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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, October 2014, 5(4)

Copyright © 2010 - THE TURKISH ONLINE JOURNAL OF QUALITATIVE INQUIRY

All rights reserved. No part of TOJQI's articles may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrival system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Published in TURKEY

Contact Address:Assoc.Prof.Dr. Abdullah KUZUTOJQI, Editor in ChiefEskişehir-Turkey

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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, October 2014, 5(4)

ISSN 1309-6591

Editor-in-Chief

Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey

Associate Editors

Işıl KabakçıAnadolu University, Turkey

Yavuz AkbulutAnadolu University, Turkey

Editorial Board

Adile Aşkım KurtAnadolu University, Turkey

Cindy G. JardineUniversity of Alberta, Canada

Franz BreuerWestfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany

Jean McNiffYork St John University, United Kingdom

Ken ZeichnerUniversity of Washington, USA

Lynne SchrumGeorge Mason University, USA

Wolff-Michael RothUniversity of Victoria, Canada

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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, October 2014, 5(4)

Advisory Board

Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, TurkeyAdile Aşkım Kurt, Anadolu University, TurkeyAhmet Saban, Necmettin Erbakan University, TurkeyAlev Özkök, Hacettepe University, TurkeyAli Rıza Akdeniz, Rize University, TurkeyAli Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, TurkeyAngela Creese, University of Birmingham, United KingdomAngela K. Salmon, Florida International University, USAAntoinette McCallin, Auckland University of Technology, New ZealandArif Altun, Hacettepe University, TurkeyAsker Kartarı, Kadir Has University, TurkeyAytekin İşman, Sakarya University, TurkeyBenedicte Brøgger, The Norwegian School of Management BI, NorwayBronwyn Davies, University of Melbourne, AustraliaBuket Akkoyunlu, Hacettepe University, TurkeyCem Çuhadar, Trakya University, TurkeyCemalettin İpek, Rize University, TurkeyCesar Antonio Cisneros Puebla, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, MexicoCindy G. Jardine, University of Alberta, CanadaClaudia Figueiredo, Institute for Learning Innovation, USADurmuş Ekiz, Karadeniz Technical University, TurkeyElif Buğra Kuzu, Ankara University, TurkeyElif Kuş Saillard, Anadolu University, TurkeyFahriye Altınay Aksal, Near East University, TRNCFawn Winterwood, The Ohio State University, USAFerhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, TurkeyFranz Breuer, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, GermanyGina Higginbottom, University of Alberta, CanadaGönül Kırcaali İftar, Professor Emerita, TurkeyGülsün Eby, Anadolu University, Turkey Hafize Keser, Ankara University, TurkeyHalil İbrahim Yalın, Gazi University, TurkeyHasan Şimşek, Bahçeşehir University, TurkeyIşıl Kabakçı, Anadolu University, Turkeyİlknur Kelçeoğlu, Indiana University & Purdue University, USAJacinta Agbarachi Opara, Federal College of Education, NigeriaJean McNiff, York St John University, United KingdomJosé Fernando Galindo, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, BoliviaKen Zeichner, University of Washington, USALynne Schrum, West Virginia University, USAMustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, TurkeyMustafa Yunus Eryaman, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, TurkeyNedim Alev, Karadeniz Technical University, TurkeyNigel Fielding, University of Surrey, United KingdomNihat Gürel Kahveci, Istanbul University, TurkeyPetek Aşkar, TED University, TurkeyPranee Liamputtong, La Trobe University, AustraliaRichard Kretschmer, University of Cincinnati, USA

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Roberta Truax, Professor Emerita, USASelma Vonderwell, Cleveland State University, USASerap Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, TurkeyServet Bayram, Marmara University, TurkeySevgi Küçüker, Pamukkale University, TurkeyShalva Weil, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, IsraelSoner Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, TurkeySuzan Duygu Erişti, Anadolu University, TurkeyUdo Kelle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, GermanyÜmit Girgin, Anadolu University, TurkeyWolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria, CanadaYang Changyong, Sauthwest China Normal University, ChinaYavuz Akbulut, Anadolu University, TurkeyYavuz Akpınar, Boğaziçi University, TurkeyZehra Altınay Gazi, Near East University, TRNC

Executive Review Board

Abdullah Adıgüzel, Harran University, Turkey Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, TurkeyAdeviye Tuba Tuncer, Gazi University, Turkey Adile Aşkım Kurt, Anadolu University, TurkeyAhmet Naci Çoklar, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Ahmet Saban, Necmettin Erbakan University, TurkeyAli Rıza Akdeniz, Rize University, TurkeyAli Ersoy, Anadolu University, TurkeyAli Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, TurkeyAngela Creese, University of Birmingham, United KingdomAngela K. Salmon, Florida International University, USAAntoinette McCallin, Auckland University of Technology, New ZealandArif Altun, Hacettepe University, TurkeyArda Arıkan, Antalya University, TurkeyAsker Kartarı, Kadir Has University, TurkeyAytekin İşman, Sakarya University, TurkeyAytaç Kurtuluş, Osmangazi University, TurkeyBahadır Erişti, Anadolu University, TurkeyBahar Gün, İzmir Ekonomi University, TurkeyBelgin Aydın, Anadolu University, TurkeyBenedicte Brøgger, The Norwegian School of Management BI, NorwayBronwyn Davies, University of Melbourne, AustraliaBuket Akkoyunlu, Hacettepe University, TurkeyCem Çuhadar, Trakya University, TurkeyCemalettin İpek, Rize University, TurkeyCesar Antonio Cisneros Puebla, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, MexicoCindy G. Jardine, University of Alberta, CanadaClaudia Figueiredo, Institute for Learning Innovation, USADilek Tanışlı, Anadolu University, TurkeyDurmuş Ekiz, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey

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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, October 2014, 5(4)

Elif Kuş Saillard, Ankara University, TurkeyEmine Sema Batu, Anadolu University, TurkeyEren Kesim, Anadolu University, TurkeyEsra Şişman, Osmangazi University, TurkeyFahriye Altınay Aksal, Near East University, TRNCFawn Winterwood, The Ohio State University, USAFerhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, TurkeyFigen Ünal, Anadolu University, TurkeyFigen Uysal, Bilecik University, Turkey Franz Breuer, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, GermanyGina Higginbottom, University of Alberta, CanadaGonca Subaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey Gönül Kırcaali İftar, Professor Emerita, TurkeyGülsün Eby, Anadolu University, TurkeyHafize Keser, Ankara University, TurkeyHalil İbrahim Yalın, Gazi University, TurkeyHandan Deveci, Anadolu University, Turkey Hasan Şimşek, Bahçeşehir University, TurkeyHüseyin Kafes, Antalya University, TurkeyIşıl Kabakçı, Anadolu University, Turkeyİlknur Kelçeoğlu, Indiana University & Purdue University, USAJacinta Agbarachi Opara, Federal College of Education, NigeriaJale Balaban, Anadolu University, TurkeyJean McNiff, York St John University, United KingdomJosé Fernando Galindo, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, BoliviaKen Zeichner, University of Washington, USAKerem Kılıçer, Gaziosmanpaşa University, Turkey Lynne Schrum, West Virginia University, USAMehmet Can Şahin, Çukurova University, TurkeyMehmet Kahraman, Afyon Kocatepe University, TurkeyMeltem Huri Baturay, Gazi University, Turkey Mehmet Fırat, Anadolu University, Turkey Meral Ören Çevikalp, Anadolu University, Turkey Meral Güven, Anadolu University, Turkey Mine Dikdere, Anadolu University, TurkeyMustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, TurkeyMustafa Nuri Ural, Gümüşhane University, TurkeyMustafa Yunus Eryaman, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, TurkeyMüyesser Ceylan, Anadolu University, TurkeyNedim Alev, Karadeniz Technical University, TurkeyNigel Fielding, University of Surrey, United KingdomNihat Gürel Kahveci, Istanbul University, TurkeyNilgün Özdamar Keskin, Anadolu University, TurkeyNilüfer Köse, Anadolu University, TurkeyOsman Dülger, Bingöl University, Turkey Ömer Uysal, Anadolu University, TurkeyÖzcan Özgür Dursun, Anadolu University, TurkeyPelin Yalçınoğlu, Anadolu University, TurkeyPetek Aşkar, TED University, TurkeyPranee Liamputtong, La Trobe University, Australia

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Richard Kretschmer, University of Cincinnati, USARoberta Truax, Professor Emerita, USASelma Vonderwell, Cleveland State University, USASema Ünlüer, Anadolu University, Turkey Semahat Işıl Açıkalın, Anadolu University, TurkeySerap Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, TurkeySerkan Çankaya, Balıkesir University, TurkeySerkan İzmirli, Çanakkale 18 Mart University, TurkeyServet Bayram, Marmara University, TurkeyServet Çelik, Karadeniz Technical University, TurkeySevgi Küçüker, Pamukkale University, TurkeySezgi Saraç, Antalya University, TurkeySezgin Vuran, Anadolu University, TurkeyShalva Weil, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, IsraelSoner Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, TurkeySuzan Duygu Erişti, Anadolu University, TurkeyŞemseddin Gündüz, Necmettin Erbakan University, TurkeyTuba Yüzügüllü Ada, Anadolu University, TurkeyUdo Kelle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, GermanyÜmit Girgin, Anadolu University, TurkeyWolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria, CanadaYang Changyong, Sauthwest China Normal University, ChinaYavuz Akbulut, Anadolu University, TurkeyYavuz Akpınar, Boğaziçi University, TurkeyYusuf Levent Şahin, Anadolu University, TurkeyZehra Altınay Gazi, Near East University, TRNC Zülal Balpınar, Anadolu University, Turkey

Language Reviewers

Mehmet Duranlıoğlu, Anadolu University, TurkeyMustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, Turkey

Administrative & Technical Staff

Elif Buğra Kuzu, Anadolu University, TurkeySerkan Çankaya, Balıkesir University, Turkey

The Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry (TOJQI) (ISSN 1309-6591) is published quarterly (January, April, July and October) a year at the www.tojqi.net.

