Amicus Brief South and Southeast Asia

United Nations World Court of Historical Affairs

Post-Classical Situation ReportThe United Nations is charged with the maintenance and order of world affairs. Keeping in line with this mission to provide stability and justice in the world the UN Council on Historical Affairs has compiled the

following brief to serve as an overview of cultural affairs on the planet from 600 C.E. to 1450 C.E.

The UNWCHA will be charged with hearing evidence from the seven regions of the planet outlining their behaviors in creating frameworks of socio-cultural behaviors to provide for their people.

In the interest of full disclosure this amicus brief will provide litigation teams with all information already gathered by the court on each of the seven cultures. The following is that evidence.

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The History of India and the Indian culture is complicated because of the many different ethnic groups, religions and languages on the Indian sub-continent. Since the earliest cultures along the Indus and Ganges Rivers, India has grown to be over 1 billion people and its surrounding areas combine for nearly another 1 billion. India is the world's largest democracy and one of the world's most powerful economies. Understanding its history will be vital for people interested in doing business or anyone involved in politics during the 21st century. In India, Hinduism and Buddhism are the dominant forces throughout its history and they continue to be a very powerful layer of culture even today.

The region referred to as India actually encompassed an area so large it is called the Indian or South Asian sub-content. Today the sub-continent is divided into several nations but historically it has been one large culture although rarely united under a single dynastic ruler.  The dominant countries today are India which is the largest and dominated by Hindu culture, Pakistan which is primarily Muslim and Bangladesh which is also Muslim.  

 

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History of India

 

Commonly divided into Ten Periods1. Indus Valley Civilization: led by the city states of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa2. Aryans (2500BC – 322BC)Hinduism and regional kingdoms develop3. The Mauryan Empire (322BC – 188BC)Spread of Buddhism and the first Indian Empire started by Chandragupta4. Gupta Period (320AD – 480AD)Golden Age of India5. Muslim Invasions (1175AD – 1300AD)Muslims Turks from Afghanistan invade and begin to re-unite India into small kingdoms6. Delhi Sultanate is the largest of these kingdoms ruled by Muslim Turks 7. Mughals – most powerful of Indian dynasties controlled most of today’s India, Pakistan and Bangladesh

 The Gupta Empire Begins

The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire that was founded in 320 CE and survived until about 550 CE. The Gupta Empire covered most of north and central India, as well as Bangladesh. It was known to be one of the most peaceful and wealthy civilizations of its time. The Mauryan Empire collapsed in 185 B.C.E, after their final king was assassinated. For the next 500 years, the many states in India were at constant war. When Chandragupta ascended the throne and began the notable empire in 320 CE, the time of darkness was reversed. Chandragupta set up a stable civilization with a well-functioning government, but his son, Samudragupta, was the individual responsible for extending the empire. He raided through Indian territories with little mercy. One unique tactic by the ruler was using war elephants in his conquests.

Gupta Culture

Although Samudragupta was a fighter, he loved the arts as well. Artists were so highly appreciated in the Gupta Empire that they were actually paid for their work.  After the conquests of expanding the empire, the Gupta’s were relatively peaceful. Because of this, the Gupta’s were very tolerant of other religions, specifically Buddhism, even though their culture revolved around Hinduism. The prosperity of the civilization grew, especially after Chandragupta II succeeded his father. This allowed for lots of leisure time within the society. This spare time permitted for the Gupta’s to be successful with literature as well as mathematical and scientific endeavors. Literature developed extensively; Sanskrit writing became a great beneficiary to the empire. The free expression and creativity in the writing was revolutionary.

 

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Gupta Poetry and Literature

During the Gupta Empire literature was produced extensively. The most common form of literature in the empire was narratives. These narratives focused primarily on human behaviors, instead of religion and philosophy, which was groundbreaking. Some of the most prevalent narratives were fables and tales. These fables featured animals that played the parts of kings, princes, princesses, ministers, and spies; usually containing a comedic lesson of wisdom. Poetry and romantic comedies were also very widespread in narratives. Medical texts were revolutionary during the Gupta Empire as well. Sanskrit texts such as “SushrutaSamhita” contained concepts of ayurvedic medicine. In such literature there were countless entries about surgery; broadening the knowledge of the procedure of lifesaving practices. The ancient text “Kama Sutra” was about human sexual behaviors. This was a new concept in health and medicine, and it had a major influence. Sanskrit literature was transformed during the reign of the Gupta. Historians argue that Sanskrit literature was at its highest point during the Gupta, mainly due to the vast wealth and peace of the empire. Several Gupta rulers patronized Sanskrit literature, which made it increasingly popular. Chandragupta II sponsored this writing so much that he had nine poets who permanently resided in his court. The sharing of knowledge introduced by literature allowed for much advancement in both science and mathematics.

