they relate to the argument you are making in your writing. When you do this, however, it is important to add a footnote with the phrase “emphasis added” or "italics mine" which alerts your reader to the fact that you modified the quote.

Marking words with italics is a good strategy for alerting your reader to any technical terminology you may use and for adding emphasis in order to strengthen the presentation of your argument. However, writers should be careful not to overemphasize by using italics too often.

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Within the context of written English, Latin phrases are usually italicized

Figure 5.33 Children's Latin Text

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Making Sure Subject and Verbs Agree

Avoiding General Verb Problems

Choosing the Correct Pronoun and Noun Cases

Making Pronouns and Antecedents Agree

Using Relative Pronouns and Clauses

Using Adverbs and Adjectives

Section 6

Grammar

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Making Sure Subject and Verbs AgreeIt is important to make sure that verbs agree with their subjects in person and number.

KEY POINTS

• If a sentence’s subject is a singular noun, then the verb that describes the action should take the singular tense. If the subject is a plural noun, the verb should be plural.

• If there are two singular nouns in one subject, then the verb should be plural.

• To figure out which noun the verb should agree with, pair the sentence down to just the subject and verb, and see if that sounds right.

• When two nouns differing in number are joined by the word “or,” the verb should take the form of the noun closest to it.

Subject-verb agreement assures that verbs match their subjects in case and number. To assure this, writers need to consider whether the subject of her sentence is singular or plural, and whether the subject is first-person, second-person, or third-person. The writer then choses her verb accordingly.

For example:

Sentence: The player shoots the basketball.

• subject: player (single, third person)

• verb: shoots (single, third person)

Sentence: You should read this book.

• subject: you (single, second person)

• verb: read (single, second person)

Sentence: All of us went out to dinner.

• subject: All of us (plural, first person)

• verb: went (plural, first person)

Some nouns are mass or non-count nouns, meaning that they are neither singular nor plural. Mass nouns always take singular verbs, even if the noun represents an object that may be plural. For example:

Sentence: My baggage was left at the airport.

• subject: baggage (mass)

• verb: was left (single)

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Sentence: My bags were left at the airport.

• subject: bags (plural)

• verb: were left (plural)

Sentence: Poetry can be fun to read.

• subject: poetry (mass)

• verb: can be (single)

Sentence: These poems are fun to read.

• subject: poems (plural)

• verb: are (plural)

If a sentence has a compound subject, you should use a plural verb even if all the components of the subject are singular nouns. For example:

Incorrect sentence: My dog and my cat likes to be petted. Correct sentence: My dog and my cat like to be petted.

When two nouns differing in number are joined by the word “or,” the verb should take the form of the noun closest to it. For example:

Sentence: Most viewers of the painting assume that either the monkey’s antics or the handler’s chagrin causes the young men’s laughter.

“Chagrin” is closer to the verb than “antics,” so the verb “causes” takes the singular form. Note that this is the case specifically because of the word “or.” If the phrase was “the monkey’s antics and the handler’s chagrin,” it would be a compound subject and take the plural verb “cause.”

Avoiding Mistakes with Subject-Verb Agreement (Figure 5.34)

When you read the incorrect example about the dog and the cat, you probably knew without being told that it was wrong. That is because most of the time, writers use subject-verb agreement automatically. Most of us are so used to doing it that we do not

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Verbs should agree with their subjects in number

Figure 5.34 Regulations Prohibits

need to think about the rule in order to follow it. Nevertheless, you should still be aware of subject-verb agreement when editing your papers, especially if they have gone through many revisions. This is one thing writers may forget to edit.

Most mistakes happen because writers are not paying careful attention to the number and case of their subjects. Complex sentences are especially dangerous, particularly if the subject is close to another noun or if it is separated from the verb by other clauses.

Incorrect sentence: Characteristics of the middle child includes an equitable temperament and high self-esteem. Correct sentence: Characteristics of the middle child include an equitable temperament and high self-esteem.

Incorrect sentence: The Anderson kids, as well as their mother, likes visiting New York. Correct sentence: The Anderson kids, as well as their mother, like visiting New York.