For all enquiries regarding the TOJQI, please contact Assoc.Prof. Abdullah KUZU, Editor-In-Chief, TOJQI, Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Yunus Emre Campus, 26470, Eskisehir, TURKEY, Phone #:+90-222-3350580/3519, Fax # :+90-222-3350573, E-mail : [email protected]; [email protected].

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Table of Contents

What Makes a Good Research paper? Examining Differences and Similarities in Turkish and American ExpectationsNilgün Yücel Kia Decou

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Bir Öğretmenin Teknoloji Entegrasyonu Yolculuğu Betül Uluuysal Sadife Demiral Adile Aşkım Kurt Yusuf Levent Şahin

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Investigation of Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Opinions about Using GoAnimate to Create Animated Videos Munise Seçkin Kapucu Esra Eren Zeynep Yurtseven Avcı

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The Portrait of a Good Foreign Language Teacher: A Cross-Interview Analysis of Private Language Course Administrators’ Opinions Şakire Erbay Elif Erdem Hasan Sağlamel

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Kitlesel Açık Çevrimiçi Derslerin Kullanımına İlişkin Uzaktan Eğitim Uzmanlarının GörüşleriEren Kesim Hakan Altınpulluk

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Factors Influencing Student Engagement and the Role of Technology in Student Engagement in Higher Education: Campus-Class-Technology TheorySelim Günüç Abdullah Kuzu

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Designing Learning Materials within the Framework of the ALIS-T Project: Story Telling Activities for Hearing Impaired IndividualsYasemin Karal Hasan Karal A. Mevhibe Coşar Taner Altun Lokman ŞılbırEkrem Bahçekapılı Murat Atasoy Mehmet Palancı

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What Makes a Good Research Paper? Examining Differences and Similarities in Turkish and

American Expectations

İyi Bir Araştırma Makalesi Nasıl Olur? Türk ve Amerikan Beklenti Arasındaki Benzerlikler ve

Farklar

Nilgün Yücel Marmara University, Turkey

[email protected]

Kia DecouInonu University, [email protected]

Abstract Success in a research paper is not only about gathering information and presenting your own thoughts and interpretations; equally as important understands the instructor's understanding of what the purpose of research is and what constitutes a “good research paper”. Individual instructors often have very different ideas about what the focus of the paper should be and what they are looking for in terms of information, independent thinking, structure, and accuracy of language. These differences become even more marked as universities seek to diversify their student bodies and teaching staff. This study aimed to explore Turkish and American instructors’ perceptions regarding the possible influence of their cultural and educational backgrounds on their understanding of a “good” research paper. The data was obtained from interviews of both Turkish and American instructors to examine the similarities and differences in expectations for research assignments. These interviews revealed some differences in how different instructors view research assignments and how they grade them.

Keywords: internationalization; research assignments; independent thinking; instructors’ expectations

ÖzAraştırma makalelerindeki başarı bilgi toplamak ve fikirlerini ve yorumlarını sunmak kadar eğitimcinin iyi bir araştırmadan ne anladığıyla ve iyi bir araştırma makalesinin nasıl olması gerektiğiyle ilgili görüşlerini anlamakla da ilgilidir. Her eğitimcinin iyi bir araştırma makalesinin odağında ne olması gerektiğine ve bilgi, bağımsız düşünme, yapısı ve dilin kullanıma dair farklı görüşleri vardır. Üniversitelerin öğrenci ve eğitimci profillerini çeşitlendirme çabalarıyla birlikte bu farklılıklar daha da artmıştır. Bu çalışma da Türk ve Amerikan eğitimcilerin kültürel ve öğrenim geçmişlerinin, onların iyi bir araştırma makalesinden ne anladıklarını nasıl etkilediği araştırmayı amaçlamıştır. Araştırma verileri hem Türk hem Amerikan eğitimcilerle görüşme tekniği kullanılarak elde edilmiştir. Görüşmeler, farklı eğiticilerin araştırma makalelerine dair görüşlerinin ve onları değerlendirme şekillerinin çok farklı olduğunu ortaya koymuştur.

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Anahtar Kelimeler: Uluslarasılaşma; araştırma ödevleri; bağımsız düşünme; eğitimcilerin beklentileri

Introduction

Instructors carefully craft their assignments, thinking about questions that will stimulate learning and pique the students' interest, delivering it to students in such a way that the instructor believes will communicate her expectations of them, she sends the students off to do the assignment. Often however, what she believes she has communicated as her expectations and what the students have understood, is radically different and both the instructor and the student are disappointed in the results. “The research assignment by its nature, is usually less structured, even more ambiguous than other assignments, the expectations may be less clear and grading more subjective.” (Valentine, 2001) This sentiment is echoed in other writings about literacy practices; “It would appear that literacy practices at university are not clearly agreed upon of even universal in their nature, rather they are contested, resulting in an unclear and confusing path for many students.” (Vardi, 2000) This confusion is exacerbated when the students and the instructor come from different cultural and educational backgrounds especially when it comes to assignments that require a combination of research and independent thinking. Both instructors and students assume that they understand what is meant by research and what is meant by independent thinking based on experiences they have had in their education up to that point but educational systems vary from school to school and even more so when schools are separated by continents and cultures that have very divergent ideas of the role of teacher and student. According to Collier and Morgan (2008), it is not enough that students understand the content, in order to demonstrate their understanding, they must also understand the teacher's expectations which are essentially social skills.

Background of the Study

“Globalisation is a powerful and emergent influence on education that has made its way into educational policies . . . and is influencing teaching practices and teacher education” (Wang, Lin, Spalding, Odell, & Klecka, 2011: 119), which makes the internationalization of higher education inevitable with the necessities and challenges it has brought along.

Hence, the 21st Century has witnessed the increased and complex internalization of higher education. According to QS World University Rankings (2012), “One of the most notable trends in the 2012/13 … is the massive increase in the number of international students in the world’s highest ranked universities. The total figure has increased by 10% at the top 100 universities. This is the biggest rise in the history of the rankings.” In addition to this, countless numbers of instructors are teaching in countries different from those in which they themselves received their education. This means that more and more frequently instructors and students have very different backgrounds when it comes to how they understand assignments and even how they understand the role of the teacher and the student. This can be a source of frustration for both parties. Instructors at universities that have a high number of international students have commented that “I and my colleagues at institutions across the country (UK) regularly see is that it is often not language that confounds the international learner in our universities, but a lack of understanding of how things are intended to be done.” (Schmitt, 2012).

Instructors often view students from different educational backgrounds as lacking in

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language proficiency because “the qualities of language proficiency, 'critical' thinking skills and awareness of academic culture are often merged, so that readily visible infelicities in language use may be taken as indicators of shortcomings in the other less visible qualities.” (Schmitt, 2012).

While worldwide education continues to become more and more diverse and universities value and seek diversity both in their teaching staff and their students, very little is being done to help alleviate the gaps in understanding that that very diversity creates so both students and instructors can be more effective and receive the outcomes they are looking for.

Internalization of higher education institutions requires understanding regarding how people’s languages and cultural and educational backgrounds influence their thoughts, values, actions and feelings, and beliefs. This is often a complex and challenging adaption process, which is described as instructors and students’ mobility into a ‘third place’ (Crozet, Liddicoat & Lo Bianco, 1999: 13). This is a place where equal, effective and meaningful intercultural dialogue can be achieved.

It is, therefore, important that instructors begin to understand and reflect on cultural and educational backgrounds of their diverse students and how it affects the work that they do because it is a truism that people’s social and cultural identities are unavoidably part of the social interaction when they communicate (Byram, Gribkova & Starkey, 2002).

In this study, we have examined how instructors from different educational and cultural backgrounds view assignments that require both research and independent thinking in order to reveal what students would have to do differently to be successful on the assignment based on the educational background of the instructor. We have also examined how aware instructors are of how their own cultures and educational backgrounds affect how they judge student work.

Methodology

The most well-known categorization of approaches to educational research is quantitative and qualitative distinction (Bell, 1993). Quantitative research design is more concerned with understanding facts and their relationship while qualitative research design is used to explore individuals’ understanding of world in a natural setting (Bell, 1993). Each research design has their advantages and disadvantages. The significant point is to choose the research design in line with the purpose, context and nature of the study.

In this study, qualitative research design was followed in order to investigate the expectations that instructors have on assignments that require both research and independent thinking skills and how these expectations affect students’ grades and students’ English language abilities. The qualitative research design was preferred due to its emergent nature (Dörnyei, 2007). That is to say, it is “inductive”, with the aim of exploring new and multiple perspectives (Taylor, 2000: 101). Therefore, investigating expectations of instructors concerning research papers and independent thinking in depth seemed to reflect the principles of qualitative methodology.

Research Questions

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What are the expectations that instructors have on an assignment that requires both research and independent thinking skills?

How instructors’ expectations on assignments that require both research and independent thinking skills affect students’ grades?

How aware are the instructors of their own cultural and educational expectations?

Setting and Participants

Qualitative data was obtained from Turkish and American instructors of English who were working at Inonu University, Kocaeli University, Mustafa Kemal University, and the Ankara Bar Association in Turkey during the spring semester of 2013. Our research compares the expectations of American and Turkish instructors with regard to research papers and the role of independent thinking in research papers.

Three American instructors (I1, I2 and I3) and three Turkish instructors (I4, I5 and I6) participated in the study. All of the American instructors hold an MA in Teaching English as Foreign Language and two of the Turkish instructors hold an MA in English Language Teaching. Three of the participants were female and three of them were male. The age of the participants varied between 27 and 42. Participants were chosen according to their willingness to participate in the study.

Data Collection

Interviews were the main method of data collection. In spring of 2013, semi-structured face-to-face interviews with instructors were conducted. The 30–60 minute interviews enabled researchers to explore perceptions, understandings and attitudes of participants and provided a wider range of themes than structured interviews (Fontana & Frey, 2000). All interviews were recorded for analysis and transcribed verbatim afterwards.

The participants were shown three research assignments (see Appendix A). The research assignments were chosen because all of them required both research and independent thinking. They were then interviewed using a series of questions (see Appendix B) about their understandings of what the assignment required and what students would need to do to be successful on this assignment.

Data Analysis

The data analysis of this study was based on grounded theory, which was developed by Glaser and Strauss in the early 1960s. It is a way of analyzing qualitative data that is composed of theoretical sampling, making constant comparisons and using a coding paradigm (Strauss, 1987).