 

Gupta Mathematics

This creativity of the empire also translated into mathematics. Perhaps one of the Gupta’s most notable accomplishments was the discovery of the decimal system and zero as a placeholder. The decimal system and zero as a placeholder revolutionized mathematics and allowed for new equations, theorems, notations, and more to be established. The most significant mathematical discovery was the invention of the numerals. The number system was developed by a mathematician and astronomer named Aryabhatta in 498 CE. This system became known as the Arabic numerals, but it is really a Gupta accomplishment. These numerals paved the way for scientific discoveries during the Gupta Empire as well as today. Another notable accomplishment by the Gupta was developing zero and a decimal system. This concept was also developed by Aryabhatta around a similar time. This gave the world a scalable and flexible counting system, which revolutionized mathematics. The decimal system was based on the number 10. We still use a similar decimal system today. Aryabhatta is also known for developing the formula for finding the area of a triangle. Many would argue that there isn’t much importance in triangles, but triangles are the building blocks of all polygons. Therefore, finding the area of a triangle transformed architecture across the world. Plus, almost all mathematical calculations, especially in trigonometry, revolve around A=1/2bh, which is the formula for the area of a triangle. These numerous mathematical discoveries paved the way for many new scientific theories in years to come.     

 

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Gupta Astronomy and Science

These new doors in mathematics allowed for much advancement in astronomy during the reign of the Gupta. Aryhabhata, an Indian astronomer, discovered that the earth was a sphere and figured out that the solar year had 365 days. This paved the way for countless future astronomers, and gave the world a better understanding of the solar system.   One of such concepts is that of lunar and solar eclipses. Once again, Aryabhatta discovered the cause of this phenomenon. He figured that eclipses occur when the moon comes in alignment with the Sun and the Earth. Aryabhatta was also able to accurately predict the timings of both the lunar and solar eclipses. Until the Gupta Empire, it was believed that the Earth was flat. Aryabhatta put an end to this thought by proving that the Earth and surrounding planets were in fact spheres. He was then able to prove that the earth revolves around the sun and spins on its own axis. Because space travel was out of the question at this current time in history, it was truly remarkable that the discovery of the shape of the Earth was made. Another incredible feat accomplished by Aryabhatta was how long it takes for the earth to make one revolution around the sun. He calculated that one revolution is 365.3586805 days, which is astonishingly close to recent estimates. From this calculation, the notable astronomer was able to closely exhibit the relative orbit of the sun. These scientific advancements as well as many others paved the way for astronomers throughout history. 

Gupta Religion and Ajanta Caves

The Gupta Dynasty had strong Hinduism beliefs. Both Buddhism and Hinduism were widely prevalent. The characteristic features of Hinduism enabled it to survive whereas the features of Buddhism led to its final decline. The rulers of the Gupta dynasty were all Hindu which is one reason the Buddhists were driven out. They started to prosecute the Buddhists which led them to run to the hills and built caves near Ajanta to live, hide, and worship. They were painted and sculpted showing the life of Buddha and other important Buddhist stories.  This Buddhist community stayed in these caves for about 400 years. The caves that they built were very elaborate pieces of art and depicted stories of Buddhism spanning from 200bce to 650bce. There are 29-30 caves in all and they were built with very simple tools of even rock.

The Fall of the Gupta

It wasn’t until about 455 C.E. that the Gupta Empire began having trouble. All the power, wealth, and extravagant living led the rulers to become very lazy. They became invaded by Huns and they became very weakened by the expense of the war. The Huns then took over and all of India split up into individual kingdoms.Ultimately, the Hephthalites, an Asian nomadic tribe, were the reason for the destruction of the civilization. The war with the tribe devastated the empire’s economy. By 550 C.E. the Hephthalites had decimated the Gupta Empire.

