The Earliest Accounts of Āsanain Yoga Literature

Dominik Wujastyk

University of Alberta(& University of Vienna)

Vogüé, April 2015

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 1 / 32

Why Asana?

According to Patañjali’s Pātañjalayogaśāstra, the purpose ofasana “sitting, posture,” is

to remove the con ict of dualities (2.48)Once that has happened, it is possible to practiceinterrupting the breathing in and out (2.49),and that in turndestroys the karma that covers of the light of knowledge(2.52) andmakes the mind t for concentration on one place(dhāraṇā, 2.53).

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 2 / 32

New Discoveries about PatañjaliFour Paradigm Shifts

1 The text of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra, i.e., the undividedSūtra and its commentary, the Bhāṣya, is a singlecomposition that can be traced back to a single author.

2 That author is Patañjali.3 This uni ed text can be plausibly dated to about CE 400.– Maas, 2006, viii . Wujastyk, 2012, Maas, 2013

4 The most important and authentic early commentary isthe Vivaraṇa of Śaṅkara.– Harimoto, 2014

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 3 / 32

Patañjali’s World

How much can we say about Patañjali’s world?When did he live?

Ca.325–425 CE. = Gupta period.What was the culture that surrounded him?

Buddhist.His citations from Vasubandhu ( . 316–396)

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 4 / 32

Patañjali’s use of Vibhāṣā materials

Vasubandhu ( . 316–396) Patañjali ( . 325–425)

Black = identical;Red = important changes of sense;blue = unimportant variations.– Diagram from maas-sarv

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 5 / 32

Sitting Down to Meditate in Ancient India:Pallaṅka

In early Buddhist descriptions, the rst thing that themeditator does in meditation is to sit in a particular way. ThePali says that he sits down (nisīdati) and then “bends thepallaṅkam,” or perhaps, “he bends to the pallaṅkam.” Thelatter word is the grammatical object of “bending,” which isfrom the root ā√bhuj, that also covers movements like“turning” and “contracting.” Relinquishing this posture isexpressed by the phrase “breaking the pallaṅkam”.This word is commonly translated as “cross-legged,” and itmay mean this. But in fact, it is a mysterious word with noclear etymology. It’s history is obscure, and the early authorsdo not explain it. Later, the word also comes to mean whatyou sit on, for example a cushion or chair, arriving English as“palanquin.”

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 6 / 32

Seated Meditators at the Time of Patañjali

Fisher, 1993, #42.

Buddha in lotus posture witheyes closed and the teachinghand-sign.Sarnath, c. 475CE

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 7 / 32

Seated Meditators at the Time of Patañjali

Behrendt, 2007, Fig. 39.

Seated Buddha. Gandhara,0–200 CE. (Feet reversed.)

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 8 / 32

Seated Meditators at the Time of Patañjali

ibid., Fig. 18.

Seated Buddha Shakyamuni,Ahicchatra in N. India,Kanishka 32 = CE161.

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 9 / 32

Seated Meditators at the Time of PatañjaliJainism

Jain Education International For Private & Personal Use Only www.jainelibrary.org

Amara Muni Jī Maharāj, 2004, pp. 2.108–109.

Five postures described in theṬhāṇāṅgasutta 5.1.396:1 Standing (ṭhāṇātite),2 Bent Up Sitting(ukkuḍuāsaṇite),

3 Statue Standing(paḍimaṭṭhātī),

4 Hero Posture (vīrāsaṇie),5 Sitting Down Posture(ṇesajjite)

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 10 / 32

Seated Meditators at the Time of PatañjaliOpen Questions

Fisher, 1989, pl. 3.

Ascetic at Harwan, 3rd-5thcentury CE.At the Buddhist site at Harwanin the Kashmir valley, not farfrom Jahangir’s Shalimargardens, a series of enigmaticterracotta tiles werediscovered in 1895. Some ofthe tiles depict strange imagesof crouching ascetics, in a stylethat show no clear a liationwith any other known tradition.

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 11 / 32

The translations that follow were done jointly by DominikWujastyk and Philipp Maas from the original Sanskrit works,consulting both printed editions and selected manuscripts.