The qualitative data was analyzed through the ‘constant comparison method’ of qualitative research approach. The variables for data collection were not planned in advance of analysis and inductive reasoning, which began with the data rather than a theory. (Glaser and Strauss,1967). The thematic categories were emerged after the collection of the data. To verify inter-rater reliability, the data was analyzed and categorized by two researchers independently. The inter-rater reliability was calculated as 90%. Participants were referred to as I1, I2, I3, I4, I5, and I6) in order to preserve anonymity.

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Results

The data obtained from the interviews was analyzed and the following categories emerged:

Information vs. independent thinking

All of the instructors agreed that students should gather information from various sources. They specifically mentioned the internet, going out “into the world”, and “turning to their lives” to find answers. Where the responses begin to diverge is in how much emphasis should be placed on gathering information (research) vs. independent thinking (students’ opinions and ideas). One of Turkish instructors (I4) said that:

“These questions mainly focus on the students researching some information and maybe after the research they can have some ideas to write and to talk about.”

In contrast, one of the American instructors said (I2): Their own ideas and opinions (are more important) because the research is there to support their own ideas and opinions.

Beyond understanding the subject, to be successful on a research assignment, a student must also understand how the instructor understands the role of research. This requires a very sophisticated understanding of the instructors’ cultural and educational backgrounds; which in many cases, the students have had no prior experience with, and both of them teach in ELT departments in Turkey but their expectations of students are radically different. would have no current access to. Often instructors do not stop to think about or discuss their own assumptions about what the purpose of research is or examine how their cultural and educational backgrounds influence their expectations. They are unaware that their understanding of a research project may be very different from that of their colleagues. This leaves the students to figure out on their own what the instructor expects of them and often they are unable to do so and fail to meet the instructors’ expectations.

Requirements for passing

All of the instructors agreed that to achieve a high grade, students need to be well-informed. This means that they all thought the gathering and understanding information from various sources is important. I6 states:

I want to be sure they investigated enough.

I3 claims: “…show that they’ve done research not just from one source.”

I1 puts forward:“It would mean you would have to be informed about this issue already or you have to do some research.”

I4 says: “He or she must write about the content.“

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All instructors value facts and information from various sources and take into account where students got their information from. They also want to see that the student put in the effort to understand the topic of the assignment. None of the participants believe if students do not effectively gather and understand information they should receive a high mark on the assignment. Yet, after that their priorities are very different. One of the Turkish and one of the American instructors mentioned grammar but in different ways. I4 states:

“I punish grammatical mistakes but not for all the composition… For example, at most, 25-30 percent of the composition can be given to grammatical mistakes.”

On the other hand, I3 explains:“I am always thought-driven I don’t know if grammar has to be present or not.”

This means that research papers can have very similar content but receive very different grades depending on who the instructor is and how much emphasis his or her cultural or educational background places on grammatical accuracy. It might actually possible to get an A from I3 while receiving a C from I4 for the exact same paper.The participants emphasized the role of the students’ ideas in a research paper differently. I1 claims that students cannot get an A unless they discuss their own ideas.

For I3, in order to get an A, a student would have to think about a topic and not just come forth with opinions but ask themselves important questions. Two of the Turkish instructors (I5 and I6) did not mention the place of independent thinking in a research paper at all, but rather focused on sources. I4 mentioned students’ ideas but in the context of their causing disorganization within the paper. Therefore, when a student is deciding what to put in their paper, it is essential for them to know how much they should focus on information versus their own ideas. A misunderstanding in either direction (too much or too little of their own ideas) could be the difference between the successful and unsuccessful paper.

I2 wrestled with the issue of whether or not “thinking skills” had a place in the language classroom as follows:

“…if the class is based on the developing their thinking skills, then you would have to really show that they did good research and they presented their ideas cogently. To me if it is like a language class, which is mostly what I am teaching, then uh it would have to show how well they used the language to develop their ideas. And part of it is a little bit tricky it is like how you even sort those things out because umm… they have really good language skills but they don’t develop their thoughts very well and you don’t really know as a teacher are they not developing their thoughts well because they don’t have the thinking skills. And I feel like that’s not my job. I feel like somebody else should have done that for them by this point. It is frustrating.”

She wants to focus exclusively on language skills, but recognizes that language and thinking skills are interwined. It is ambiguous as to where one stops and the other begins. As a language teacher however, she wants her students to come to class with

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independent thinking skills already in place and this is source of frustration for her. This may be because her students come from educational and cultural backgrounds different from her own and skills that she believes should already be in place need to be explicitly taught if students are to meet her expectations.

Failed assignments

Interestingly, while instructors’ responses varied widely on what they considered an excellent paper, they were mostly in agreement about what constitutes a failed effort. They mostly focused on plagiarism, not understanding the assignment and how much effort students put in. although their answers appear similar; it is unclear how individual instructors define plagiarism and it is possible that this understanding could vary widely from culture to culture.

Cultural differences

As stated above, in order to meet the instructors’ expectations, it is important for students to understand educational and cultural norms on assignments, but it is also important that the instructors understand their own cultural and educational backgrounds in order to better communicate their expectations. If instructors do not understand the differences between their own educational backgrounds from those of the other cultures, they assume that everyone understands assignments in the same way.

From the data obtained, interestingly, although the researchers simply used the word, ‘culture’ and did not define it in the question, all of the participants mentioned nationality in their responses. I1 expressed awareness that his own opinions about topics that were influenced by his culture, might affect how he viewed a student’s work, for example, his own personal beliefs about gender equality. I2 commented that she thinks: “My culture, American culture, puts a lot less emphasis on accuracy and a lot more emphasis on originality.” focusing on American academic expectations. I4 and I6 did not focus on their own culture but rather commented that students may have gaps in their knowledge of other cultures that may show up in their work. They did not comment on their own possible cultural biases. This may be because both of those instructors taught students who share their cultural and educational backgrounds while I1 and I2 taught students outside their own cultural backgrounds.

Conclusion

Most of the findings of this study support previous research in the literature. In this study, it was found that instructors have a firm idea of what they believe a research paper should be and how it should be graded but those ideas varied according to their cultural backgrounds. Students who find themselves working with instructors from a background different from their own would have difficulties understanding not the language or course materials, but rather the instructors' differing expectations in order to be successful. As Parrish and Linder-VanBerschot (2010) put it, it is significant to “develop skills to deliver culturally sensitive and culturally adaptive instruction” due to the increasing multicultural environment where teaching and learning take place (1).

Educational expectations differ from culture to culture but programs that prepare students to study internationally mostly focus on language ability and disregard

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differences in expectations for academic work. This often leads to frustration and confusion for both instructors and students. Students lack understanding of how much focus is put on grammar, organization, opinions and ideas depending on who is teaching their courses. Instructors make assumptions about what a research paper consists of and assume their students already understand. There were several things that all instructors agreed upon however; students must gather and understand information to do well on a research paper and copying (plagiarism) is unacceptable and will result in a fail. It was interesting to note that the fewest differences were found around what constitutes a failed paper while the biggest differences in expectations occurred around what was considered an excellent paper. It is likely that the understanding of what is an ‘excellent’ paper might differ due to various “cultural parameters regarding social relationships, epistemological beliefs, and temporal perceptions, and illustrates their spectrums of variability as they might be exhibited in instructional situations” Parrish and Linder-VanBerschot (2010). Lui (2010) conducted a similar research study in Chinese educational context and found out that ‘different philosophies, cultures and societal expectations’ have an important impact of Chinese learners and native English speaking teachers (90). The study further showed that Chinese learners consider themselves as ‘empty vessels for teachers to fill in’ while native English speaking teachers perceive themselves as ‘facilitators’, which more likely to cause a conflict between both parties (90).

One question that arose was the responsibility of the language teacher when it came to teaching skills like independent thinking. Should the language teacher simply stick to the language skills like grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency etc. or should they also address and support other skills that international instructors might expect of them in the future? It has been long believed that language and knowledge are inseparable, language is not simply a way to communicate ideas and thoughts but rather language is “at the center of our understanding of knowledge.” (Bruffee, 1986). This study suggests that the goal of language classes should be to prepare students to participate in international forums and in order to do that effectively, it is important to go beyond language and explore different academic expectations and skills. That is the joy and the frustration of diversity, the awakening of awareness of our own assumptions and the ability to recognize different ways to understand.

All in all, as education increasingly becomes a more and more intercultural setting due to the mobility of both students and instructors, as well as the availability of courses online, it is becoming more important for both instructors to have a deeper understanding of how expectations vary and are influenced by cultural and educational backgrounds. In this study, instructors showed a greater awareness of how cultural and educational backgrounds affected their expectations when they taught a majority of students whose backgrounds were different than their own but it is necessary for all instructors to become more aware of their own assumptions. It is dangerous to make over generalizations about cultures, which can lead to stereotypes and prevent people seeing each other as “complex human beings with multiple identities” (Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey, 2002:10). On the other hand, it is also risky to disregard one's cultural background and simply dismiss a student as not having good enough language skills or not being a “good student” without understanding the educational and cultural expectations they bring with them. .

Suggestions for Further Research

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This study was limited to instructors from the United States and Turkey; for further research, it would be a good idea to obtain data from other countries. For the sake of triangulation, it is important to also investigate students' from many different backgrounds and compare their understandings of instructor expectations across cultures. One of the important findings in our research was the shared belief that “plagiarism” would result in a student failing. Further research is necessary to determine how instructors understand the term. Further investigation of the connections between independent thinking, higher-order thinking skills, and language learning would also be valuable.

References

Bell, J. (1993). Doing your research project. Buckingham: Open University Press. Bruffee, K. (1986). Social Construction, Language, and the Authority of Knowledge: A

Bibliographical Essay. College English. 48(8): 773-789.Byram, M., Gribkova, B., & Starkey, H. (2002). Developing the intercultural dimension

inlanguage teaching: A practical introduction for teachers. The Council of Europe. Retrieved April 29, 2009 from http://lrc.cornell.edu/director/intercultural.pdf

Collier, P., & Weininger D. (2008) “Is that paper really due today?”: differences in first-generation and traditional college students’ understandings of faculty

expectations. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10734-007-9065-5

Crozet , C., Liddicoat , A.J., & Lo Bianco, J. (1999).Intercultural competence: From language policy to language education. In J. Lo Bianco, A. Liddicoat & C. Crozet (Eds), Striving for the third place: Intercultural competence through language education, Melbourne: Language Australia.

Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics: Quantitative, qualitative and mixed methodologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H. (2000). The interview: From structured questions to negotiated text. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 645–672). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Lui, S. (2010). Teaching English in China: Conflicts and Expectations. The International Journal - Language Society and Culture, 31, 90-97.

Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for qualitative research. New York: Aldine De Gruyter.

QS World University Rankings (2012). Increase in Number of International Students. Retrieved 12 September, 2012 from http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings-articles/world-university- rankings/increase-number-international-students.

Mills, J., Bonner, A., & Francis, K. (2006). The development of constructivist grounded theory. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(1), 1-10.

QS World University Rankings (2012). Increase in Number of International Students. Retrieved 12 September, 2012 from http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings-articles/world-university- rankings/increase-number-international-

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students.Parrish, P., & Linder-VanBerschot , J.A. (2010). Cultural Dimensions of Learning:

Addressing the Challenges of Multicultural Instruction. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning,11(2): 1-19.

Schmitt, D. (2012, November 13). UK universities failing to bridge culture gap for foreign students. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/education/2012/nov/13/international-student-testing-culture-gap

Strauss, A. L. (1987). Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists. Cambridge: Cambridge University.

Taylor, George R. (2000). Integrating quantitative and qualitative methods in research. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

Wang, J., Lin, E., Spalding, E., Odell, S.J., & Klecka, C.L. (2011). Understanding teacher education in an era of globalization. Journal of Teacher Education, 62(2), 115–120.

Appendix A

1. Do fairy tales promote gender stereotypes? Research gender stereotypes on the internet. Write about how “The Princess Bride” does or does not support them. Do you think fairy tales affect how little boys and girls view themselves and how they should act? Why or why not?

2. In the movie, the king was trying to start a war with his neighbors. What countries in the world today are having problems with their neighbors? Choose one dispute, do some research on what is happening there and why. Do you think they could resolve their problems without fighting? Why or why not?

3. In the movie the six-fingered man was a kind of torture specialist. Many countries in the world still use torture. Do some research on why some governments insist that they need to do this. Do you think there is ever justification for torturing someone? Why or why not?

Appendix B

When you look at this these questions, what do you think they are asking the students to do? What would a student have to do to get an A, B or C on this assignment?What would cause you to fail a student on this assignment?How do you feel that your culture(s) affect your view of what a “good” response would be?

GENİŞLETİLMİŞ ÖZ

Araştırma makalelerinin hazırlanması zor ve uzun bir süreçtir. Bir öğrencinin araştırma makalelerindeki başarısı bilgi toplamak, fikirlerini ve yorumlarını sunmak kadar

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eğitimcinin iyi bir araştırmadan ne anladığıyla ve iyi bir araştırma makalesinin nasıl olması gerektiğiyle ilgili beklentilerini anlamakla da ilgilidir (Collier and Morgan, 2008). Her eğitimcinin iyi bir araştırma makalesinin odağında ne olması gerektiğine ve bilgi, bağımsız düşünme ve dilin kullanıma dair farklı görüşleri vardır. Üniversitelerin eğitimci ve öğrenci profillerini çeşitlendirme çabalarıyla birlikte bu farklılıklar daha da artmıştır. Küreselleşmenin eğitim ve eğitim politikaları üzerindeki büyük etkisi bu çeşitliliğin başlıca nedenleri arasında gösterilebilir (Wang, Lin, Spalding, Odell, & Klecka, 2011). Farklı ülkelerden eğitimcilerin ve öğrencilerin bulunduğu üniversitelerde oldukça sübjektif yapısından dolayı iyi bir araştırma makalesinin nasıl olması gerektiğine dair görüşler de farklıdır (Valentine, 2001). Bu durum aynı kurumu içerisinde bile eğitimi standardizasyonunu ve yapılan çalışmaların objektif şekilde ölçülmesini ve değerlendirmesi zorlaştırmaktadır. Yüksek öğretim kurumlarının uluslararasılaşması, bireylerinin kültürel altyapılarının ve aldıkları eğitimin onların düşünceleri, eylemleri, değerleri ve inançları üzerindeki etkisinin anlaşılmasını da gerektirmektedir. Fakat eğitimciler ve öğrenciler arasında bu tarz farklılıklardan kaynaklanan olası problemleri inceleyen fazla çalışma mevcut değildir. Bu yüzden, farklı kültürel altyapılara ve eğitim geçmişlerine sahip öğrencilere eğitim verirken, eğitimcilerin bu durumun farkında olması önemlidir.

Bu çalışma da Türk ve Amerikan eğitimcilerin kültürel altyapılarının ve eğitim geçmişlerinin, onların iyi bir araştırma makalesinden ne anladıklarını nasıl etkilediği araştırmayı amaçlamıştır. Eğitimcilerin yabancı dil sınıflarındaki araştırma makaleleri ve bu çalışmalardaki ‘bağımsız düşünce’nin rolü dair beklentilerini karşılaştırılmıştır. Araştırmada şu sorulara yanıt aranmıştır:

Eğitimcilerin araştırma ve bağımsız düşünce gerektiren bir ödevden beklentileri nelerdir?

Eğitimcilerin araştırma ve bağımsız düşünce gerektiren bir ödevden beklentileri öğrencilerin başarılarını nasıl etkiler?

Eğitimciler kültürel altyapılarının ve eğitim geçmişlerine dair farkındalıkları nasıldır?

Katılımcılar

Çalışma grubu, 2013 bahar yarıyılında İnönü Üniversitesi, Kocaeli Üniversitesi, Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi ve Ankara Barosunda İngilizce eğitimi ile ilgili görev yapmakta olan eğitimcilerden oluşmaktadır. Katılımcılar gönüllülük esası ve eğitim geçmişleri göz önünde bulundurularak seçilmiştir. Bütün Amerikan katılımcıların ve Türk katılımcılardan iki tanesinin İngiliz Dili Eğitimi üzerine yüksek lisans derecesi bulunmaktadır. Çalışmaya üç Amerikan ve üç Türk olmak üzere toplam altı katılımcı katılmıştır. Katılımcılar 27 ve 42 yaş aralığındadır.

Yöntem

Çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemleri kullanılmıştır ve araştırma verileri hem Türk hem Amerikan eğitimcilerle görüşme tekniği kullanılarak elde edilmiştir. 30-60 dakikalık görüşmeler yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme türüne uygun olarak hazırlanmış ve bireysel görüşme şeklinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Görüşmeler daha sonra analiz edilmek üzere kayıt altına alınmıştır. Elde edilen veriler, detaylı bir şekilde incelenmiştir. Veri kayıtları yazıya aktarılmış ve gömülü teori (grounded theory) tekniklerinden biri olan ‘sürekli karşılaştırmalı analiz’ yöntemi kullanılarak kodlanmış ve kategorilere ayrılmıştır (Strauss

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ve Corbin, 1967). Kodlamalar ve kategoriler önce ilk araştırmacı ve daha sonra ikinci araştırmacı tarafından birbirinden bağımsız olarak belirlenmiştir. Değerlendirmeciler arası güvenirlilik uyum yüzdesi %90 olarak hesaplanmıştır.

Bulgular ve Tartışma

Çalışma sonuçları eğitimcilerin iyi bir araştırma makalesinin nasıl olması gerektiğine ve nasıl notlandırılması dair belirgin fikirleri olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Katılımcıların tamamı öğrencilerin araştırma ödevlerini hazırlarken çeşitli kaynaklardan faydalanmaları gerektiği konusunda hem fikirdir. Fakat bağımsız düşünce ve öğrencilerin kendi fikirlerini araştırma makalelerine ne kadar katmaları gerektiği konusunda katılımcıların fikirleri birbirinden farklılık göstermektedir. Diğer bir bulgu da katılımcıların araştırma makalelerinde yazın kurallarına ve doğruluğa verdikleri önem ile ilgilidir. Katılımcıların, yazım kuralları ve doğruluğunun öğrencinin alacağı not üzerindeki etkisine dair fikirleri oldukça farklıdır. Örneğin, I4, öğrencilerin alacağı notun bir kısmını yazım kuralları ve doğruluğun oluşturduğunu söylerken; I3, ödevleri genelde düşünce bazlı değerlendirdiğini ve yazım kuralları ve doğruluğun bir payının olup olmaması gerektiğinden emin olmadığını belirtmiştir. Bu aynı içeriğe sahip bir ödevin farklı eğitimciler tarafından çok farklı şekilde değerlendirileceğine ve bu değerlendirmenin objektif olmasının zorluğuna işaret etmektedir.

Bulgular, çalışmaya katılan Türk eğitimciler bir araştırma ödevinde iyi bir not almak için bağımsız düşüncenin gerekliliğini vurgulamazken, Amerikan eğitimcilerin bağımsız düşüncenin önemine ve hatta araştırmanın merkezinde olması gerektiğine odaklandıkları göstermiştir. Örneğin I2, ‘Benim kültürüm, Amerikan kültürü, yazım kuralları ve doğruluk yerine orijinalliğe önem vermektedir’ diyerek bağımsız düşüncenin ödevlerdeki yerinin önemini belirtmiştir. Öte yandan, katılımcıların başarısız bir araştırma ödevinin nasıl olduğu konusundaki görüşleri daha çok benzerlik göstermektedir. Plajirizm, ödevi yanlış anlamak ve yeterince özenli hazırlanmaması bir ödevin geçer not alamamasının nedenleri arasında sunulmuştur.