To figure out which noun the verb should agree with, begin by crossing out any prepositional phrases or other descriptive clauses. Then focus on the verb and ask yourself “Who or what is performing this action?” Pair it down to just a subject and verb, and see if that sounds right. In the first example above, it would not make sense to say “Characteristics includes.” It makes much more sense to say “Characteristics include...” “Characteristics,” thus, is the noun that should agree with the sentence's verb.

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The title demonstrates agreement between a third person singular subject and the corresponding verb. Making verbs agree with their subjects is an important component of clear writing.

Figure 5.35 The player shoots the basketball.

Avoiding General Verb ProblemsVerbs are crucial to expressing a sentence’s meaning, so it is important to use them correctly. Several factors affect verb usage.

KEY POINTS

• There are grammatical rules that describe how to use verbs properly.

• Following grammatical rules will make sentences easier for readers to understand.

• There is not always one way to change a word to change its tense. For example, adding -ed to most words will change them to the past tense, but this is obviously not always the case. For example, build does not change to builded when written in the past tense.

Avoiding General Verb Problems

A verb is a word that expresses an action, describes an occurrence, or establishes a state of being. Every sentence needs at least one verb, which is paired with the subject to form the sentence’s predicate. Verbs are crucial to expressing a sentences meaning, so it

is important to use them correctly. Verbs can vary according to several factors:

• tense

• aspect

• transitivity

• number

• person

If you understand what these terms mean and how they can affect what verb form you should use, it will be easier to write clearly and correctly.

Verb Tense

Tense indicates when the action expressed by a verb takes place. The three simple tenses are past, present, and future.

• Present tense expresses unchanging actions and states of being. It is also used with recurring actions and with universal or widespread truths.

• Past tense is used for actions that started and finished in the past.

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• Future tense expresses an action or event that will take place in the future.

Different tenses take different verb forms, either by changing the word itself or by adding helping verbs. Here are a few examples:

Root Form

• To read

• To think

• To like

• To be

Present Tense

• I read

• I think

• I like

• I am

Past Tense

• I read

• I thought

• I liked

• I was

Future Tense

• I will read

• I will think

• I will like

• I will be

As you can see, there is no single formula for how to change verb tenses. In general, adding -ed makes a verb past tense and adding will makes a verb future tense. However, many verbs do not follow this pattern, especially with past tense. In the examples above, only like can add -ed in the past tense, while the others are irregular verbs. Two of them, think and be, take completely different forms. Another word tense, read, changes pronunciation but not spelling. It is helpful to learn as many irregular verbs as you can. Doing so will help you avoid grammatical errors because you assume a word takes the -ed form when it does not.

Sometimes, you can use the wrong tense of a verb and still construct a grammatically correct sentence. However, your reader will probably misunderstand when the action of the sentence is

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supposed to occur. The phrase, I am going to college means something different than I went to college or I will go to college. So make sure that you always use the proper tense – it will make your paper much clearer for a reader.

Aspect

Aspect is related to tense because both describe something about when a verbs action occurs. Tense describes the time when the action happens, while aspect describes the action’s degree of progress or completion. There are three main aspects: indefinite, progressive, and

perfect. Combinations of certain tenses and aspects, such as past progressive, are also possible.

Indefinite

Indefinite aspect is the aspect used in the simple tenses of past, present, and future. It describes an action but does not state definitively whether the action has finished.

Progressive

The progressive form expresses actions that are continuing to occur in the present moment.

Perfect

The perfect form refers to events in the past that are either ongoing or that have been finished but are still relevant to the speaker in the present moment.

Past Progressive

If you want to describe an action that began in the past and may be or may not be ongoing, you can use the past progressive aspect:

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The verb tense in the title signals that this action took place in the past. It is not only important to have subject and verb agreement, but also to utilize the correct verb tense to ensure that a sentence contains its intended meaning.

Figure 5.36 He walked the wire.

