Writing a Research Report (2)

7/27/2019 Writing a Research Report (2)

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WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT PRESENTED BY

M. NURUL ISLAM

DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICSUNIVERSITY OF DHAKA



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What is a research report? DEFINITION

A research report is an outcome of a scientificinvestigation and its purpose is to convey

information contained in the report to the reader

or audience.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

All research reports use roughly the same format.

It doesn’t matter whether you’ve done a customer



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GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Research reports usually have five to six chapters

with well-established sections in each chapter.

Readers of the report will be looking for these

chapters and sections, so you should not deviate

from the standard format unless you are

specifically requested to do so by the sponsor of

the research.



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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A PROPOSAL AND A REPORT Most research studies begin with a written proposal. Again, nearly all proposals follow the

same format. In fact, the proposal is identical tothe first three chapters of the final report exceptthat it is written in future tense. In the proposal,you might say something like `` the researcherswill obtain the sample from….”, while in thereport, it would be changed to `` the researchersobtained the sample from `` Once again, withthe exception of tense, the proposal becomes thefirst three chapters of the final research report.



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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A PROPOSAL AND A REPORT The most commonly used style for writing researchreports is called ` ̀APA” and the rules are described

in the Publication Manual of the AmericanPsychological Association. Any library or bookstorewill have it readily available. The style guide containshundreds of rules for grammar, layout, and syntax.This paper will cover the most important ones.

Avoid the use for first person pronouns. Refer toyourself or the research team in third person.Instead of saying `` I will…” or ``We will…” saysomething like `` The researcher will….” Or” Theresearch team will ….”





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STYLE, LAYOUT, AND PAGE FORMATTING Page numbering Pages are numbered at the top right. There shouldbe 1” of white space from the top of the page

number to the top of the paper. Numeric pagenumbering begins with the first page of Chapter I(although a page number is not placed on page 1).

Spacing and justification

All pages are single sided. Text is double –spaced,except for long quotations and the bibliography(which are single-spaced). There is one blank linebetween a section heading and the text that followsit. Do not right-justify text. Use ragged-right.



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STYLE, LAYOUT, AND PAGE FORMATTING Font face and size

Any easily readable font is acceptable. The fontshould be 10 points or larger. Generally, the samefont must be used throughout the manuscript,except that

Tables and graphs may use a different font, and Chapter titles and section headings may use a

different font.



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OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS AND SECTIONS

CHAPTER 1-Introduction

Introductory paragraphs Statement of the problem

Purpose/Objectives

Significance of the study

Research questions and /or hypotheses

CHAPTER II-Background

Literature review

Definition of terms/Operational definition



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CHAPTER III-Methodology

Restate purpose and research questions or null

hypotheses Population and sampling

Instrumentation (include copy in appendix)

Procedure and time frame

Analysis plan (state critical alpha level and type of statistical tests)

Assumptions Scope and limitations



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CHAPTER IV-Results and Discussion

CHAPTER V- Conclusions and

Recommendations

REFERENCES

APPENDIX



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CHAPTER I- Introduction

Introductory Paragraphs

Chapter I begins with a few short introductory

paragraphs (a couple of pages at most). The primarygoal of the introductory paragraphs is to catch theattention of the readers and to get them `` turnedon” about the subject. It sets the stage for thereport (Paper, Thesis) and puts your topic in

perspective. The introduction often containsdramatic and general statements about the need forthe study. It uses dramatic illustrations or quotes toset the things on. When writing the introduction, putyourself in your reader’s position-would you continuereading?



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CHAPTER I- Introduction Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem is the focal point of

your research. It is just one sentence (with several

paragraphs of elaboration).

You are looking for something wrong.

or something that needs close attention

or existing methods that no longer seem to be

working.



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Example of a problem statement:

``The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear,

anxiety, and a loss of productivity in middle

management workers.”

While the problem statement itself is just one

sentence, it is always accompanied by several

paragraphs that elaborate on the problem.



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Here you:

Present persuasive arguments why the problem is importantenough to study.

Include the opinions of others (politicians, futurists, otherprofessionals).

Explain how the problem relates to business, social orpolitical trends by presenting data that demonstrates thescope and depth of the problem.

Try to give dramatic and concrete illustrations of theproblem.

After writing this section, make sure you can easily identify thesingle sentence that is the problem statement.



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Objectives/Purposes The purpose is a single statement or paragraph thatexplains what the study intends to accomplish. A few typical

statements are:The goal of this study is to… … overcome the difficulties the current management areencountering

…..identify the causes of recent unrest in the labormarket….…. understand the causes or effects of high divorce rate….… .refine our current understanding of the marriage law … …. provide a new interpretation of export and import policy….