Sonuçlar ve Öneriler

Eğitimcilerin farklı eğitim ve kültürel alt yapıları, araştırma makalelerine dair fikirlerini etkilemekte ve öğrencilerin akademik çalışmalarından beklentilerini farklılaştırmaktadır. Öte yandan yükseköğretim kurumlarında akademik çalışmalara dair bu farklı beklentiler çoğu kez göz ardı edilmektedir. Bulgular, çok kültürlü yükseköğretim kurumlarında, kültürel farklılıklardan kaynaklı oluşabilecek sorunların üstesinden gelinebilmesi için gerekli adaptasyon ve uzlaşma becerilerinin geliştirilmesinin öneminin altını çizmiştir (Parrish & Linder-VanBerschot, 2010).

Benzer bir çalışma, Çin’de bulunan yabancı eğitimcilerin ve yerli öğrencilerin bakış açılarını karşılaştırmış ve ‘eğitim felsefesinin, kültürlerin ve sosyal beklentilerin’ eğitimden beklentileri farklılaştırdığı sonucuna ulaşmıştır (Lui, 2010). Bu durum farklı kültürlerden eğitimcilerin ve öğrencilerin bulunduğu eğitim kurumlarında eğitimin standardizasyonunu ve ölçme ve değerlendirmenin objektif olarak yapılmasını zorlaştırmaktadır.

Sonuç olarak, hızla uluslararasılaşan yükseköğretim kurumlarında eğitimcilerin, öğrencilerin çalışmalarından beklentilerinin farklılık gösterdiğinin bilincinde olmaları

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önemlidir. Yükseköğretim kurumlarında farklı kültürlerden gelen eğitimcilerin kültürel adaptasyonunun ve iş arkadaşlarıyla akademik uzlaşmanın sağlanması ve hem öğrencilerin hem eğitimcilerin bu durumdan kaynaklanabilecek problemlere hazırlanması önemlidir. Bu uzlaşmanın sağlanması ve öğrenciler tarafından hazırlanan akademik makalelerin objektif olarak değerlendirilmesi amacıyla yükseköğretim kurumlarında bu konu üzerine eğitimler, sempozyumlar ve çalıştaylar düzenlenebilir.

Bir Öğretmenin Teknoloji Entegrasyonu Yolculuğu*

A Technology Integration Journey of a Teacher

Betül Uluuysal Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, [email protected]

Sadife DemiralMilli Eğitim Bakanlığı,

[email protected]

Adile Aşkım Kurt Anadolu University, Turkey

[email protected]

Yusuf Levent ŞahinAnadolu University, Turkey

[email protected]

ÖzBu araştırmanın amacı bir öğretmenin çevrimiçi materyal geliştirme araçları ile 9. sınıf İngilizce öğretim programına yönelik materyallerin geliştirmesi ve öğretmenin bu süreçteki mesleki gelişim etkinliğinin incelenmesidir. Bu bağlamda öncelikle araştırmacı tarafından alan uzmanlarının da görüşlerine başvurularak 9. sınıf kazanımlarına yönelik materyal geliştirmeye uygun çevrimiçi ortam seçimleri yapılmıştır. Uygulama sürecinde öncelikle öğretmen ile araştırmacının yürüttüğü, çevrimiçi ortamları kullanma ile ilgili öğretimler gerçekleştirilmiş, ardından öğretmen çevrimiçi ortamlar aracılığıyla seçtiği kazanımlara uygun çeşitli öğretim materyalleri üretmiştir. Çalışma ortamı ve çalışma saatlerinin belirlenmesinde öğretmenin istek ve tercihleri göz önünde bulundurulmuştur. Yapılan çalışmalar öğretmenin ulaşımının kolaylaştırılması nedeniyle okul yönetimiyle okul içerisinde belirlenen bir odada, öğretmenin boş derslerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Durum çalışması olarak desenlenen araştırmanın verileri eğitsel materyal geliştirme sürecinin video kayıtları, araştırmacının günlükleri ve oluşturulan eğitsel materyallerden oluşmaktadır. Toplanan veriler içerik analizi yöntemi kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Araştırmada, mesleki gelişim etkinliklerinin bireyin istek, gereksinim, beklenti ve hazırbulunuşluğu göz önünde bulundurulduğunda daha başarılı olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Mesleki gelişim etkinliklerinin öğretmen özelliklerine göre bireyselleştirilmiş öğretim olarak

** Bu çalışma 2. Uluslararası Öğretim Teknolojileri ve Öğretmen Eğitimi Sempozyumu’nda özet metin olarak sunulan bildirinin genişletilmiş halidir.

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tasarlanmalarının öğretmenin motivasyon ve verimliliğine katkısı bulunduğu da ulaşılan sonuçlardandır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Teknoloji entegrasyonu; yabancı dil öğretimi; çevrimiçi ortamlar

AbstractThe purpose of this study is to evaluate the process of developing materials by online environments for 9th grade English language lesson curriculum by a language teacher and the teacher’s professional development. In this regard, first, online environments chosen by the researcher considering 9th grade outcomes and expert opinions. Then, researcher and the teacher conducted lessons which focused on how to use the online environments and developing materials by using them. In this respect, for the teaching to be conducted with the teacher, the teacher’s demands and preferences were taken into consideration, and the most appropriate environment and time were determined. As the environment to be taught, a suitable environment was determined at school together with the school administrator. Case study was used as a research model and data was collected with video recordings of lessons, researcher’s diary and developed materials. Collected data analyzed by the content analysis method. According to findings, if individual’s needs, interests and readiness take into consideration, professional development activities will be more effective. The other findings are individualized professional development activities contribute teacher’s motivation and effectiveness.

Keywords: Technology integration; foreign language education; online environments

Giriş

Teknolojinin her alandaki değişimleri tetiklediği günümüzde eğitim de değişikliklerin yaşandığı alanlardan birisidir. Toplumlar eğitim aracılığıyla yetiştirilen bireylerin teknolojiye hakim, bilgiye erişen ve bu bilgiyi kullanan bireyler olması için çalışmalar yapmaktadır. Bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerine erişim hakkına her bireyin sahip olması, bireylere bilgi ve teknoloji okuryazarlıklarının kazandırılması ve bireylerin kazandıkları bu yeterlikleri yaşam boyu kullanabilmeleri için gerçekleştirilen bu çalışmalar, ülkelerin eğitim politikalarındaki önemli amaçlar arasında görülmektedir. Öğretimde teknoloji entegrasyonu olarak adlandırılan bu süreç, güncel teknolojilere öğretim ortamlarında ve eğitim programlarında yer verilerek, öğrencilerin hem bu teknolojileri kullanmasını hem de daha etkili bir öğrenme sürecini hedeflemektedir. Farklı tanımlara sahip olan teknoloji entegrasyonu Hew ve Brush’a (2007) göre öğretmenlerin öğrenci öğrenmesini hedefleyerek kullandıkları her tür teknoloji, Smaldino, Lowther ve Russell’a (2008) göre ise öğretim sırasında öğrenci etkileşimini arttıran her tür teknoloji olarak tanımlanmaktadır.

Ülkemizde teknoloji entegrasyonu kapsamında, güncel teknolojilerin öğretim ortamlarında kullanılmasını hedefleyen projeler gerçekleştirilmektedir. Okullara bilgisayar laboratuvarlarının kurulması, öğretmenlere güncel teknolojilerin kullanımıyla ilgili hizmetiçi eğitimlerin verilmesi, eğitim programlarında bilişim teknolojilerine (BT) yer verilmesi teknoloji entegrasyonunda bugüne kadar yapılan çalışmalardandır. Öğretimde teknolojinin entegrasyonuyla ilgili gerçekleştirilen en son proje ise Fırsatları Arttırma ve Teknolojiyi İyileştirme Hareketi (FATİH)’ dir. Proje kapsamında öğretim kurumlarına tablet bilgisayar, LCD panel etkileşimli tahta ve internet ağ altyapısı kurulumları yapılmakta, öğretmenlere hizmetiçi eğitimler verilmekte ve öğretim programlarının teknoloji destekli öğretime uygun hale getirilmesi için çalışmalar yapılmaktadır (Mili Eğitim Bakanlığı [MEB], 2014). FATİH projesiyle okullara kazandırılacak donanım ve yazılımların etkin, öğrenci

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öğrenmesini destekleyecek ve teknoloji entegrasyonuna katkı sağlayacak şekilde kullanılmasının en önemli şartı, projeye öğretmenler bazında verilecek olan destektir. Projenin bileşenlerinden olan eğitsel e-içeriklerin sağlanması bileşeniyle ilgili olarak öğretmenlerin bu alanda desteklenmesi gerektiği sonucunu araştırmalarda yer bulmaktadır (Banoğlu, Madenoğlu, Uysal ve Dede, 2014; Gürol, Donmuş ve Arslan, 2012). Benzer şekilde Akıncı, Kurtoğlu ve Seferoğlu’nun da (2012) dikkat çektiği e-içeriklerin sağlanması bileşenine yönelik, e-içeriklerin dışarıdan alınması yerine öğretmenler tarafından üretilmesinin çok daha etkili olacağı önerisi sunulmaktadır. Bu bağlamda öğretmenlere verilecek hizmetiçi eğitimlerin sadece etkileşimli tahta kullanımına yönelik değil, içeriklerin üretilmesini de kapsamasının yararlı olacağı görülmektedir. Bu bağlamda öğretmenlerin teknoloji entegrasyonunda oynayacakları rolün, projenin kilit taşlarından birini oluşturduğu söylenebilir.

Alkan, Bilici, Akdur, Temizhan ve Çiçek, (2011) öğretmenler olmadan kurulacak donanımların ve hazırlanacak içeriklerin bir anlamı olmayacağını bu nedenle öğretmenlerin teknolojiyi kullanabilme yeterliklerinin üzerinde durulması gerektiğini dile getirmişlerdir. Bu bağlamda ileri teknolojilerin sınıflara girdiği günümüzde, teknoloji entegrasyonunun en önemli belirleyicilerinden olan öğretmenlerin rolü üzerinde daha fazla durulması, istek ve gereksinimlerinin karşılanmasının önemli olduğu söylenebilir.

