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WHSWriting Manual
Table of Contents
TOPIC PAGE NUMBER
Grammar………………………………………………………………………………………2
Punctuation…………………………………………………………………………………….3
Terms…………………………………………………………………………………………...4
Rhetorical Precis……………………………………………………………………………....5
SOAPSTone…………………………………………………………………………………....6
MLA Format/Works Cited…………………………………………………………………...7
Thesis Statements……………………………………………………………………………...9
How to Properly Integrate Quotations……………………………………………………...10
Transitions…………………………………………………………………………………….11
Informational/Non-fiction Text Analysis Questions…………………………………….….12
Types of Information to Help Support your Argument……………………………………12
MLA Outline Format…………………………………………………………………………13
APA/Chicago Style……………………………………………………………………………14
Annotation Guide……………………………………………………………………………..14
Logical Fallacies………………………………………………………………………………15
Proofreading and Editing Symbols………………………………………………………….16
Tone Vocabulary List………………………………………………………………………...17
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GrammarA basic understanding of grammar is essential to writing well. The chart is for your reference as you
expand your knowledge of grammar usage.
Part
s of S
peec
h
Term Definition / Notes ExampleNoun A person, place, or thing
*Answers the question WHO or WHAT*Follow the words a, an and the
Book, fish, boat, Mrs. Marcus, Truth, Moon
Pronoun Words that REPLACE nouns* Functions EXACTLY like nouns
He, She, It, You, They
Verbs Action OR links the subject to something about the subject
*What the subject is doing
Jump, Run, Sleep, Is, Am, Are, Was, Were
Adjectives Describe NOUNS/PRONOUNS only*Answers the questions What kind?, Which one?,
and How many?
Cute, Huge, Funny
Adverbs Describes verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs *Typically end in –ly* Answers the questions How?, When?, Where?,
and Why?
Swiftly, Quietly, There
Interjections Used to express emotion at the beginning of a sentence
Ouch!Wow!
Prepositions Connect noun/pronoun to another part of the sentence (TYPICALLY shows time or place)
*Always end with a noun
ON the tree, IN the basket, BESIDE the table
Conjunctions JOINS words, phrases or clauses FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Sent
ence
Typ
es
Independent Clause
Can stand alone as a sentence. Frederick Douglass was an eloquent speaker.
Subordinate Clause
Cannot stand alone – dependent on an independent clause to form a complete sentence
Although Frederick Douglass was a runaway slave, he frequently appeared in public to raise support for the abolitionist movement.
Simple Sentence
One independent clause and no dependent clause (subject and verb)
I ran.
Compound Sentence
Multiple independent clauses and NO dependent clause
Alex played football, so Maria went shopping.
Complex Sentence
Consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause
When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
Compound-complex Sentence
Consists of multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause (clauses are connected
by both conjunctions and subordinators)
His blue eyes were light, bright and sparkling behind half-mooned spectacles, and his nose was very long and crooked, as though it had been broken at least twice.
Declarative Sentence
A statement – positive or negative. I am happy.
Interrogative Sentence
Asks a question or requests information When did you turn off the lights?
Exclamatory Sentence
Statement expressing emotion or excitement Wow! What a dream!
Imperative Sentence
Command Pick up the trash.
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Punctuation
Comma
,1. Used after an introductory word, phrase, or clause2. Used BEFORE a coordinating conjunction to separate two complete sentences3. Used to separate items in a series4. Used to set off interrupters (non-
essential information)
1. Because I was so tired, I fell asleep in the car.
2. I wanted to go to the concert, but I couldn’t afford the tickets.
3. I like to eat strawberries, blueberries, raspberries, and any other type of berry.
4. Joe, who comes to class early, is a good student.
Semicolon
;1. Used to separate two complete
sentences2. Used to separate items in a series
when commas would be confusing
1. I was a writer; my sister was a dancer.
2. At the meeting were John Johnson, president; Tony Parker, treasurer; Melanie Clarke, vice president; and Bill Turner, secretary.
Colon
:1. Used to introduce items in a list
(especially after words like the following or as follows)NOTE: YOU CANNOT USE A COLON AFTER A VERB (for example, you CANNOT write “The winners are: Caleb, Tony, and Will.”