Root verb

• To go

• To write

• To be

Past

• I went

• I wrote

• I was

Present

• I go

• I write

• I am

Future

• I will go

• I will write

• I will be

Progressive

• I am going

• I am writing

• I am being

Past Progressive

• I was going

• I was writing

• I was being

Perfect

• I have gone

• I have written

• I have been

Progressive, past progressive, and perfect aspects are formed by combining helping verbs, usually to be or to have, with the main verb’s non-finite participle form. These forms are usually denoted by -en or -ing, but there are some irregular forms (such as gone in the example of perfect aspect).

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Special Types of Verbs: Linking Verbs

Linking verbs are used to connect subjects with their complements. They may be the main verb in a sentence even if they express a description rather than an action:

• This tea is hot.

• There are many books in his library.

The most common linking verb is to be. Other common linking verbs include the following:

• appear

• become

• seem

• taste

• continue

• remain

Linking verbs take no direct objects. Consequently, if a sentence’s main verb is a linking verb it cannot be written in the passive voice.

Transitive verbs

Transitive verbs describe actions that are done to a specific thing, called the verb’s direct object.

• She cut her hair. Subject: she, verb: cut, object: her hair.

• Romeo kissed Juliet. Subject: Romeo, verb: kissed, object: Juliet.

All of the verbs are performed by the subject, to something or someone else.

Intransitive verbs

Intransitive verbs are actions that are complete on their own and do not require any object:

• Sally ran fast.

• The bird flew.

Most verbs can be transitive or intransitive, depending on their context. The main thing to remember with transitivity is that whenever a verb takes an object, that object needs to be clear to the reader. If you just write Romeo kissed, but omit the object, there is not enough information for the reader to understand the objective of the verb.

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Choosing the Correct Pronoun and Noun CasesNouns and pronouns can be either the subject or object of sentences, which means they can come in two different cases.

KEY POINTS

• Using the correct pronoun in your writing helps keep your writing clear and accurate.

• Pronouns have different forms depending on how they are used in a sentence.

• It is important to pay attention to which case you should use.

Choosing the Correct Pronoun and Noun Cases

Nouns and pronouns can be either the subject or object of sentences, which means they can come in two different cases. There are two main things that indicate case. The first is word order: subjects usually appear before verbs, and objects usually appear after them. The other way of indicating case is that some words change their forms depending on whether they are the subject or the object of a sentence.

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Most nouns remain the same in both the subjective and objective case. Here a few examples:

• The cat chased the mouse.

• The dog chased the cat.

• The bird perched on the dog.

As you can see, words like cat and dog are the same regardless of which grammatical position they occupy. This makes it easy to choose the right form for nouns, because in most situations there is only one. Pronoun cases are trickier, because pronouns do change form depending on whether they are the subject or the object of a sentence. The subject pronouns are as follows:

• I,

• you,

• he,

• she,

• it,

• we,

• you,

• they,

• who,

• whoever.

Here are the object pronouns:

• me,

• you,

• him,

• her,

• it,

• us,

• you,

• them,

• whom,

• whomever.

Before you use a pronoun, you should make sure you know which position it occupies. Pay extra attention to sentences with multiple pronouns and sentences where pronouns are part of a compound

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subject, since these are two of the instances where most mistakes are made.

Incorrect: I thought that him and I were friends.

Correct: I thought that he and I were friends.

In the first sentence, the writer uses the object pronoun him. However, him is not a direct object. Instead, the pronoun is the subject of a new clause, so the proper form is he.

Incorrect: My mother and me love to go shopping.

Correct: My mother and I love to go shopping.

The incorrect example uses the object pronoun me because the writer assumes that my mother is the subject. In reality, the

pronoun is part of a compound subject, so it should use the subject form I.

Figuring Out Which Case to Use

To figure out which case you need to use, you have to know whether the pronoun is the subject or the object of the sentence. One way of determining this is to try and rewrite the sentence with just the pronoun and verb. If those two things alone can be made into a grammatically correct sentence while retaining the same meaning, then the pronoun is the subject. If you cannot form a grammatically correct sentence, then the pronoun is the object.

To test this out, consider the examples above. If the second incorrect example was stripped down by removing the phrase my mother and, the resulting sentence would be me loves to go shopping. This is clearly not correct. Consequently, you know you need a subject pronoun.