Çağıltay, Çakıroğlu, Çağıltay ve Çakıroğlu’na (2001) göre öğretmenlerin teknoloji entegrasyonunu etkileyen faktörler iki başlık altında toplanmaktadır. Bunlar; öğretmenlerin algı, tutum ve inançlarını belirten içsel faktörler ile teknolojiyle ilgili aldıkları eğitimler ve var olan bilgi eksiklerini içeren dışsal faktörlerdir. Bu bağlamda öğretmenlerin hem teknolojiye ilişkin algı, tutum ve inançlarının hem de mesleki gelişim etkinlikleriyle sağlanabilecek eğitimlerin öğretmenlerin teknoloji kullanımında etkileri bulunmaktadır. Bunun yanında alan yazındaki çalışmalar göstermektedir ki, öğretmenler teknoloji entegrasyonuyla ilgili eğitim almış olsalar bile öğretim süreçlerinde teknolojiyi kullanma konusunda çekimser kalmakta ve daha fazla uygulamaya ihtiyaç duymaktadırlar (Bulut ve Koçoğlu, 2012; Hixon ve Buckenmeyer, 2009; Tsai ve Chai, 2012; Türel ve Johnson, 2012). Öğretmenlerin teknoloji entegrasyonları önündeki engeller Hew ve Brush’a (2007) göre altı kategoriye ayrılabilir. Bunlar; kaynaklar, teknolojiyle ilgili bilgi ve beceriler, alan kültürü, değerlendirme, inanç ve tutum ve kurum olarak belirtilmektedir. Buna bağlı olarak teknoloji entegrasyonuyla ilgili gerçekleştirilen uygulamalar düşünüldüğünde öğretmenlerin önündeki engellerden dış etkenlere bağlı olan kaynaklar, kurum, alan kültürü gibi engellerin kaldırılmaya çalışıldığı, ancak bilgi ve beceriler, inanç ve tutum, değerlendirme gibi iç etkenlere bağlı engellerin göz ardı edilerek öğretmene yatırım yapılmadığı vurgulanmaktadır (Cuban, 2001; Ertmer, 1999; Hixon ve Buckenmeyer, 2009). Var olan bu duruma çeşitli çözümler sunan yaklaşımlar da bulunmakta, öğretmenlerin teknoloji entegrasyonuyla ilgili mesleki gelişim etkinlikleri incelendiğinde öğretmenlerin bireysel farklılıkları göz önünde bulundurulmadan benzer yöntemlerin kullanılması eleştirilmekte ve öğretmenlere verilecek teknoloji entegrasyonu eğitimlerinin kişiselleştirilmiş mesleki gelişim etkinlikleri olarak gerçekleştirilmesi önerilmektedir. (Hixon ve Buckenmeyer, 2009; Schrum, 1999).

Alan yazından edinilen görüşler ve öneriler ışığında gerçekleştirilen çalışmanın içeriği bir İngilizce öğretmeninin bireysel farklılıkları göz önünde bulundurularak, kendi hızında ve gereksinimleri doğrultusunda tasarlanan bir mesleki gelişim etkinliği kapsamında çevrimiçi ortamları kullanarak kendi materyallerini üretmesi olarak belirlenmiştir. Bu bağlamda çalışmanın amacı, İngilizce dersi 9. sınıf güz dönemi kazanımlarına uygun, çevrimiçi kaynaklar kullanılarak, öğretmen tarafından hazırlanmış materyallerin

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geliştirilmesi sürecinin incelenmesidir. Bu bağlamda, kişiselleştirilmiş bir mesleki gelişim süreci öğretmenin mesleki gelişim sürecini hangi yönlerden etkileyebilmektedir? sorusuna yanıt aranmıştır.

Yöntem

Araştırmanın amacı bir İngilizce öğretmeninin eğitsel materyal oluşturma süreçlerinin betimlenmesi olarak belirlendiğinden araştırmanın yöntemi var olan durumu betimleyen durum çalışması olarak desenlenmiştir. Durum çalışması ‘nasıl’ ve ‘niçin’ sorularını temel alarak bir olgunun derinlemesine incelenmesine olanak sağlayan bir yöntemdir (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2008).

Katılımcılar

Araştırmaya katılan İngilizce öğretmeni amaçlı örnekleme ile gönüllülük esasına göre katılımcı olarak seçilmiştir. Bu öğretmenin seçilme nedeni, mesleki gelişime önem veren, derslerinde teknolojiyi kullanmaya meraklı ve materyal geliştirme konusunda mesleki gelişim etkinliğine gereksinim duyduğunu belirtmesidir. Öğretmen, 12 yıldır MEB bünyesindeki çeşitli okullarda İngilizce öğretmeni olarak görev yapmakta olup, son 5 yıldır Eskişehir merkezde bulunan bir lisede çalışmaktadır. Öğretmenin görev yaptığı lisede, kendisi de öğretmen olan araştırmacının bir yıl boyunca çalışmış olması nedeniyle araştırmacı, katılımcı öğretmenin mesleki gelişim ve materyal geliştirme ile ilgili etkinliklere olan isteğini farkederek öğretmenin araştırmaya gönüllü olarak katılımını sağlamıştır. Öğretmenin görev yaptığı lise, FATİH projesi kapsamında etkileşimli tahta kurulumları yapılmış bir okul olup, teknolojik donanım açısından yeterlidir. Öğretmenlik görevinin yanında lisansüstü çalışmaları da bulunan öğretmen, araştırmaya katılmayı kendini geliştirmek üzere büyük bir isteklilikle kabul etmiştir.

Veri Toplama Araçları

Araştırma verileri video kayıtları, araştırmacı günlüğü ve araştırmacının gözlem notları aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. Bu amaçla gerçekleştirilen her bir öğretim video kayıt altına alınmış, sürecin bütün aşamaları araştırmacının günlüklerinde yer almıştır.

Veri Toplama Süreci

Araştırmada öncelikle katılımcı öğretmen ile birlikte İngilizce dersi 9. sınıf eğitim programı kazanımları incelenerek, öğretmenin isteği ve ihtiyacı doğrultusunda materyal üretilmesi için belirli kazanımlar seçilmiştir. Alanyazından yararlanılarak öğretim amaçlı kullanılan çeşitli çevrimiçi ortamlar belirlenmiştir. Belirlenen çevrimiçi ortamların içinden kazanımlara uygun kullanabilecek çevrimiçi ortamlar seçilmiş, bu süreçte katılımcı öğretmen ve alan uzmanlarının görüşlerine dikkate alınmıştır. Öğrencilerin dikkatini çekmesi ve görselliğin arttırılması amacıyla bir karikatür ortamı (Toondoo), ses ve görsel ögelerin birlikte kullanılabilmesi ve öğrencilerin dinleme becerilerine de uygun olması amacıyla animasyon içeren video oluşturma ortamı (GoAnimate) olmak üzere iki çevrimiçi ortamın seçilimi alanyazın, katılımcı öğretmen, alan uzmanlarının görüşleriyle kazanımlar göz önünde bulundurularak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Seçilen çevrimiçi ortamların önce nasıl kullanılacağıyla ilgili öğretim gerçekleştirilmiş, ardından öğretmen bu ortamlarda materyallerini geliştirmiştir. Çevrimiçi ortamların öğretiminin yapılması için, öğretmenin haftalık ders programı incelenerek öğretimi gerçekleştirecek olan araştırmacı ile ortak bir

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zaman belirlenmiştir. Öğretimin gerçekleştirileceği ortam olarak öğretmenin görev yaptığı okul müdürüyle konuşularak okul içerisinde uygun bir ortam, zaman olarak da öğretmenin boş dersleri seçilmiştir. Bu bağlamda öğretmenle gerçekleştirilecek öğretim için, öğretmenin istek ve tercihleri göz önünde bulundurularak en uygun ortam ve zaman seçiminin yapılmasına özen gösterilmiştir.

Seçilen iki çevrimiçi ortamın öğretimi ikişer hafta sürmüş, her bir çevrimiçi ortamın öğretiminden bir sonraki derste öğretmen tarafından materyal üretimi yapılmıştır. Öğretmenin isteği üzerine öğretimin yapıldığı ilk derste öğretmen uygulama yapmamış, sonraki haftaya kadar evde bireysel çalışma yapmayı tercih etmiştir. Materyal üretim sürecinde öğretmen araştırmacının rehberliğinde tamamen kendi uğraşıyla seçtiği kazanımlara uygun materyalleri üretmiştir. Elde edilen veriler içerik analizi kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir.

Geçerlilik-Güvenirlik Çalışmaları

Araştırmada veri çeşitliliğinin sağlanması amacıyla video çekimlerinin yanı sıra öğretmen ve araştırmacının gözünden de sürecin izlenebilmesi için öğretmen ve araştırmacı günlükleri de veri kaynağı olarak kullanılmıştır.

Veri tutarlılığının sağlanması adına ise, öğretim sırasında ve materyal geliştirme sırasında çekilen video kayıtlarının dökümü ve ham veriler katılımcı öğretmen ve alan uzmanlarına onaylatılarak araştırmaya eklenmiştir. Ayrıca çalışmanın düzenlenmiş son hali öğretmene ve alan uzmanlarına okutularak tekrar görüşleri alınmış ve çalışmanın birçok farklı perspektiften değerlendirilmesi sağlanmıştır.

Bulgular

Çevrimiçi ortamların öğretimi ve öğretim materyallerinin üretilmesi sırasında çekilen video kayıtlar, öğretmen günlüğü, araştırmacı günlüğü ve gözlem notlarından elde edilen veriler incelenerek araştırmanın amacı doğrultusunda araştırmacı tarafından sınıflandırılmıştır. Bu süreçte araştırmacının video kayıtlarından elde ettiği ham veriler ve araştırmacı tarafından araştırma soruları ışığında düzenlenen bulgular ve başlıkları katılımcı öğretmene ve alan uzmanlarına onaylatılarak çalışmaya alınmıştır. Kişiselleştirilmiş bir mesleki gelişim etkinliğinin öğretimin hangi alanlarında fark yaratabileceği üzerine incelenen verilerdeki benzer ifadelerden yararlanılarak aşağıdaki başlıklara ulaşılmıştır. Buna göre bulgular, mesleki gelişim etkinliğinin verimliliğini etkileyecek etmenlerden öğretmenin sürece karşı gösterdiği olumlu tutum, süreç boyunca devam eden ilgi ve merakı, öğrenme sorumluluğunu yerine getirmesi ve süreci kendi öğrenme hızına göre yönlendirmesi olmak üzere katılımcı öğretmen, araştırmacı ve alan uzmanlarının ortak görüşleri sonucunda dört başlık altında sınıflandırılmıştır.