2. Used to separate two complete sentences when the second sentence explains the first
1. For the camping trip, please bring the following: a warm blanket, snacks, matches, sweatshirts, and a pool noodle.
2. I knew what I had to do: I had to call the cops.
Dash
--1. Used to indicate an abrupt break in
thought2. Used to offer an explanation (that is
not a complete sentence)
1. I have a million—well, not a million but many—reasons we should attend school all year.
2. I know what we can get Taylor for her birthday—a new car!
Hyphen
-1. Used after the prefixes all, self, and ex2. Used between number 21-99
1. All-star, ex-husband,self-made
2. There were forty-two people at the game.
Italics/Underline
1. Underline (if writing by hand) or italicize the title of longer works, such as books, movies, or plays
1. We are currently reading To Kill a Mockingbird in one of my English classes.
“Quotation Marks”
1. Use quotation marks around the title of shorter works like short stories, poems, and songs
1. One of my favorite poems is “Daddy” by Sylvia Plath.
Apostrophe (’) USED TO SHOW POSSESSION I am going to my grandma’s house for Thanksgiving.
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TermsBy the end of your senior year, you will be familiar with all terms listed for each grade. Each set of terms will build on the previous year’s terms.
9th Grade 10th Grade 11th Grade 12th GradeAct Allegory Abstract Language AphorismAlliteration Archetype Academic Writing Complexity of Lit.Allusion Argument Active Voice Cultural CriticismAnalogy Blank Verse Ambiguity EpicAntagonist Cause and Effect Analogy Feminist TheoryAside Chorus Analysis Gothic LiteratureAssonance Classification Anaphora Historical CriticismBias Consonance Anecdote Kinesthetic ImageryClaim Counterargument Antithesis ModernismClimax Denouement Appeals NaturalismComic Relief Diction Archaic Language NeoclassicismConnotation Elegy Assumption PsychoanalysisCouplet Emotional Appeals Audience Reader Response TheoryCredibility Extended Metaphor Chronological Order RomanticismDenotation Fallacy ColloquialDialogue Form ConceitEpilogue Frame Story Concrete LanguageExposition Iambic Pentameter DialectExternal Conflict Idiom Deductive ReasoningFalling Action Imagery EditorialFlashback Line EuphemismFoil Meter Inductive ReasoningForeshadowing Primary Source In Media ResFree Verse Protagonist JargonInference Rhyme Scheme Logical ReasoningInternal Conflict Secondary Source NuancesIrony Soliloquy ParallelismMemoir Sonnet Passive VoiceMood Stanza PersonaOxymoron Syntax PremiseParadox Synthesize SyllogismParody Theme UnderstatementPersonification Thesis Statement WarrantProloguePropagandaProtagonistPunRhetorical QuestionSatireSimileSpeakerStream of ConsciousnessSymbolismToneTragedyVoice
Rhetorical Precis
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This is a highly structured, four-sentence paragraph that records the essential rhetorical elements in any spoken or written discourse.
The precis includes the name of the speaker/writer(s), the context or situation in which the text is delivered, the major assertions, the mode of development for or support of the main idea, the stated and/or apparent purpose of the text, and the relationship between the speaker/writer(s) and the audience.
Framework:
(Author’s credentials), (Author’s first and last name) in his/her (type of text), (title of text), delivered in (publishing information – date) addresses the topic of (topic of the text) and argues that (argument). He/she supports this claim by __________________________, then ______________________, then __________________________, and finally ___________________. (Author’s last name)’s purpose is to (author’s purpose in writing) in order to (change in reader/society/audience the author wants to achieve). He/she adopts a(n) ________________________ tone for his/her audience in order to _________________________.
EXAMPLE:
British philosopher, John Stuart Mill, in his essay “On Nature” (1850), argues that using nature as a standard for ethical behavior is illogical. He supports this claim by first giving the common definitions as nature as, “all that exists or all that exists without the intervention of man” and then supplying extensive examples of the daily brutality of nature in the real world. His purpose is to call attention to the flaws in the “nature as a standard” argument in order to convince people to discard this standard and to instead use reason and logic to determine the appropriate ethical standard of action for mankind. He establishes a formal, scholarly tone for the reader of “Nature” – and audience of philosophers, educators, and other interested citizens.