 

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Gupta Dynasty Re-Unites India (Classical India)375-550 CE

During the postclassical period there emerged in India no long‐lasting imperial authority, as there were in China and the Islamic world. Regional kingdoms were the norm. Nevertheless, Indian society exerted a profound influence on the cultures of south and southeast Asia. Through the extensive trade networks of the Indian Ocean basin, Indian forms of political organization, religion, and economic practices spread throughout the region. Several developments in India during this era gradually spread throughout the larger culture zone.

• Dramatic agricultural growth fueled population growth and urbanization. These phenomena, combined with specialized industrial production and trade, resulted in unprecedented economic growth for the region.

• India’s central position in the Indian Ocean basin resulted in it becoming a major clearinghouse for products of the voluminous maritime trade network that encompassed east Africa, Arabia, Persia, Southeast Asia, and Malaysia as well as the entire Indian subcontinent.

• Islam originally appeared in India through a variety of conduits, and it eventually became the primary religion of one quarter of the population. From India, Islam, along with Hinduism and Buddhism, spread to Southeast Asia and the nearby islands.

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Indian Political Instability c. 550 - 1050

Costly to rule India as a single empire Without stable government investment and technological progress slow or stop. Poor interregional communications also made unification difficult

India Economy c. 550 - 1150

Small, local agriculture dominates economy Most people were subsistence farmers Few markets to buy or sell products Some coastal trade with Africa and middle east along the coastline Regular local famines causes population migration and decline add into instability The ports of Southern India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving

spices, with the Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east

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India Social Life c. 550 - 1150

Caste system led to large gap between rich and poor Caste system limited social change and decreased desire to progress since people couldn’t

change caste no matter what Families remained patriarchal and large Women lost rights since the power of central government and religious central power

declined and they were not well protected

Indian Religion c. 550 - 1150: THE RISE OF SUFISM in India

Hindu dominates Many Buddhists Jains and Zoroastrians also Sufi Islam begins

o Simple living o Constant prayer o Often wear blue wool (sūf) clothing, o Mystical Muslims

The Rise of Islam in India

c. 700 - Traders from Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus c. 800 - Muslim settlers c. 1000 – Turkish Muslim invaders from Turkistan 1150 Turkish Muslim conquerors take India and build Delhi Sultanate excellent trade links with Dar al Islam

Islamic Conqueror MAHMUD OF GHAZNI ‘The Idol Breaker’

From Afghanistan 1001 – 1026 CE 17 invasions into India Destroyed Hindu temples, Captured Hindus as slaves, and Pillaged the wealth of the Indian cities.

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Delhi Sultanate - 1210 - 1256

Invasions from Afghanistan continued until Muslims controlled Northern India

Mostly Turkish people who had converted to Islam Turks protected India from Mongols for a long time (until Mughal India in 1526) The Sultans based their laws on the Qur'an and the sharia and permitted non-Muslim

subjects to practice their religion only if they paid jizya or head tax. Tried to changed architecture and society to Islam but only succeeded on the surface level

since the workers were Indian Great Mosques built, colleges founded, irrigation systems improve, taxation increased

especially for non-Muslims

Blending of Hindu and Islamic Social Life

Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion left lasting monuments in architecture, music, literature, and religion

Rulers tried to spread Muslim culture through India Invited artists, scholars from other parts of Islamic world to Delhi. Middle East, Africa,

Spain, Central Asia New culture formed, blending Muslim, Indian elements Many Indians convert to Islam to avoid high taxes and to advanced in government work Princess Razia Sultana(1236-1240) -

o First queen of a Muslim state. Popular and more intelligent than her brothers. Often dressed like a man Many Turks and Muslims resented her rule and she was assassinated

TIMUR aka Tamerlane - cruel Turkish Muslim conqueror related to Genghis Khan ended the Delhi Sultanate

Sacking of Delhi in 1398 Timur conquered Persia, Iraq and Syria and central Asia where he conquered the

Mongols; he decimated the civilian population, raped their women and children, looted properties and converted people to Islam by force.