Sürece Karşı Tutum

İngilizce öğretmeniyle teknoloji entegrasyonu kapsamında gerçekleştirilen mesleki gelişim etkinliğinde öğretmenin bu öğretim sürecine karşı olumlu bir tutum içerisinde olduğu ve süreç boyunca istekli davrandığı gözlenmiştir.

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Araştırmacının animasyon içeren video hazırlama ortamının öğretiminin gerçekleştirildiği 13 Şubat 2014 tarihindeki günlüklerinde bu durum şu şekilde ifade edilmiştir:

“Öğretmene video üretme ortamını anlattım, ilgiyle dinledi, mantığını anlamaya çalıştı, sorular sordu.”

“Öğretmen kaydetme işleminin sonunda “Demek ki video böyle oluyor.” diyerek video oluşturmayı öğrenmesine memnun olduğunu belirtti.”

Benzer süreç öğretmen günlüğündeki “Hocama sorular sorarak zihnimdeki sorulara cevap bulmaya çalıştım” ve “Heyecanlıydım. Bu sefer karikatürlerim canlanacaktı. Kahramanlarım konuşacak ve hareket edecekti. Ben de artık kendim küçük bir animasyon hazırlayabilecektim” ifadeleri öğretmenin sürece karşı olumlu bir tutum içerisinde olduğu ve süreçten duyduğu memnuniyeti belirtmektedir.

20 Şubat 2014 tarihli video dökümünde yer alan “Öğretmen kendi hazırladığı eğitsel videoyu izlemeden önce gülerek ‘Heyecanlandım videomu izlerken’ diyerek video hazırlama becerisini gerçekleştirdiği için duyduğu merak ve heyecanı dile getirdi.” ifadesiyle öğretmenin çevrimiçi ortamları kullanarak materyal geliştirme etkinliğine karşı olumlu tutumunu göstermektedir.

İlgi ve Merakın Devamlılığı

Öğretmenin mesleki gelişim etkinliğine yönelik ilgi ve merakın öğretim süreci boyunca araştırmacıya yöneltilen sorularla devam ettiği gözlenmiştir. Öğretmen, öğretimi gerçekleştirilen ilk ortam olan karikatür hazırlama ortamıyla ilgili görüşlerini öğretmen günlüğündeki “İlk öğrenmem gereken çevrimiçi ortam Toondoo’ydu. Karikatür hazırlama programı. Eğlenceli görünüyordu.” ifadeleriyle belirterek sürece karşı ilgisini koruduğunu göstermektedir.

13 Şubat 2014 tarihli video dökümünden elde edilen ifadelere göre öğretmenin “Öğretmen ikinci sahnenin eklenme mantığını ‘Konuşmayı, hareketi hepsini tek sahnede ekleyebiliyor muyuz?’ sorusuyla anlamaya çalışmıştır. (..) Verilen cevaptan sonra öğretmen, “Anladım, o zaman arka arkaya koymak lazım.” diyerek anladığını belirtti.” ifadesiyle konuyu daha iyi anlamak üzere sorular yönelttiği ve yine aynı tarihli video dökümünde: “İlk karaktere ses eklenmek üzere tıklanmış, öğretmen kendi fikrini “Konuşma baloncuğu mu ekleyeceğiz?” sorusuyla belirtti.” ifadesiyle problemlere kendi çözümlerini sunmak üzere sorular yönelttiği görülmüştür.

20 Şubat 2014 tarihli video dökümünde yer alan öğretmenin eğitsel amaçlı bir video hazırlarken bir yandan da yaptığı adımları “İlk olarak arka plan ekliyoruz. (…) Sonra karakterleri ekliyoruz. (…) Şimdi ses ekleyeceğiz.” şeklinde ifade ederek süreci ve video oluşturma etkinliğini ilgiyle takip ettiğini ortaya koymuştur.

Öğrenme Sorumluluğu

Öğretmenin kendi öğrenmesinin sorumluluğunu aldığı ve daha iyi bir öğrenme için daha fazla uygulama talep ettiği görülmüştür.

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13 Şubat 2014 tarihli videonun dökümünde yer alan “Mesela diyelim ki, yüzeysel bir şeyler bu şekilde yaptığımda, bu dönem yoğunum ya, tatilde üzerine eklemeler yapmak için bir araya gelebiliriz.” ifadesinde daha gelişmiş materyallerin üretilmesi için ekstra çalışma isteği görülmektedir.

Benzer şekilde 20 Şubat 2014 tarihli videoda yer alan Kendim senin yanında bir video hazırlayayım, bakalım yanlış mı yapıyorum doğru mu..” ifadesi, daha iyi bir öğrenme için öğretmenin fazladan uygulama isteğini göstermektedir.

5 Aralık 2013 tarihli araştırmacı günlüğündeki “My Toonbook uygulamasını bir örnekle gösterdim. Evde bu seçeneği daha fazla inceleyeceğini söyledi.” ifadesi de öğretmenin kendi kendine görevler verdiği ve daha iyi bir öğrenme için sorumluluklarını yerine getirdiğini belirtmektedir.

Öğretmenin günlüğünde video oluşturma ortamı ile ilgili “Dersin sonunda basitçe de olsa bir animasyon oluşturabilmiştim. Evde bu animasyon üzerinde çalışarak daha iyi bir hale getirdim“ ifadesi, öğretmenin kendisine görev verilmese bile daha iyi bir öğrenme için kendini görevlendirdiği ve öğrenme sorumluluğunu aldığını göstermektedir.

13 Şubat 2014 tarihli araştırmacı günlüğünde yer alan “Öğretmenin isteğiyle, bir sonraki derse kadar video üretme ortamını kendisi inceleyecek, haftaya soruları varsa onların üzerinde duracağız” ifadesinde de öğretmenden gelen bireysel bir çalışma isteğinin olduğu görülmektedir.

Öğrenme Hızı

Öğretmenin kendi öğrenme hızına göre bir mesleki gelişim etkinliği gerçekleştirme isteğinde olduğu ve gerekli gördüğünde araştırmacıya bu isteğini yansıttığı görülmüştür.

13 Şubat 2014 tarihli video dökümünde yer alan “Farklı kişilerden ses eklenmesi için farklı bir isme tıklanmış ve ses yeniden dinlenmiştir. Öğretmen, örneğin yeterli olduğunu gösteren bir ifadeyle “Tamam” dediği için daha fazla farklı kişi dinlenmedi.” ifadesinde öğretim hızının bireysel farklılıklara göre düzenlendiği belirtilmektedir.

21 Kasım 2013 tarihli araştırmacı günlüğünde benzer şekilde “Çevrimiçi ortama üyelik aşamasını atladım, o kadarını kendisinin yapabileceğini söyledi.” ifadesinde de öğretmenin kendi öğrenme hızına göre öğretim sürecini yönlendirdiği görülmektedir.

Ortaya çıkan sonuçlara göre, öğretmen gerçekleştirilen mesleki gelişim etkinliğine karşı olumlu tutum içerisinde, süreci ilgiyle takip etmekte, süreçle ilgili öğrenme görevlerinin farkında ve öğrenme sorumluluklarını yerine getirmek amacıyla süreci kendi hızına göre yönlendirmektedir. Araştırma amacı doğrultusunda öğretmenin ilgi, gereksinim ve olanakları odağa alınarak, esnek bir öğretim süreci tasarlanmış ve öğretmenin belirtilen özelliklere sahip bu sürece karşı olumlu tutum içerisinde olduğu ve mesleki gelişim etkinliğinin hedeflediği eğitsel materyalleri üreterek süreci başarıyla bitirdiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

Tartışma

Araştırmada İngilizce öğretmeniyle teknoloji entegrasyonu kapsamında materyal geliştirme ile ilgili bir mesleki gelişim etkinliği gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu süreçte öğretmenin

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ihtiyaç duyduğu kazanımlara ait materyallerin geliştirilmesine öncelik verilmiş, çevrimiçi ortam seçimleri öğretmenin belirlediği kazanımlara göre yapılmış ve çevrimiçi ortamların öğretimi ve materyallerin üretilmesi bu doğrultuda gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu durum mesleki gelişim etkinlikleri hakkında görüş bildiren öğretmenleri inceleyen çeşitli araştırmalardan çıkan mesleki gelişim faaliyetlerinin öğretmenlerin ihtiyaçlarına göre belirlenmesi ve süreç içerisinde uygulamalara ağırlık verilmesi sonuçlarıyla benzerlik göstermektedir (Özkan, 2010; Smith, Hofer, Gillespie, Solomon, ve Rowe, 2003). Ayıca yetişkin öğrenenlerin özelliklerine göre, yetişkin öğrenenler somut gereksinimlerini karşılayan öğretimleri tercih etmekte ve süre içerisinde pasif bir rol değil, kararlar alabilen, süreci yönlendirebilen aktif bir rol edinmek istemektedirler (Yayla, 2009). Bu durumu destekler nitelikte araştırmada öğretmenin mesleki gelişim etkinliğine istekle katıldığı ve süreç boyunca da ilgi ve merakını devam ettirdiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu bağlamda ilgi ve ihtiyaca yönelik mesleki gelişim etkinliklerinin öğretmenin sürece olan bağlılığını koruduğu söylenebilir. Bu durum, çeşitli araştırmalarda (Bümen, 2009; Bümen, Ateş, Çakar, Ural, ve Acar, 2012) MEB tarafından öğretmenler için düzenlenen mesleki gelişim etkinlikleriyle ilgili belirtilen öğretmen ihtiyaçlarının dikkate alınmadığı ve mesleki gelişim etkinliklerinin öğretmenler tarafından anlamsız bulunduğu gibi eksiklerin bu çalışmada dikkate alındığını göstermektedir.