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SOAPSTone
During reading, take notes on the main topics from the chart. If there is a prompt before the reading, the majority of these answers will be in the prompt.
Topic ExplanationSubject The main idea or ideas. It may be directly or indirectly
stated.Occasion The time, place, and reason why the piece was written.
Reason means what events or events prompted the writing.Audience Who is the author writing this for? It may be a specific
audience or a general one. How do you know this is the audience?
Purpose Why did the author write this? How was the author trying to influence the audience? Was he/she trying to inform
them? Persuade them? Entertain them?Speaker This is PARTLY the name of the author. However, the
“speaker” is not always the author. Sometimes the author is “speaking” in character. So, the SPEAKER question asks
you to determine how the author is addressing the audience.
Tone What is the attitude of the author toward what they are writing about? What emotional sense pervades the piece? How does the diction point to tone? How do the author’s
diction, imagery, language and syntax convey his/her feelings?
Rhetorical Triangle
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MLA Format & Creating a Works Cited Page
1. FONT: Change the font to 12 pt. Times New Roman 2. SPACING: Change the spacing to double-space (or 2.0). Your ENTIRE page—from heading to Works Cited—should be double-spaced.
3. PAGE NUMBERS: Click the “Insert” tab. Then click “Page Number” and choose “top of page.” Then choose the option with the page number at the top right. To the left of the page number, type your last name.
4. HEADING: Your heading should be on your first page only. It should be your name, the teacher’s name, the class (not the period), and the date written out.
5. TITLE: Your title needs to be centered below the heading. It should directly relate to your topic. Your title cannot be “Research Paper.” Your heading should be in regular, 12 point Times New Roman font. It should NOT be bolded, underlined, italicized, or in quotation marks. After typing your title, don’t forget to change the alignment back to the left for the rest of your essay.
6. PARAGRAPHS: Be sure to indent the beginning of each new paragraph. Your paragraphs must begin with a strong topic sentence that relates back to your thesis statement.
7. WORKS CITED: Your works cited needs to be the last page of your paper and it MUST be on a separate page. Click the button to center your document. Type the words “Works Cited” (without the quotation marks). After typing the title (Works Cited), hit enter one time. Click the button to align your typing to the left.
8. SOURCES FOR WORKS CITED PAGE: Place your source cards in alphabetical order by the first word listed on the card, and type your source information below the title. You should review the guidelines for MLA Works Cited before you begin typing. Also, remember to indent after the first line of a source. (SEE EXAMPLES)
First page: Do not create a cover sheet.
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Last Name 1
Your Name
Teacher’s Name
Class name, PD
Day Month Year
Center Original Title
Indent new paragraphs. Double space your work throughout the paper.
Always use 12 point Times New Roman font.
1” margins only
Create a header with Microsoft word – under the “insert” tab
Audience – Who will receive the speech/written discourse
Author – who will deliver the speech/written discourse
Subject- what is said (content) and how it is said (style)
Example:
You should be able to fill in the majority of the information, for each source, in this chart.
*Note: The punctuation needed is listed after the MLA information. If a work does not have an author, begin with the title of the work. Similarly, if it does not have another element, such as a volume or issue number, skip that portion. Do not write “none” or “N/A.”
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Works Cited
Dean, Cornelia. "Executive on a Mission: Saving the Planet." The New York Times, 22 May
2007, www.nytimes.com/2007/05/22/science/earth/22ander.html?_r=0. Accessed 12
May 2016.
Ebert, Roger. Review of An Inconvenient Truth, directed by Davis
Guggenheim. rogerebert.com, 1 June 2006, www.rogerebert.com/reviews/an-
inconvenient-truth-2006. Accessed 15 June 2016.