In the city of Isfahan, he ordered several pyramids to be built each made up of 40.000 human skulls from those that his army had beheaded, and a pyramid of some 20,000 skulls was erected outside Aleppo. Timur herded thousands of citizens from Damascus into the Cathedral Mosque before setting it aflame, and had 70,000 people beheaded in Tikrit, and 90,000 more in Baghdad. As many as 17 million people may have died during his conquests.

A patron of the arts but also destroyed many great centers of learning during his conquests.

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The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion left lasting monuments in architecture, music, literature, and religion. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the mingling of Sanskritic prakrits and the Persian, Turkish and Arabic favored by the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Sultanate to stake a claim to possessing one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultan (1236-1240).

The Sultans of Delhi enjoyed cordial, if superficial, relations with other Muslim rulers in the Near East but owed them no allegiance. The Sultans based their laws on the Qur'an and the sharia and permitted non-Muslim subjects to practice their religion only if they paid jizya or head tax. The Sultans ruled from urban centers--while military camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for towns that sprang up in the countryside. Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Sultanate was its temporary success in insulating the subcontinent from the potential devastation of the Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the thirteenth century

Population: approx. 70 million

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Among the great maritime trading empires of history, the Kingdom of Srivijaya, based on the Indonesian island of Sumatra, ranks among the wealthiest and most splendid. Early records from the area are scarce – archaeological evidence suggests that the kingdom may have begun to coalesce as early as 200 CE, and likely was an organized political entity by the year 500. Its capital was near what is now Palembang, Indonesia.

Srivijaya in the Indian Ocean Trade:We know for certain that for at least four hundred years, between the seventh and eleventh centuries CE, the Kingdom of Srivijaya prospered from the rich Indian Ocean trade. Srivijaya

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controlled the key Melaka Straits, between the Malay Peninsula and the islands of Indonesia, through which passed all sorts of luxury items such as spices, tortoise shell, silk, jewels, camphor, and tropical woods. The kings of Srivijaya used their wealth, gained from transit taxes on these goods, to extend their domain as far north as what is now Thailand and Cambodia on the Southeast Asian mainland, and as far east as Borneo.The first historical source that mentions Srivijaya is the memoir of a Chinese Buddhist monk, I-Tsing, who visited the kingdom for six months in 671 CE. He describes a rich and well-organized society, which presumably had been in existence for some time. A number of inscriptions in Old Malay from the Palembang area, which are dated from as early as 682, also mention the Srivijayan Kingdom. The earliest of these inscriptions, the Kedukan Bukit Inscription, tells the story of DapuntaHyang Sri Jayanasa, who founded Srivijaya with the help of 20,000 troops. King Jayanasa went on to conquer other local kingdoms such as Malayu, which fell in 684, incorporating them in to his growing Srivijayan Empire.

The Height of the Empire:With its base on Sumatra firmly established, in the eighth century, Srivijaya expanded into Java and the Malay Peninsula, giving it control over the Melaka Straights and the ability to charge tolls on the Indian Ocean maritime Silk Routes. As a choke-point between the wealthy empires of China and India, Srivijaya was able to accumulate considerable riches and further land. By the 12th century, its reach extended as far east as the Philippines.The wealth of Srivijaya supported an extensive community of Buddhist monks, who had contacts with their co-religionists in Sri Lanka and the Indian mainland. The Srivijayan capital became an important center of Buddhist learning and thought. This influence extended to smaller kingdoms within Srivijaya’s orbit, as well, such as the Saliendra kings of Central Java, who ordered the construction of Borobudur, one the largest and most magnificent examples of Buddhist monumental building in the world.

Decline and Fall of Srivijaya:Srivijaya presented a tempting target for foreign powers and for pirates. In 1025, Rajendra Chola of the Chola Empire based in southern India attacked some of the Srivijayan Kingdom’s key ports in the first of a series of raids that would last at least 20 years. Srivijaya managed to fend off the Chola invasion after two decades, but it was weakened by the effort. As late as 1225, Chinese author Chou Ju-kua described Srivijaya as the richest and strongest state in western Indonesia, with 15 colonies or tributary states under its control.By 1288, however, Srivijaya was conquered by the Singhasari Kingdom. At this tumultuous time, in 1291-92, the famous Italian traveler Marco Polo stopped in Srivijaya on his way back from Yuan China. Despite several attempts by fugitive princes to revive Srivijaya over the next century, however, the kingdom was completely erased from the map by the year 1400. One

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decisive factor in the fall of Srivijaya was the conversion of the majority of Sumatran and Javanese to Islam, introduced by the very Indian Ocean traders who had long provided Srivijaya’s wealth.