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 12 / 32

Bhagavadgītā ch.6 Ica. 150–100BCE

10–11 After having prepared himself in a pure region arm seat, which is neither to high nor too low, onwhich he places cloth, an antelope skin, and kuśagrass, the yogi should always concentrate himself,while he remains in solitude, alone, controllingmind and body, without wishes and property.

12 There, the yogi focuses his intellect on a singleobject and controls the activities of his mind andsenses. He should sit on the seat and practiceyoga in order to attain his own purity.

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 13 / 32

Bhagavadgītā ch.6 IIca. 150–100BCE

13 He should hold his straight trunk, head and neckmotionless. Being rm, he beholds the tip of hisown nose and does not look around.

14 Being at peace, free from fear, rm in his vow ofchastity, he controls his mind (manas), andfocussing his consciousness (citta) on me, heremains in concentration with me as his highestobject.

15 Concentrating himself in this way all the time, theyogi with his controlled mind (manas) reaches thetranquillity that depends on me, the highest formof Nirvana.

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 14 / 32

A Manuscript of Patañjali’s WorkAhmedabad LDI 34(1)

Folios of a manuscript of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra.Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 15 / 32

Patañjali himself I2.45 (end) – 2.48

The commitments (yama) and obligations (niyama) have beenstated, together with the special abilities (siddhi). Now, weshall explain the postures (āsana), etc.In this connection,A posture becomes steady and comfortable …Thus, we have:

the Lotus Posture (padmāsana),the Good Fortune Posture (bhadrāsana),the Hero Posture (vīrāsana),the Lucky Mark (svastika),

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 16 / 32

Patañjali himself II2.45 (end) – 2.48

the Sta Posture (daṇḍāsana),the Supported (sopāśraya),the Couch (paryaṅka),Sitting Like a Sarus Crane (krauñcaniṣadana),Sitting Like an Elephant (hastiniṣadana),Sitting Like a Camel (uṣṭraniṣadana),Being Situated Flat (samasaṃsthāna),Steady Calm (sthitapraśrabdhi),andAs is Comfortable (yathāsukha), and so on like this.

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 17 / 32

Patañjali himself III2.45 (end) – 2.48

… by means of relaxation of effort and mergingmeditatively in infinity.“It becomes” completes the sentence.1The posture (āsana) is achieved because e ort stops; thebody does not tremble. Alternatively, the mind (citta),merging meditatively into in nity, brings about the posture(āsana).Because of that, one is not hurt by the pairs ofopposites.Because one masters the postures, one is not overcome bythe pairs of opposites such as heat and cold.

1Thus, the whole sentence is, ”A posture becomes steady andcomfortable by means of a relaxation of e ort and merging meditatively inin nity.”

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 18 / 32

The Vivaraṇa Commentary by Śaṅkara

Manuscript Trivandrum L 662Edition: Rama Sastri and Krishnamurthi Sastri, 1952

Translations: Leggett, 1996; Rukmani, 2001

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 19 / 32

The Vivaraṇa Commentary by Śaṅkara I2.45 (end) – 2.46

The commitments (yama) and obligations (niyama) havebeen stated, together with the special abilities (siddhi). Nowwe shall explain the postures and so on. A posture becomessteady and comfortable.Posture is steady and comfortable.One should practice that posture which produces steadinessof mind and limbs for the person who is in it, and which doesnot lead to su ering. Thus, for example: The names LotusPosture (padmāsana), and so on, that are well known inother disciplines, are presented.In this connection, a pure person should sip water in theproper manner in a pure temple, in a mountain cave, or on

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 20 / 32

The Vivaraṇa Commentary by Śaṅkara II2.45 (end) – 2.46

the sandbank of a river, in a place that is not close to re orwater, where there are no people, and that free fromblemishes. He should bow to the Supreme Lord, the one Lordof the Whole World, the revered Masters of Yoga, and to hisown teachers. Facing east or north, he should take up hisposition on a seat that causes no discomfort, covered withcloth, antelope skin, and kuśa grass. He should take up one ofthe following postures.In this context, the Lotus Posture (padmāsana) is like this:drawing the left foot in towards oneself (pādamupasaṃhṛtya), one should then place it over the right. Andlikewise, the right one on top of the left.