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Significance of the Study

This section creates a perspective for looking at the

problem. It points out how your study relates to thelarger issues and uses a persuasive rationale to justify the reason for your study. It makes thepurpose worth pursuing The significance of the studyanswers the questions:

Why is your study important?

To whom is it important?

What benefit (s) will occur if your study is done?



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Research Questions and/ or Hypotheses

Chapter I lists the research questions (although it

is equally acceptable to present the hypotheses ornull hypotheses). No elaboration is included in thissection. An example would be:

The research questions for this study will be:

What are the attitudes of … Is there a significant difference between….

Is there a significant relationship between…



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CHAPTER II- Background Chapter II may begin with a review of the literature.It is important because it shows what previousresearchers have discovered. It is usually quite long

and primarily depends upon how much research haspreviously been done in the area you are planning toinvestigate. If you are planning to explore arelatively new area, the literature review should cite

similar areas of study or studies that lead up to thecurrent research. Never say that your area is so newthat no research exists. It is one of the key elementsthat proposal readers look at when deciding whetheror not to approve a proposal.





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The methodology section describes your basic

research plan. It usually begins with a few short

introductory paragraphs that restate purpose and

research questions. The phraseology should be

identical to that used in Chapter 1. Keep the wordingof your research questions consistent throughout the

document.



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Population and Sampling

Define the population

Draw a representative sample from thepopulation

Do the research on the sample Infer your results from the sample back to the

population



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As you can see, it all begins with a precise definition

of the population. The whole idea of inferential

research (using a sample to represent the entire

population) depends upon an accurate description of

the population. When you’ve finished your research

and your make statements based on the results, who

will that apply to ? Usually, just one sentence is

necessary to define the population. Examples are ``



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The population for this study is:

All adult customers who make a purchase in our

stores during the reference time of the study

All home owners in the Dhaka City” . Or” …

All potential consumers of our product” .

While the population can usually be defined by a

single statement, the sampling procedure needs to

be described in extensive detail.



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There are numerous sampling methods from which youneed to choose an appropriate one. Describe in minutedetail how you will select the sample. Use specific names,

places, times, etc. Don’t omit any details. This is extremelyimportant because the reader of the paper must decide if your sample will sufficiently represent the population.

Survey Design

State clearly what research design you are going toemploy. Fundamentally, choice of a research designdepends primarily on the objectives of the study. Stateclearly whether the study is one time or repetitive,

experimental or non-experimental.



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Instrumentation

If you are using a survey that was designed by

someone else, state the source of the survey.Describe the theoretical constructs that the survey isattempting to measure. Include a copy of the actualsurvey in the appendix and state that a copy of the

survey design is in the appendix. Other instruments,such as a questionnaire, pro-forma, schedule,consent form etc that were used in the survey torecord information, should al be furnished in theappendix



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Procedure and time frame

State exactly when the research will begin and

when it will end.

Describe any special procedures that will befollowed (e.g. instructions that will be read toparticipants, presentation of an informed consent

form, etc.) Analysis Plan

The analysis plan should be described in detail. Eachresearch question will usually require its own analysis.



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Thus, the research questions should be addressed oneat a time followed by a description of the type of statistical tests that will be performed to answer thatresearch question. In doing so

Be specific.

State what variables will be included in the analysis

Identify the dependent and independent variables if such

a relationship exists.

State the decision making criteria (e.g., the critical alphalevel)

Mention the computer software that will be used.



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Validity and reliability

If the survey design you’re using was designed bysomeone else, then describe the previous validity andreliability assessments. When using an existinginstrument, you’ll want to perform the same reliabilitymeasurement as the author of the instrument. If you’ve developed your own survey design, then youmust describe the steps you took to assess its validityand a description of how you will measure itsreliability.



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Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of ameasurement. Are we measuring what we think we

are? There are no statistical tests to measure validity. All assessments of validity are subjective opinionsbased on the judgment of the researcher.Nevertheless, there are at least three types of validitythat should be addressed and you should state what

steps you took to assess validity. Face validity

Content validity

Construct validity



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Face validity: It refers to the likelihood that a

question will be misunderstood or misinterpreted.

Presetting a survey is a good way to increase the

likelihood of face validity.

Content validity: It refers to whether an instrument

provides adequate coverage of a topic. Expert

opinions, literature searches, and pretest open-ended

questions help to establish content validity.



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Construct validity: It refers to the theoretical

foundations underlying a particular scale or

measurement. It looks at the underlying theories orconstructs that explain a phenomenon. In other words,

if you are using several survey items to measure a

more global construct (e.g. a subscale or a survey),

then you should describe why you believe the itemscomprise a construct. If a construct has been identified

by previous researchers, then describe the criteria they

used to validate the construct.