Chola Empire

The Chola empire rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. and established the greatest empire South India had seen. They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya. They dominated the political affairs of Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese empire in the east.Cholas and Chalukyas, the other major power of that time were continuously in conflict over the control of the Vengi kingdom and this conflict eventually exhausted both the empires and brought down their decline. The Chola dynasty merged into the Eastern Chalukyan dynasty of Vengi through decades of alliances, and at the end of this period came under one ruler (Kulothunga Chola I).

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Golden EraUnder Rajaraja Chola and his equally distinguished Rajendra Chola gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established it as a respected sea power. Rajraraja consolidated the Chola defences in the north by eliminating the last remnants of the Rashtrakuta power. The Rashtrakutas were replaced by the resurgence of Chalukyas of Kalyani. This was the beginning of the long history of conflict between the Cholas and the Western Chalukyas. The Chola-Chalukya conflicts resulted in the river Tungabhadra being recognised as the frontier between the two kingdoms.Rajaraja soon extended his kingdom overseas to Lanka and the Chola army occupied most of the island (993 C.E). Rajaraja also invaded Vengi to restore the throne to his nephew Saktivarman.Rajendra Chola extended his father’s successes by completing the conquest of Lanka (1018 C.E.). The Sinhala king was captured and imprisoned in the Chola country. Rajendra also had to fight the Western Chalukyas (1021 C.E.) and invade Vengi to sustain the Chola influence there (1031 C.E.).Rajendra’s reign was marked by his expedition to the river Ganges (c. 1019 C.E.). The Chola army dashed through the kingdoms north of Vengi and engaged the Pala king Mahipala and defeated him. The victorious Chola army returned with the waters of the holy Ganges. Historians now discount this expedition as nothing more than a pilgrimage to the Ganges and no permanent gain of territories resulted from it. The inscriptions of Rajaraja however glorify this as a major conquest.Rajendra’s overseas conflicts are of similar nature. The Chola navy attacked and conquered the kingdom of Srivijaya. The cause of this conflict is likely commercial interests rather than political. Srivijaya was located at the hub of the thriving trade between Cholas and the ancient China. This expedition was to secure Chola strategic interests. There was no permanent territorial gain and the kingdom was returned to the Srivijaya king for recognition of Chola superiority and the payment of periodic tributes.

Society and CultureThe medieval Cholas under Rajaraja and his successors developed a highly organised administrative structure with central control and autonomous village assemblies. The system of government was a hereditary monarchy and the coronation of the king was an impressive ceremony. The royal household comprised of numerous servants of varied descriptions. For the purpose of administration the empire was divided into convenient areas such as valanadu, mandalam, nadu, etc. Land revenue was the mainstay of public finance and great care was undertaken to recording land rights and revenue dues.Justice was administered by regularly constituted royal courts in addition to village courts. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were dealt with the king himself. The most striking feature of the Chola period was the unusual vigour and efficiency of the autonomous rural institutions.This period of the Chola rule saw the maturity of the Tamil Temple architecture. Rajaraja built the great Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur. His son Rajendra imitated this effort by building the temple at his new capital GangaikondaCholapuram. This age also saw the Hindu religious revival in both Saiva and Vaishnava traditions. The Saiva and Vishnava canons were collected and categorised during this period. However the later half of this period saw the state sponsored persecution of those of the Vaishnava persuasion. Their spiritual leader Ramanuja was persecuted and driven out of the Chola country.

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Khmer Empire

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The Khmer empire was a powerful state in South East Asia, formed by people of the same name, lasting from 802 CE to 1431 CE. At its peak, the empire covered much of what today is Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, and southern Vietnam.