Gowdy, John. "Avoiding Self-organized Extinction: Toward a Co-evolutionary Economics of
Sustainability." International Journal of Sustainable Development and World
Works Cited – list of all references cited in your written/visual work
Bibliography – list of all written/online material that you read
*Alphabetical order
*No numbers or bullet points
MLA Information Source InformationAuthor.Title of Source.CONTAINER 1Title of Container,Other contributors,Version,Number,Publisher,Publication date,Location.CONTAINER 2Title of Container,Other contributors,Version,Number,Publisher,Publication date,Location.
Authors: Last name, first name. (Ex: Smith, John.) If there is more than one author, list the names in the order they appear. (Ex: Smith, John and Jane Snyder.)
Titles: Italicize the title of longer works (such as books, movies, journals, etc.) Place the title of shorter works (such as short stories, poems, articles) in quotation marks.
Containers: The container is essentially what “holds” the source. For example, the newspaper is the container for an article. If you are getting an online article from EBSCOhost, the information for EBSCOhost would be filled out for Container 2.
Version: 2nd Edition, King James Version, etc.
Number: vol. 128, no. 1 etc.
Location: For a print source, this would be the page or page numbers (preceded by p. or pp.). For an online source, this would be the entire web address.
EXAMPLE:
Baron, Naomi. “Redefining Reading: The Impact of Digital Communication Media.”
PMLA, vol. 128, no. 1, Jan. 2013, pp. 193-200.
Information and citation example taken from MLA Handbook: Eighth Edition, 2016.
***************************************************************************
Thesis Statements
What is a thesis?
A single sentence at the end of your first paragraph that presents your argument to the reader.
Thesis statements are the road map to the rest of your paper, guiding you as you write.
Do
Know your essay type Make a statement Make a debatable claim Be specific
Don’t
Announce the thesis, e.g. “This paper will discuss…” Announce yourself, e.g. “I am going to prove that…” Ask a question Leave your reader asking “How?” or “Why?”
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An effective thesis statement is
*concise. It should be no longer than one sentence, regardless of length of essay.
* limited to one idea.
* a declarative sentence with no qualifiers (might, maybe, perhaps, etc.)
Poor Example:
Censorship should be banned by everyone in all circumstances and all states in the nation because it destroys the rights of free speech guaranteed to us by the Constitution of the United States since the Constitution was written by John Hancock and all of the other statesmen.
Strong Example:
Censorship should be banned in the United States because it destroys the constitutionally guaranteed right of free speech.
************************************************************************************************
How to Properly Integrate Quotations
There are four ways to properly integrate quotations into your writing:
1. Introduce the quotations with a complete sentence and a colon.
Example: Thoreau ends his essay with a metaphor: "Time is but the stream I go a-fishing in."
If you use a complete sentence to introduce a quotation, you need a colon after the sentence.
2. Use an introductory or explanatory phrase, but not a complete sentence, separated from the quotations with a comma.
Example: Kennedy asked, "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country?”
You should use a comma to separate your own words from the quotation when your introductory or explanatory phrase ends with a verb such as "says," "said," "thinks," "believes," "pondered," "recalls," "questions," and "asks" (and many more).
3. Make the quotations a part of your own sentence without any punctuation between your own words and the words you are quoting.
Example: Jones argued that “the best way to write is from the heart.”
You usually have a choice when you begin a sentence with a phrase such as "Jones says." You either can add a comma after "says" (Jones says, "quotation") or you can add the word "that" with no comma (Jones says that "quotation.")
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4. Use short quotations--only a few words--as part of your own sentence.
Example: Aristotle argues that “excellence” is a “habit” that one needs to practice every day.
When you integrate quotations in this way, you do not use any special punctuation. Instead, you should punctuate the sentence just as you would if all of the words were your own.
****************************************************************************
TransitionsTransitions are used to help you stay organized in your writing. They help with train of
thought and ‘chunk’ your paper together.