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A technique known as confirmatory factor analysis

is often used to explore how individual survey items

contribute to an overall construct measurement.

Measurement attitude, aptitude and personality test

fall under this construct validity

Reliability is synonymous with repeatability or stability. A measurement that yields consistent results over time

is said to be reliable. When a measurement is prone to

random error, it lacks reliability.



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There are three basic methods to test reliability: test-

retest, equivalent form, and internal consistency. Most

research uses some form of internal consistency. When

there is a scale of items all attempting to measure the

same construct, then we would expect a large degree

of coherence in the way people reliability is to ask the

same question with slightly different wording in

different parts of the survey. The correlation between

the items is a measure of their reliability.



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Assumptions All research studies make assumptions. The mostobvious is that the sample represents the population.

Another common assumption is that an instrument hasvalidity and is measuring the desired constructs. Stillanother is that respondents will answer a surveytruthfully. The important point is for the researcher tostate specifically what assumptions are being made.Scope and limitations

All research studies also have limitations and a finitescope. Limitations are often imposed by time andbudget constraints. Precisely list the limitations of thestudy. Describe the extent to which you believe thelimitations are likely degrade the quality of the

research.



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CHAPTER IV- Results and Discussion

Description of the sample

Nearly all research collects some demographicinformation. It is important to report the descriptivestatistics of the sample because it lets the readerdecide if the sample is truly representative of thepopulation.

Analyses

The analysis section is cut and dry. It precisely followsthe analysis plan laid out in Chapter III. Each researchquestion is addressed individually.



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For each research question:

1. Restate the research question using the exact

wording as in Chapter I2. If the research question is testable, state the

null hypothesis

3. State the type of statistical test (s) performed

4. Report the statistics and conclusions, followedby any appropriate table (s)

Numbers and tables are not self-evident. If you usetables or graphs, refer to them in the text and explainwhat they say, An example is:



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``Table 4 shows a strong negative relationshipbetween delivery time and customer satisfaction (r=-

.72, p=.03)” . All tables and figures have a number anda descriptive heading.

For example:

Table 4: The relationship between delivery time andcustomer’s satisfaction. Avoid the use of trivial tables or graphs. If a graph or table

does not add new information (i.e. information not explainedin the test), then don’t include it.

Simply present the results. Do not attempt to explain the results in this chapter.



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Chapter V- Conclusions and recommendations

Begin the final chapter with a few paragraphssummarizing what you did and found (l.e. the

conclusions from Chapter IV)

Discussions

Discuss the findings.

Do your findings support existing theories?

Explain why you think you found what you did.

Present plausible reasons why the results mighthave turned out the way they did.



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Chapter V- Conclusions and recommendations

RecommendationsPresent recommendation based on your findings. Avoid the temptation to present recommendations based

on your own beliefs or biases that are not specificallysupported by your data.Recommendations fall into two categories. The first is recommendations to the study sponsor.

What actions do you recommend they take based

upon the data? The second is recommendation to other researchers.

There are almost always that a study could beimproved or refined. What would you change if youwere to do your study over again? These are therecommendations to other researchers.



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References

APA format should be used to cite references within

the paper. If you name the author in your sentence,then follow the authors name with the year in

parentheses. For example:

Jones (2004) found that….

If you do not include the authors name as part of the

text, then both the author’s name and year are

enclosed in parentheses. For example:



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References

Examples:

Bradburn, N.M. & Mason, W.M. (1964). The effect of question order on response. Journal of Marketing

Research 1 (4), 57-61.

Bradburn, N.M. & Miles, C. (1979). Vague quantifiers.

Public Opinion Quarterly 43 (1), 92-101 Appendix

Include a copy of any actual instruments. If used,

include a copy of the informed consent form.



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1. Problemidentification

2. Literature

review8. Reportwriting

3. Objectives& hypotheses

4. Researchdesign

5. Sampledesign

6. Datacollection

7. Dataanalysis

Processis

iterative

Figure : Schematic diagram displaying stages of

research process





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Table: Summary of a Report

Individual Sections Contents of Each Section/ Chapter

Title page Concise heading indicating what the report is about

Table of contents List of major sections and heading with page numbers

Abstract or ExecutativeSummary

Concise summary of main findings

Introduction Why and what you researched

Background Review of literature and operational definition of terms

Methodology What you did and how you didResults What you found

Discussions Relevance of your results/ findings

Conclusions Summary of results with justification and decision you arrived at

Recommendations What needs to be done as a result of your findings



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Writing a Research Report (2)