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In this sentence, I and she are both subject pronouns.

Figure 5.38 She and I

The title contains two different pronouns: I is the subject pronoun who performs the action of asking, while them is the object pronoun who receives the main action. It is important to utilize the correct pronoun in a sentence to ensure the clarity of action.

Figure 5.37 I asked them to pose for a photo.

Here’s another example:

Incorrect: Since we were talking in class, the teacher punished my friend and I.

Correct: Since we were talking in class, the teacher punished my friend and me.

This is a tricky one because it uses pronouns to refer to the same people: the writer and a friend, in two different clauses. The first clause uses we as a subject. In the second clause, though, the teacher is one who is actively punishing. You cannot rewrite it with just verb and pronoun without being grammatically incorrect (the teacher punished I) or changing the meaning (I punished.) The pronoun, then, should be me since it is an object rather than the subject (Figure 5.38).

The most frequent case error occurs with who and whom. A good test of which case you should use is to require the sentence using another third-person pronoun for who or whom. If you would use he, then the correct form is who. If you would use him, the correct form is whom.

Example: The winner of the contest is the person who guessed the number of jelly beans in the jar.

Rewrite: He guessed the number of jelly beans in the jar.

Since you would rewrite the sentence with a subject pronoun (since the winner performs the action of guessing), the proper pronoun is who.

Example: You are the person whom I love most in all of the world.

Rewrite: I love him most in all of the world.

In this example, the speaker is the one performing the action (loving), so the object pronoun whom should be used.

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Making Pronouns and Antecedents AgreePronouns can be very useful when standing in for other nouns or noun phrases.

KEY POINTS

• Pronouns take different forms depending on how they are used in a sentence.

• Pronouns should always take the same form as their antecedent, or the phrase they are replacing.

• A major benefit of the agreement between pronouns and their antecedent is that it will help the reader understand which pronouns refer to which antecedents.

Making Pronouns and Antecedents Agree

Pronouns can be very useful when standing in for other nouns or noun phrases. They make sentences less repetitive by eliminating the need to repeat the same nouns over and over again. However, they are only useful if the reader always knows what words the pronoun is replacing, which is known as the pronoun’s antecedent. This can partly be done through word order. Don’t separate a pronoun too far from its antecedent, and don’t use a

pronoun unless its antecedent has already been established. One other important consideration to keep in mind is the grammatical rule that governs pronoun usage: make sure your pronouns and antecedents agree.

The different types of pronouns include the following:

• personal pronouns

• possessive pronouns

• intensive and reflexive pronouns

• relative pronouns

• interrogative pronouns

• demonstrative pronouns

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The title of this image contains a possessive pronoun in adjectival form: that. There are many different types of pronouns, each possessing different forms. It is important to recognize the different ways pronouns can be utilized in your own writing.

Figure 5.39 That dog is mine.

• indefinite pronouns

All of them have different forms, even if they may refer to the same antecedent. The form you should use depends on what grammatical function the pronoun or its antecedent would perform in the sentence.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to specific people or things with an antecedent standing in as the subject or object of a verb. They can be either subjective or objective.

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns indicate ownership. Beyond variations by person and number, most have two different forms depending on whether the pronoun modifies the subject of a sentence or whether it functions exclusively as an adjective.

For example, these pronouns are the subject:

• My cat jumped on the table.

• Your book was really good.

• Our taxi is coming.

These pronouns are adjectives:

• That cat is mine.

• Those books are yours.

• That taxi is ours.

Intensive Pronouns

Intensive pronouns emphasize a noun or another pronoun, as in: the mayor himself called me.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns take the same form as intensive pronouns, but instead of emphasizing a noun they name the receiver of an action. An example would be: We shopped ourselves to death. Below is a list of pronoun forms by person, number, and grammatical function.