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 21 / 32

The Vivaraṇa Commentary by Śaṅkara III2.45 (end) – 2.46

Sti ening (viṣṭhabhya) the hips (kaṭi), trunk (uras) and neck(grīva), with the gaze xed on the end of the nose, like a deador sleeping person, with the cavity of the lips (oṣṭhasaṃpuṭa)closed like a box (samudgakavat), not touching the tops ofthe teeth with the teeth, one’s chin and chest separated by aspace the measure of a st, with the tip of the tongue placedbetween the front teeth, with the hands on top of his heels,one makes either the Tortoise (kacchapaka) or Brahmāñjaligesture.The posture in which one is seated, after once establishingthe position in this manner, having completely given up

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 22 / 32

The Vivaraṇa Commentary by Śaṅkara IV2.45 (end) – 2.46

repeated e ort at a particular adjustment of the body, is theLotus Posture (padmāsana).And all this is the same for the other postures (āsana) too.There is just a little variation (viśeṣa).Thus, the posture in which one is seated, having placed theright foot on top of the left, and the right hand on top of theleft, is the Good Fortune Posture (bhadrāsana). Everythingelse is the same.Thus, in the Hero Posture (vīrāsana), one of the feet iscurled in (ākuñcita), and the lower (apara) knee is placeddown on the ground. In each case, I am explaining only whatis special (viśeṣa).

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 23 / 32

The Vivaraṇa Commentary by Śaṅkara V2.45 (end) – 2.46

The posture in which one is seated with the right big toetucked in between the left thigh (ūru) and calf (jaṅghā) so thatit cannot be seen, and with the left big toe tucked invisibly inbetween the right thigh (ūru) and calf (jaṅghā), in such a waythat the heels do not hurt the testicles, is the Lucky MarkPosture (svastikāsana).The posture in which one sits down like a stick, stretching outthe feet with the ankles, big toes and knees aligned, is theSta Posture (daṇḍāsana).Or, the Supported (sopāśraya) is with a support such as aprop or a yoga cloth ligature (yogapaṭṭa).

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 24 / 32

The Vivaraṇa Commentary by Śaṅkara VI2.45 (end) – 2.46

The Couch Posture (paryaṅkāsana) consists of lying withthe arms stretched out towards the knees.Sitting Like a Sarus Crane (krauñcaniṣadana), Sitting Likean Elephant (hastiniṣadana) and Sitting Like a Camel(uṣṭraniṣadana) can be understood from their similarity to thesitting position of the Sarus crane, etc.Being Situated Flat (samasaṃsthitam) consists of havingthe calves and thighs placed down on the ground.“Steady Calm (sthitapraśrabdhi).”Steady Calm (sthitapraśrabdhi) is sitting in any di erentmanner that one has thought of for oneself. And also that

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 25 / 32

The Vivaraṇa Commentary by Śaṅkara VII2.45 (end) – 2.46

posture in which one becomes free of e ort is called SteadyCalm (sthitaprasrabdhi).And As is Comfortable (yathāsukha). As is Comfortable(yathāsukha) is that form which produces comfort for theseated person.From the expression “et cetera” one can infer any otherposture as taught by the teacher.

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 26 / 32

The Vivaraṇa Commentary by Śaṅkara ISūtra 2.47

And so, now the method for mastering those postures ispresented:by means of relaxation of effort and mergingmeditatively in infinity.The sentence is completed by, ”it becomes.” This additionmeans, ”posture becomes rmly established.” It is achievedeither by the cessation of e ort at a time after the posture istaken up, or else by not making any e ort. ”By which thebody does not tremble.” ”By which” means by the cessationof e ort. For e ort makes the body quiver. What it means is,”that by which ones posture becomes motionless.” Or, it ismerged (samāpanna) in in nity. In nity (ananta) means the

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 27 / 32

The Vivaraṇa Commentary by Śaṅkara IISūtra 2.47

All (viśva); in nitude (ānantya) is the fact of being in nite(anantabhāva). Being merged in that, having pervaded it,mind (citta), established as being the All, brings about, i.e.,makes rm, the posture.

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 28 / 32

The Vivaraṇa Commentary by Śaṅkara ISūtra 2.48

Because of that, one is not hurt by the pairs ofopposites (dvandva).“Because of that” means because the posture becomes rm.It appears as a natural consequence that, “one is notovercome by the pairs of opposites such as heat and cold.”