Khmer GeographyBy the 7th century CE, Khmer people inhabited territories along the Mekong river -the world’s seventh longest river - from the delta to roughly the modern Cambodia-Laos border, plus the region between that river and the great Tonle Sap lake to the west and the area running along the Tonle Sap river (which runs from the lake to the sea, joining the Mekong in the delta). There were several kingdoms at constant war against each other, with art and culture heavily influenced by India due to long established sea trade routes with that subcontinent.

Khmer ReligionHinduism mostly, but Buddhism as well, were important religions in the region, mixed with animist and traditional cults.

Khmer ExpansionImportant cities from that time include Angkor Borei, SamborPreiKuk, BanteayPreiNokor and WatPhu. A man called Jayavarman II, who is said to have come from a place named Java - which may or may not be the island we call Java in Southeast Asia, led a series of successful military campaigns, subjugating most of these petty kingdoms, that resulted in the founding of a large territorial state. In 802 CE he took the title chakravartin, “universal ruler”, and that date is used to signal the start of the empire.Using the city of Angkor as capital, for the next centuries the Khmer empire expanded its territorial base, mostly to the north (entering the Khorat plateau) and the west, to the Chao Phraya basin and beyond. To the east outcomes were different: several times the Khmer fought wars against two neighboring peoples with powerful kingdoms, the Cham (in today’s central Vietnam) and the Vietnamese (in today’s northern Vietnam). Despite some victories, as in 1145 CE, when Cham’s capital Vijaya was taken, the empire was never able to annex those lands. Conversely, Chams and Vietnamese enjoyed some victories of their own, the most spectacular of which was Cham’s humiliating revenge, looting Angkor (1177 CE) and pushing the empire to the edge of destruction.

Throughout the empire’s history, Khmer’s court was repeatedly concerned with putting down rebellions initiated by ambitious nobles trying to achieve independence, or fighting conspiracies against the king. This was particularly true each time a king died, as successions were usually contested.

Khmer ArchitectureThe Khmer were great builders, filling the landscape with monumental temples, huge reservoirs (called baray) and canals, and laying an extensive road network with all sorts of bridges -the main highways are 800 km long. The most stunning temple, Angkor Wat, is a microcosm of the Hindu universe and defies imagination as the world’s largest religious complex - covering 200 hectares; nowadays it is crowded with tourists amazed with ruins that until recently were covered by the jungle. Its construction took some 30 years and was started by one of the greatest kings, Suryavarman II, around 1122 CE.

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Khmer RulersThe empire’s greatest king was Jayavarman VII (r. 1181 CE - 1215 CE). He expelled the Chams who took Angkor, restoring the realm from anarchy, and then invaded Champa (Cham’s kingdom). The scale of his construction programme was unprecedented: he built temples, monuments, highways, a hundred hospitals, and the spectacular Angkor Thom complex - a city within a city in Angkor. Jayavarman also expanded the empire’s territorial control to its zenith.

Angkor’s original name was Yashodharapura (“Glory-bearing city”), and at its apogee it was the biggest city in the world, covering an area of a thousand square kilometres, close to that of modern Los Angeles in the USA. Its population is much harder to estimate, but a figure of aproximately one million is acceptable.

Khmer CultureThe Khmer were festive people, with many celebrations all the year round. Wrestling, horse races, cock fights, fireworks, music and dances were an integral part of their culture. Most of the realm’s commerce was apparently in the hands of women. The king and the elite were transported on palanquins, and used umbrellas to cover from the sun. There were several religious beliefs present, with Hinduism being favored (yet not exclusively) by the kings at first, and Buddhism later. The state was divided into approximately 23 provinces, with a sophisticated administration and extensive personnel going down even to the village level. Censuses were carried out periodically. Although key to the empire’s prosperity, the high officers of this bureaucracy were also part of the plots that plagued the court’s history.The empire’s decline and final collapse is deeply connected with the great Thai migration of the 12th-14th centuries CE. They inhabited an area to the north of the empire, roughly where China ends and Southeast Asia begins; the Yunnan. It is a mountainous, harsh land, where a Thai kingdom called Nanchao existed. For unknown reasons, Thai populations started migrating south, in small groups at first. Thais first appear in records as as hired mercenaries for the empire, and their numbers rose as they began to establish themselves as settlers in marginal areas. The migration intensified when Mongol campaigns shook China, and when the Mongols took Yunnan in 1253 CE, further pressure for Thai migration ensued. Eventually the Thai created their own small kingdoms, the most important of them in the western side of the empire. As these kingdoms grew in power, they started to attack and annex imperial territories. The empire’s economy by this time may also have been deteriorated by increased silting of the massive water works that the Khmer core area depended on. The Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya took Angkor in 1431 CE, which constitutes the end of the Khmer empire.