Personal (Subject)

• I

• You

• He

• She

• It

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• We

• You

• They

Personal (object)

• Me

• You

• Him

• Her

• It

• Us

• You

• Them

Possessive

• My

• Your

• His

• Hers

• Its

• Our

• Your

• Their

Possessive (adjective)

• Mine

• Yours

• His

• Hers

• Its

• Ours

• Yours

• Theirs

Intensive/Reflexive

• Myself

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• Yourself

• Himself

• Herself

• Itself

• Ourselves

• Yourselves

• Themselves

Other categories of pronouns do not have forms for every single category on the list above. Their forms are determined primarily by their grammatical function or antecedent rather than by person. Some do have forms that depend on number.

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns introduce subordinate clauses, linking subjects with their complements. The main forms are who (subjective form for people and other beings), whom (objective form for people and beings), and that (for objects):

• Person (subject): The girl who wore a yellow dress.

• Person (object): The boy whom I like.

• Being: The cat who lived next door.

• Object: The desk that my mother bought.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns introduce questions. The main forms are who/whom (for people and beings), whose (for possessive pronouns), what (to introduce general questions), and which (for objects and comparisons):

• Person or being: Who wants to go to the movies with me?

• Possessive: Whose car is parked outside?

• General question: What time is it? What do you think of the weather today?

• Comparison: Which book do you think is better, Hamlet or King Lear?

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns point out specific people, places, things, and ideas. The main forms are this/that (singular) and these/those (plural). These pronouns can either be used for comparisons or on their own. They are also called determiners and can function as adjectives for their antecedents:

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• Comparison: I would rather go to that restaurant than this one.

• Alone: I think this book is really good.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things. Examples include:

• all

• both

• any

• few

• everyone

• each

• nobody

• some

• several

• neither

The one you use depends on what number or amount you intend to convey. Above all, remember to make sure that the antecedent is always clear. Avoid constructions where you have a pronoun that could refer to multiple things.

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Using Relative Pronouns and ClausesWhile most pronouns are replacements for nouns, relative pronouns function more like adjectives, since they introduce subordinate clauses.

KEY POINTS

• Relative pronouns are used to link subordinate clauses to the subject they describe.

• The main relative pronouns are: who, whom, whose, that, and which.

• Relative adverbs are: when, where, and why.

Using Relative Pronouns and Clauses

While most pronouns are replacements for nouns, relative pronouns function more like adjectives. They do so by introducing subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses are phrases within a sentence that contain the same components as the main clause, such as subjects and nouns. However, instead of forming their own sentence they serve to modify the independent clause to which they are attached.

The main relative pronouns are: who, whom, whose, that, and which. Relative adverbs are: when, where, and why. The pronouns act as a link between two parts of a sentence: the independent clause and the relative clause, which describes the main clause.

Besides adding detail, relative clauses can be useful stylistically. When used properly, they allow you to combine connected ideas in the same sentence rather than breaking them down into multiple ones.

Consider the difference between the following sentences:

1. That man yelled at us to get off his lawn. He did not even own the property.

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The title contains the relative pronoun, who, which acts as a link between two parts of the sentence. The independent clause, the man did not ride the subway, and the relative clause, showed us his pictures. Using relative pronouns reduces redundant repetition and can streamline writing.

Figure 5.40 The man who showed us his picture collection did not even ride the subway.

2. The man who yelled at us to get off his lawn did not even own the property.

Both sentences communicate the same thing, but the second does a better job of connecting the two events.

As you can see, relative clauses can be useful in streamlining your writing. Be careful not to use too many of them at once, though. Sentences will be confusing to your reader if they have clauses that are too numerous or too long. Be sure to ask yourself whether the clause actually clarifies a sentence or makes it too long and complicated.

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Using Adverbs and AdjectivesAdjectives modify nouns and pronouns, while adverbs modify verbs and adjectives.

KEY POINTS

• Adverbs are modifiers or descriptive words, phrases, or clauses that add detail to your sentences.

• Adjectives describe, quantify, or identify pronouns and nouns and answer the following questions: what kind? how many? how much? and which one?

• Adverbs add detail to verbs and answer the following questions: when did something happen? how often did it occur? how was the action performed? and where did it take place?

Grammatical modifiers add detail to sentences. There are two primary types: adjectives, which modify nouns and pronouns, and adverbs, which modify verbs or adjectives.