LOGICAL RELATIONSHIP TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSION
Similarity also, in the same way, just as … so too, likewise, similarly
Exception/Contrastbut, however, in spite of, on the one hand … on the other hand, nevertheless,
nonetheless, notwithstanding, in contrast, on the contrary, still, yet
Sequence/Order first, second, third, … next, then, finally
Timeafter, afterward, at last, before, currently, during, earlier, immediately, later,
meanwhile, now, recently, simultaneously, subsequently, then
Example for example, for instance, namely, specifically, to illustrate
Emphasis even, indeed, in fact, of course, truly
Place/Position above, adjacent, below, beyond, here, in front, in back, nearby, there
Cause and Effect accordingly, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus
Additional Support or Evidence
additionally, again, also, and, as well, besides, equally important, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, then
Conclusion/Summary finally, in a word, in brief, briefly, in conclusion, in the end, in the final analysis, on the whole, thus, to conclude, to summarize, in sum, to sum up, in summary
Informational/Non-fiction Text Analysis Questions11
These questions are to guide your analysis – you may be asked to provide more information, or examples, from the text to support your claim.
1. What is the thesis/main idea of this reading?2. Who is the most likely intended audience for this reading? Be specific.3. Provide one word to describe the author’s attitude in this reading.4. Does the attitude/tone of the reading shift? How does it shift? When does it shift?5. What was the author’s purpose in writing this article? What did he/she want us to think or
do based on having read it?6. Would you mostly likely defend, challenge, or qualify the major argument in this
reading?7. How is this reading/topic like any other information you might know about?
***************************************************************************
Types of Information to Help Support your Argument
Facts: The same information can be found in five or more sources.A group of cats is called a “clowder.”
Statistics: Information based on a study
Quotations: A statement or opinion that is lifted
directly from the source and cited
word-for-word in your argument.
You may paraphrase, BUT you still must cite it because the initial thought is not yours!
MLA Outline Format12
Remember you need at least two point under every Roman Numeral – every A must have a B; every 1 needs a 2 (The following is an example set-up; yours may look different for every paper depending on the depth of research you complete – it is necessary to have the MAIN TOPICS and PIECES OF EVIDENCE).
Draft Thesis Statement: _______________________________________________
I. Main Topic #1A. Evidence to support the topicB. Another piece of evidence
i. A detail to explain the evidenceii. More detail
a. Quotationb. Link quotation to main topic
II. Main Topic #2A. Supporting evidence
1. Detail2. Another piece of evidence
B. Supporting Detail
1. Detail
2. Another Detail
III. Main Topic #3
C. Supporting evidence
A. Detail
B. Another piece of evidence
D. Supporting Detail
1. Detail
2. Another Detail
Introduction to APA and Chicago Style for Referencing Material
13
The American Psychological Association (APA) and the Chicago Manual of Style have their own rules for citing sources within your document. Below are examples:
MLA APA Chicago(Jones 37) (Jones, 2018)
Author’s Last Name, NO COMMA, page number
Author’s Last Name, comma, date of publication
Footnotes and Endnotes are used
Used by these subjects:
MLA – English and Foreign Studies
APA – Psychology, Sociology, Business
Chicago – Literature, History, Arts
If you need further information, consult: http://owl.english.purdue.edu
***************************************************************************
Annotation Guide
As you read any text, it is helpful to have a system for your notes. Keep in mind that you should use the same symbols each time.
Circle – powerful words and phrases
Underline – words or phrases you do not understand (use context clues to write a definition in the margin)
? – place a question mark next to the text that raises questions or is unclear to you
! – place an exclamation point next to surprising ideas
- draw an arrow when you make a connection to the text, ideas, or experiences
EX – author’s examples
1,2,3, etc. – number the author’s arguments, details, and important ideas
Use the MARGINS for your thoughts, making connections, and asking yourself questions.
Logical Fallacies
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These are errors in reasoning which you may encounter in arguments. Be sure to avoid these in order to have a solid argument when writing or speaking.
1. Begging the Question – assuming something to be true that really needs proof
Example: This handwriting is hard to read, because it is nearly illegible.
2. Argument Ad Hominem – turning from the issue to the character of the person
involved.
Example: Jones should not be elected. His father is an alcoholic.
3. Ad Misericordiam - appeal for sympathy
Example: Q- Did you steal the money?
A – I’m out of work, my kid needs an operation, my mother had
her hip replaced…
4. Ad Vericundiam – appeal to authority
Example: The policeman told me to…
5. Ad Populum – appeal to a crowd
Example: “Mah fehlow Ahmericans…” (LBJ)
6. Overgeneralization – too few instances are presented to reach an accurate
conclusion
Example: Tall men like ice cream.