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 29 / 32

Conclusions

Reading the sutras under the assumption that the Bhāṣyacommentary is also by Patañjali makes a huge di erenceto our understanding.Patañjali knows a relatively short list of postures.He doesn’t explain how to do them.The most useful early commentary is Śaṅkara’s Vivaraṇa.The least useful early commentary is that of VācaspatiMiśra.There is a lot still to learn and understand!

(This handout is downloadable from http://academia.edu.)

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 30 / 32

References I

Āgāśe, Ve. Śā. Rā. Rā. Kāśīnātha Śāstrī and Hari Nārāyaṇa Āpaṭe, eds. (1904).VācaspatiMiśraviracitaṭīkāsaṃvalitaVyāsabhāṣyasametāni Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi tathāBhojadevaviracitaRājamārtaṇḍābhidhavṛttisametāni Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi. Vol. 47.Ānandāśramasaṃskṛtagranthāvaliḥ. Puṇyākhya-pattana: Ānandāśramamudraṇālaya. URL:https://archive.org/details/patanjaliyoga.

Amara Muni Jī Maharāj, ed. (2004). Sacitra Śrī Sthānāṃgasūtra, Ganadhara Śrī Sudharmā Svāmi Praṇīta TṛtīyaAṃga. Mūla Pāṭha – Hindī – Aṃgrejī anuvāda, vivecana evaṃ raṃgīna citroṃ sahita = The Third Anga Writtenby Ganadhar Shri Sudharma Swami. Illustrated Shri Sthānanga Sutra. English Translation by SurendraBothara. 2v. Dillī: Padma Prakāśana.

Behrendt, Kurt A. (2007). The Art of Gandhara in the Metropolitan useum of Ar. New York, New Haven andLondon: The Metropolitan Museum of Art and Yale University Press. URL:http://www.metmuseum.org/research/metpublications/titles-with-full-text-online?searchtype=F.

Fisher, Robert E. (1989). “The Enigma of Harwan”. In: Art and Architecture of Ancient Kashmir. Ed. byPratapaditya Pal. Bombay: Marg Publications. Chap. 1, pp. 1–16.

Fisher, Robert E. (1993). Buddhist Art and Architecture. Reprinted 2002. London: London: Thames & Hudson.

Harimoto, Kengo (2014). God, Reason, and Yoga. A Critical Edition and Translation of the Commentary Ascribed toŚaṅkara on Pātañjalayogaśāstra 1.23–28. Vol. 1. Indian and Tibetan Series. Hamburg: Department of Indianand Tibetan Studies, Universitfit Hamburg.

Leggett, Trevor (1996). Śaṅkara on the Yoga Sūtra-s. A Full Translation of the Newly Discovered Text. Firstpublished in 1990. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. URL:http://www.amazon.com/Sankara-Sutras-Translation-Newly-Discovered/dp/8120810287.

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 31 / 32

References II

Maas, Philipp A. (2006). Samādhipāda: das erste Kapitel des Pātañjalayogaśāstra zum ersten Mal kritisch ediert =The First Chapter of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra for the First Time Critically Edited. Aachen: Shaker.

Maas, Philipp A. (2013). “A Concise Historiography of Classical Yoga Philosophy”. In: Historiography andPeriodization of Indian Philosophy. Ed. by Eli Franco. Vienna. academia: 3520571.

Rama Sastri and S. R. Krishnamurthi Sastri, eds. (1952). Pātn̄jala[sic]-yogasūtra-bhāṣya Vivaraṇam ofŚaṅkara-Bhagavatpāda Critically Edited with Introduction. Vol. 94. Madras Government Oriental Series.Madras: Government Oriental Manuscripts Library. URL:https://archive.org/details/Patanjala-yogasutra-bhasyaVivaranamOfSankara-bhagavatpada.

Rukmani, T. S. (2001). Yogasutrabhasyavivarana of Sankara: Vivarana Text with English Translation and CriticalNotes along with Text and English Translation of Patanjali’s Yogasutras and Vyasabhasya. 2v. New Delhi:Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.

Wujastyk, Dominik (2012). “The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda”. In: Yoga inPractice. Ed. by David G. White. Princeton University Press, pp. 31–42. academia: 3216968.

Dominik Wujastyk Āsana in Early Yoga Literature Vogüé, April 2015 32 / 32