Modifiers can significantly improve your writing. They enhance the quality of information you provide, making your work more precise.

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However, you don't want to overwhelm your reader with

unnecessary or excessive description. Try to strike a balance.

Adjectives

Adjectives describe, quantify, or identify pronouns and nouns. They also answer the following questions:

• What kind?

• How many?

• How much?

• Which one?

Descriptions about “What kind?” add detail about the qualities of the noun or pronoun being described: the yellow dress, the sad clown, the smart pupil. This ranges from details regarding physical characteristics to emotional states.

Descriptions answering “How many?” and “How much?” specify the amount of whatever noun or pronoun you are modifying. Quantifying adjectives can be specific (ten candles, three hundred pages) or vague (several minutes, a few people, some candy).

Answering “Which one?” increases specificity by confirming exactly which object the writer is referring to. Examples include phrases such as “that novel,” “this writer,” or “those students.” Most adjectives that serve this purpose are called determiners or demonstrative pronouns.

Other Uses for Adjectives

Adjectives are also used to compare items. This usually involves using a combination of identifying and descriptive adjectives:

This year’s graduating class was smaller than last year’s class. These books are the best we’ve read so far.

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The title contains an adverb “smoothly,” which describes the verb “glided.” When deciding to use adverbs or adjectives, think about what information is important to your sentence. Then, if needed, you can add an adjective to modify a noun or an adverb to modify a verb.

Figure 5.41 The sled glided smoothly over the snow.

Sometimes, pronouns can be used as adjectives. In addition to demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns can also identify specific objects within a set. For example:

Which car should we drive? We should drive her car. Whose house is closest? Your house is closest.

Prepositional phrases can be used as adjectives, normally modifying the noun that precedes them. Like pronouns, they normally act as identifiers:

Which books should we read? The books on the curriculum. Whose stories did we listen to in class? Those of the teacher.

Lastly, in addition to single words, you can use adjectival phrases. These are phrases that begin with an adjective but then have a noun that adds further detail, such as “full of toys” instead of just “full.” They are most frequently used as a modifier placed right after a noun or as a predicate to a verb. For example, you could say “The child loved his bin full of toys,” or “That bin is full of toys.”

Adverbs

Adverbs perform a similar function to adjectives, but they modify verbs or, (less frequently) other adjectives or adverbs. Secondly, they answer different questions than adjectives do. You can easily

identify many adverbs because they often end in "-ly." Adverbs are used to provide the following details:

• When did something happen?

• How often did it occur?

• How was the action performed?

• Where did it take place?

Describing when: The last time I went shopping was a while ago. Describing how often: I visit my friends frequently. Describing how: He ran quickly in the race. Describing where: She sat down nearby.

You can also use adverbial prepositions, phrases that start with a preposition and modify a nearby verb. For example, in the sentence “You cannot judge a book by its cover,” the phrase “by its cover” describes the conditions under which you cannot judge a book.

Which Should You Use: Adjectives or Adverbs?

One way to choose whether you need to use an adverb or an adjective is simply to figure out whether the word you want to modify is a noun or a verb. A better approach, though, is not to think about the words you could modify but the information you want to convey. You do not need to describe every noun or verb, just the ones whose details are important to the sentence. Remember,

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adjectives and adverbs can be separated by which types of information they provide. Think about the details that are necessary enough to include, and then choose your modifiers accordingly (Figure 5.42).

Where to Place Adverbs and Adjectives

Writers should be careful where they place adjectives and adverbs in sentences, because most readers assume that modifiers refer to whichever word they are closest to. If you separate modifiers too far from the nouns and verbs they are supposed to modify, the reader may not understand what you mean.

Above all, it should always be clear to the reader which word an adjective or adverb is modifying. By paying attention to placement and making sure that if you want to modify a verb you use an adverb instead of an adjective, you will make it much

easier for your reader to pick up on your intended meaning.

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This is a common used grammatical mistake. "Slowly" would be the correct form here.

Figure 5.42 Drive Slow(ly)!

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