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HinduismIn the beginning, the atman or self-soul somehow, usually through desire or selfishness, separated itself from brahma. Salvation is achieved through a spiritual reunion of the soul, atman, with the ultimate reality of the universe, brahma. To achieve this goal, the soul must obtain moksha, or perfect understanding, to release it from the samsara, the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. A Hindu does this by following dharma or religiously defined caste duties. The different sects of Hinduism follow differing paths to moksha. If one performs dharma correctly one avoids aspects of negative karma, or those things which multiply rebirths and prolong existence. At the end of all the cycles of rebirth, a Hindu achieves nirvana. Because of these beliefs, Hindus cannot eat meats of any kind. If all life is related, than any animal you might eat is a soul in an incarnation.

The status of lives within the life cycle prompted the establishment of the caste system. Hindus call the castes, jatis or varuna (color). Actually, the caste system evolved more out of the Aryans’ need to establish a control system for India, once they had conquered India. The higher castes are purer Aryan and tend to be fair skinned. The lower castes are darker skinned and are largely Dravidian. This system exhibits significant social and economic implications on the Hindu population. It dictates choice of occupation, marriage partners, foods consumed, and other issues. Classes were originally based on an individual's natural qualities and functions evolved into rigid divisions over time. According to the Law of Manu, one should think of humankind as part of the cosmic body of brahma. The priests or Brahmins are the mouths of brahma; they hear, see, think, and speak for brahma. The Kshatriyas or warriors are the arms and protectors of the body. The vaisayas are the stomach of God; they feed and care for the body. Socially they are merchants, farmers, herders, pharmacists, etc. The shudra or lowest caste is alternatively the thighs or feet of God; they perform the labor of the body. Outside of the caste system in India are the outcastes, or pariahs. These people are not technically a caste but groups of people, who are ritually impure. They handle and touch death. No Hindu can have contact of any type with the pariahs on pain of suffering karma affecting rebirth.

BuddhismBuddhism was founded in the sixth century BCE by Siddhartha Gautama, a Hindu Kshatriya, and carried on afterwards by his followers. Siddhartha was born in Lumbini near the border of present-day India and Nepal. His dissatisfaction with the nature of suffering and the answers of existing religion led him in a quest which eventually brought him to enlightenment, and thus the title, the Buddha--meaning "an enlightened one".

Buddhism is primarily a spiritual philosophy and system of ethics. As originally practiced, it places little or no emphasis on deities, teaching that the goal of the faithful is to achieve nirvana, a blissful state of release from the bonds of the self, the world, and samsara, the endless round of birth, death, and rebirth in successive lives. Spiritual perfection is achieved through the practice of humility, generosity, mercy, abstention from violence, and above all, self-control. The major writings of Buddhism are a collection of greater and lesser writings, known as the Tripitaka. They are a collection of teachings, monastic rules, and philosophy of the Buddha. Many of these teachings are known as sutras. One of the most important symbols of Buddhism is the wheel of life, which depicts the cycle of birth and death. The

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eight spokes represent the Eightfold Path. The lotus blossom is strongly associated with the Buddha, symbolic of the enlightenment of the soul.