7. False Analogy – wrongful comparisons of dissimilar situations
Example: Doctors have x-rays to guide them during operations; therefore,
students should be able to use their books during examinations.
Proofreading and Editing Symbols
15
Proofreading symbols are used to identify mistakes within writing. Below are the most common proofreading symbols, with an explanation of each.
Symbol Explanation|| Begin a new paragraph
Capitalize a lowercase letter/ Use a lowercase letter
Insert a missing word, letter, or punctuation mark
Close up spaceDelete a word, letter, or punctuation mark
WW Wrong word usedWC Word choice could be improvedSP Spell out
Change the order of letters or wordsAdd a period
, Add a comma# Add a space:/ Add a colon
Add a hyphen ‘ Add an apostrophe “ “ Insert quotation marks
D – Delete all unnecessary fluff!
R – Rearrange words and/or chunks of text
A – Add connections to text (citations), transitions, further
commentary where necessary
F – Format throughout paper
T – Talk it out: meet with teacher/peer for conference
Tone Vocabulary List16
Positive Tone/Attitude Words
Amiable Consoling Friendly Playful
Appreciative Dreamy Hopeful Proud
Authoritative Ecstatic Impassioned Relaxed
Benevolent Elated Jovial Reverent
Brave Elevated Joyful Romantic
Calm Encouraging Jubilant Soothing
Cheerful Energetic Lighthearted Surprised
Cheery Enthusiastic Loving Sweet
Compassionate Excited Optimistic Sympathetic
Complimentary Exuberant Passionate Vibrant
Confident Fanciful Peaceful Whimsical
Negative Tone/Attitude Words
Accusing Choleric Furious Quarrelsome
Aggravated Coarse Harsh Shameful
Agitated Cold Haughty Smooth
Angry Condemnatory Hateful Snooty
Apathetic Condescending Hurtful Superficial
Arrogant Contradictory Indignant Surly
Artificial Critical Inflammatory Testy
Audacious Desperate Insulting Threatening
Belligerent Disappointed Irritated Tired
Bitter Disgruntled Manipulative Uninterested
Boring Disgusted Obnoxious Wrathful
Brash Disinterested Outraged
Childish Facetious Passive
Humor-Irony-Sarcasm Tone/Attitude Words
Amused Droll Mock-heroic Sardonic
Bantering Facetious Mocking Satiric
Bitter Flippant Mock-serious Scornful
Caustic Giddy Patronizing Sharp
Comical Humorous Pompous Silly
Condescending Insolent Quizzical Taunting
Contemptuous Ironic Ribald Teasing
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Critical Irreverent Ridiculing Whimsical
Cynical Joking Sad Wry
Disdainful Malicious Sarcastic
Sorrow-Fear-Worry Tone/Attitude Words
Aggravated Embarrassed Morose Resigned
Agitated Fearful Mournful Sad
Anxious Foreboding Nervous Serious
Apologetic Gloomy Numb Sober
Apprehensive Grave Ominous Solemn
Concerned Hollow Paranoid Somber
Confused Hopeless Pessimistic Staid
Dejected Horrific Pitiful Upset
Depressed Horror Poignant
Despairing Melancholy Regretful
Disturbed Miserable Remorseful
Neutral Tone/Attitude Words
Admonitory Dramatic Intimae Questioning
Allusive Earnest Judgmental Reflective
Apathetic Expectant Learned Reminiscent
Authoritative Factual Loud Resigned
Baffled Fervent Lyrical Restrained
Callous Formal Matter-of-fact Seductive
Candid Forthright Meditative Sentimental
Ceremonial Frivolous Nostalgic Serious
Clinical Haughty Objective Shocking
Consoling Histrionic Obsequious Sincere
Contemplative Humble Patriotic Unemotional
Conventional Incredulous Persuasive Urgent
Detached Informative Pleading Vexed
Didactic Inquisitive Pretentious Wistful
Disbelieving Instructive Provocative Zealous
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Copyright 2018, Washington High School English Department
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