Whether as a religion, one in which Buddha attains the status of a god, or as a philosophy, Buddhism shares few concepts with Christianity. For example, Buddhists do not believe in a transcendent or immanent God or gods, or a personal savior. Even in Mahayana Buddhism, the gods and Bodhisattvas will eventually enter Nirvana after they have helped all other souls achieve the same goal. Buddhism believes that the position of humanity is supreme--humanity is responsible for saving itself. Buddhism requires no faith, but is a matter of seeing and knowing. The teachings of Buddhism are wholly practical, refraining from questions such as "Where did I come from?" and "Where am I going?" Rather, it is concluded that such questions lead to sadness, confusion, and strife: only distracting from the task at hand. Enlightenment, as would be expected, is complex. Many things became apparent to Gautama Buddha under the Bodhi tree. Of these, the Four Noble Truths are the basic teachings on the human condition. The Four Noble Truths are:

1. All is pain, suffering, sorrow, misery, impermanence, imperfection, emptiness, insubstantiality, and hollowness. There is no "I" or "self"; only a combination of energies known as the Five Aggregates which are matter, sensations, perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness. These five aggregates are not separate from Dukkha, but are responsible for the perception of self by working interdependently according to cause and effect.

2. The cause of suffering is desire --the desire to have and control sense gratification. These desires include the desires found in pleasures such as intoxication, sex, or eating as well as the desire for existence or popularity. Death does not end the

existence of these energies.

3. To end pain, end desire. It is truth that leads to the cessation of pain and desire, which leads to the end suffering, called Nirvana. Nirvana is total detachment and extinction of desire. Nirvana is absolute truth or the realization of absolute truth. One who has realized Nirvana in this life is free from attachment, desire, greed, hatred, conceit, ignorance; free to enjoy things in their purest sense, left with universal love, kindness, compassion, and understanding. Wanting nothing, such are free from illusions of self.

4. The path to the cessation of desire is found in the Noble Eightfold Path, which is the way to Nirvana. It is the "middle path," avoiding the extremes of life such as extreme wealth or extreme poverty, and asceticism or gluttony.

The Noble Eightfold Path or Path of Righteousness has eight precepts divided into three groups. Wisdom involves Right Understanding (of the Four Noble Truths) and Right Thought (selfless renunciation, universal love, etc.). Ethical conduct includes Right Speech (not to lie, slander, gossip, foolishly babble); Right Conduct (not to kill, steal, fornicate, become intoxicated, etc.); and Right Livelihood (not to trade in arms, drugs, alcohol, or promote evil). Mental Discipline includes Right Effort (will to prevent evil and

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unwholesome states of mind); Right Mindfulness (awareness of bodily actions, states of mind, emotions), and Right Concentration (a meditative state of mind heightening awareness).

IslamIslam is one of the three great monotheistic faiths, which has had an impact upon the world and history that is immeasurable. It was Islam, which preserved many of the great texts of Greek knowledge from which the West would later learn. Islam produced great scientists and philosophers. Islamic mathematicians developed the numbering system we use today including algebra. Muslim explorers and traders traveled the world, bringing their faith with them, as their exchanged the goods and ideas.

Islam is an Arabic verb meaning to submit and a Muslim is one who submits. Islam is the religion of submission to God. Islam does not agree with concept of a chosen people found in Judaism nor with the Christian abandonment of strict monotheism in the doctrine of the trinity. For Islam, God is one and He alone is worthy of worship. The basics of Islam may be summed up in the Five Pillars:

1. The daily confession that there is one God and Mohammed is His prophet2. The conduct of prayer five times daily, facing Mecca3. The month-long fast of Ramadan4. Zakat or giving alms to the poor (ideally ¼ of the Muslim's income)5. Making the hajj or the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a Muslim’s life

The Koran is the major scripture holy to all Muslims. It is the collection of revelations given by the angel Gabriel to the prophet Mohammed, which is the final authoritative revelation given by God to the world. The "Old" and "New" Testaments of the Jews and Christians are considered to have been corrupted at some time in the past. For instance, in that Christians believe Jesus to be the Son of God and worship him (whom Muslims believe is a man and prophet), Muslims feel Christians have perverted the word of God. Owing to the beauty of the Arabic prose in which it is written, Muslims believe that it is impossible to translate the Koran to another language. The only thing that can be done is the translation of the meaning of the Koran. Thus, Muslims are encouraged to learn to read Arabic. Also important is a collection of traditions about the Prophet known as the Hadith. Sufi mystics use other collections of traditions. While there are other collections of books and teaching about Islam, which are respected, only the Koran is considered the inspired word of God. Additionally, because the Muslims have the first Korans, there is little conflict over original meaning, unlike the Christians and Jews, who do not have their original holy books.

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