Gerçekleştirilen çevrimiçi ortam öğretimleri ve materyal geliştirme etkinlikleri öğretmen için uygun olan zaman ve ortamda yapılmış, böylelikle öğretmenin tüm derslere zamanında katıldığı ve süreci hedeflediği materyalleri üreterek tamamladığı görülmüştür. Benzer şekilde Yayla (2009), yetişkin öğrenenlerin fiziksel çevreyi rahat ve kendilerine uygun bulmalarının öğrenmelerinde etkisi olduğunu belirtmektedir. Eğitimdeki paradigma değişimine benzer şekilde öğretmen eğitimlerinde de öz denetimli öğrenmeye ağırlık verilmesi gerektiği, öğretmenlerin kendi öğrenme sorumluluklarını alarak, kendi öğrenmelerini yönetmeleri ve bu konuda mesleki gelişim öğreticileri tarafından cesaretlendirilmeleri gerektiği belirtilmektedir (Richards ve Farrell, 2005). Çalışmada bulgularla desteklenen ve gerçekleştirilen mesleki gelişim boyunca öğretmenin kendi öğrenmesini kontrol edebilmesi, öğretimin esnek hale getirilerek öğrenme hızının ve stilinin öğretmene göre düzenlenmesi ve süreç sonunda öğretmenin amaçlanan materyalleri üreterek sürece karşı olumlu tutumunu koruması çalışmada ortaya çıkan olumlu yönler olarak sayılabilir.

Sonuç ve Öneriler

Çevrimiçi ortamların öğretim amaçlı kullanımının yaygınlaşmasıyla öğretmenlerin materyal geliştirme ile ilgili anlayışlarının değişebileceği, öğrencilerin ilgisini çekecek birçok materyali İnternet üzerinde oluşturup paylaşabilecekleri ve çok daha etkili öğrenme ortamlarının oluşturulabileceği görülmektedir. Bu bağlamda öğretmenlerin çevrimiçi ortamları daha çok kullanmaları, hem pratik bir şekilde zengin içerikli materyal hazırlamalarını, hem de öğrenciler için daha ilgi çekici ve eğlenceli bir öğrenme ortamını sağlayacaktır. Öğretmenlerin çevrimiçi ortamları tanımaları ve kullanmaları için, bu konuda hizmetiçi eğitimlerin gerçekleştirilmesi ve öğretmenlerin mesleki gelişimlerinin desteklenmesi gerekmektedir. Öğretmenlere verilen hizmetiçi eğitimlerin etkililiği ise tartışılmaktadır. Bu soruna yönelik olarak çalışmada kullanılan kişiselleştirilmiş mesleki gelişim uygulamasının çalışma kapsamında yararlı olduğu ve öğretmenin mesleki gelişimine istenen yönde ve öğretmenin de memnun olacağı şekilde etki ettiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

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Gerçekleştirilen çalışma ışığında sunulacak önerilerden ilki, bir örneği sunulan kişiselleştirilmiş mesleki gelişim etkinliklerinin daha çok uygulamaya konulmasıdır. Özellikle etkililiği sorgulanan ve öğretmenler tarafından olumsuz tutumlarla karşılanan hizmetiçi eğitimlerin aksine öğretmenin de istekli bir şekilde sürece katkısıyla gerçekleştirilmiş bu mesleki gelişim etkinliği, MEB için de örnek bir etkinlik olarak ele alınabilir. Bu bağlamda öğretmeni odağa alarak sürecin öğretmenin ilgi, ihtiyaç ve olanaklarına göre düzenlenmesinin öğretmenlerin mesleki gelişim etkinliklerinden alacakları verimi arttıracağı düşünülmektedir. Benzer şekilde bir öğretmenle gerçekleştirilen bu çalışmanın birden çok öğretmenle hangi şartlarda gerçekleştirilebileceği de gelecek çalışmalar için uygulanabilir bir çalışma alanıdır. Çalışma sonuçlarından yola çıkılarak sunulabilecek bir başka öneri de FATİH projesi kapsamında sağlanacak olan e-içeriklerin öğretmenlerin desteğiyle oluşturulması önerisidir. Çalışmada kullanılan çevrimiçi ortamlar ve benzeri diğer çevrimiçi ortamların öğretmenler tarafından tanınması ve kullanılması desteklenmeli, öğretmenlerin kendi sınıflarının ilgi ve gereksinimlerine uygun materyallerini kendilerinin hazırlayabileceği ve FATİH projesinin sosyal eğitim platformu olan EBA’ya yükleyerek paylaşabilecekleri konusunda öğretmenler bilgilendirilip, yüreklendirilmelidir. Çevrimiçi ortamların kullanımı ve bu ortamlarda materyal geliştirme konularını kapsayan hizmetiçi eğitimlerin verilmesi de bir diğer öneridir.

Kaynakça

Akıncı, A., Kurtoğlu, M. ve Seferoğlu, S. S.(2012). Bir teknoloji politikası olarak FATİH projesinin başarılı olması için yapılması gerekenler: Bir durum analizi çalışması. Akademik Bilişim 2012, Uşak Üniversitesi.

Alkan, T., Bilici, A., Akdur, T. E., Temizhan, O. ve Çiçek, H. (2011). Fırsatları artırma teknolojiyi iyileştirme hareketi (FATİH) Projesi. 5. Uluslararası Bilgisayar ve Öğretim Teknolojileri Sempozyumu, Fırat Üniversitesi, Elazığ.

Banoğlu, K., Madenoğlu, C., Uysal, Ş. ve Dede, A. (2014). FATİH projesine yönelik öğretmen görüşlerinin incelenmesi (Eskişehir ili örneği). Eğitim Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi (EBAD), 4(1), 39-58.

Bulut, İ., ve Koçoğlu, E. (2012). Sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin akıllı tahta kullanımına ilişkin görüşleri: Diyarbakır ili örneği. Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 19, 242-258.

Bümen, N. T. (2009). Possible effects of professional development on Turkish teachers’ self-efficacy and classroom practice. Professional Development in Education, 35(2), 261 - 278.

Bümen, N.T., Ateş, A., Çakar, E., Ural, G. ve Acar, V. (2012). Türkiye bağlamında öğretmenlerin mesleki gelişimi: Sorunlar ve öneriler. Milli Eğitim. 41(194), 31-50.

Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Çağıltay, K., Çakıroğlu, J., Çağıltay, N. ve Çakıroğlu, E. (2001). Öğretimde bilgisayar kullanılmasına ilişkin öğretmen görüşleri. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 21, 19-28.

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Ertmer, P. A. (1999). Addressing first- and second-order barriers to change: Strategies for technology integration. Educational Technology Research & Development, 47(4), 47–61.

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Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (2014). Proje hakkında. 6 Haziran 2014 tarihinde http://fatihprojesi.meb.gov.tr/tr/icerikincele.php?id=6 adresinden erişilmiştir.

Özkan, M. (2010). Hizmetiçi eğitim programlarının oluşturulmasına ilişkin öğretmen görüşleri. Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Selçuk Üniversitesi, Konya.

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Smith, C. L., Hofer, J., Gillespie, M., Solomon, M. & Rowe, K. (2003). How teachers change: A study of professional development in adult education. 10 Haziran 2014 tarihinde http://www.ncsall.net/fileadmin/resources/research/report25.pdf adresinden erişilmiştir.

Tsai, C. C., & Chai, C. S. (2012). The “third”-order barrier for technology-integration instruction: Implications for teacher education. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 28(6), 1057-1060.

Türel, Y. K., & Johnson, T. E. (2012). Teachers' belief and use of interactive whiteboards for teaching and learning. Educational Technology & Society, 15(1), 381–394.

Yayla, D. (2009). Türk yetişkin eğitimi sisteminin değerlendirilmesi. 8 Haziran 2014 tarihinde www.meb.gov.tr/earged/earged/Yetiskin_Egitimi.pdf adresinden erişilmiştir.

Yıldırım, A., ve Şimşek, H. (2008). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. (7. Baskı). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.

EXTENDED ABSTRACT

In today’s world of changes caused by technology in all fields, education is one of those fields in which various changes have been experienced. Societies carry out studies to train individuals who are competent in technology and who can access and use

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information. The purpose of this process called technology integration in education is to include up-to-date technologies into educational environments as well as into curricula, to have students use these technologies and to provide an effective learning process. In today’s classrooms, where advanced technologies are used, it is necessary to focus more on teachers’ role, one of the most important factors determining technology integration, and to meet their related needs and demands. It is reported that it would be no use preparing contents and providing equipment in the technology integration process which does not involve teachers and that the focus should thus be on the development of teachers’ competencies in technology use. However, there are several obstacles encountered by teachers in the process of technology integration. In related literature, these obstacles were categorized under six groups: sources, technology-related knowledge and skills, field culture, evaluation, beliefs and attitudes and the institution. Depending on this, when the applications carried out in relation to technology integration are taken into consideration, it is seen that among the obstacles encountered by teachers, there are several attempts to overcome such obstacles as the institution, field culture and sources which are all based on external factors and that those like knowledge and skills, beliefs and attitudes and evaluation which are all based on internal factors are avoided. It is believed that teachers’ lack of knowledge and skills and their negative beliefs and attitudes regarding the technology could be overcome when professional development activities are viewed from a different perspective. In this respect, individualized professional development activities are suggested for teachers, and it is believed that professional development activities carried out in line with teachers’ interests, needs and capabilities could help remove the obstacles regarding technology integration. In the present study conducted in the light of the views and suggestions reported in related literature, an English Language teacher developed her own instructional materials using online environments within the scope of a professional development activity designed according to the teacher’s own pace of learning and her needs by taking individual differences into account. In this respect, the purpose of this study was to examine the development process of the materials prepared by the teachers using appropriate online sources in the ninth-grade course of English Language in the Spring Term. In the study, first of all, the outcomes of the ninth-grade course of English Language within the scope of the curriculum were examined together with the participating teacher. As a result, certain outcomes were determined to produce materials in line with the teacher’s own demands and needs. After the researcher and the field experts examined the outcomes, online environments appropriate to the outcomes were determined. Accordingly, two online environments were selected for teaching and for material production to develop videos including cartoons and animations. For the teaching of the online learning environments selected, the teacher’s weekly schedule was examined, and a common period of time was determined with the researcher who would teach. As the environment to be taught, a suitable environment was determined at school together with the school administrator. In this respect, for the teaching to be conducted with the teacher, the teacher’s demands and preferences were taken into consideration, and the most appropriate environment and time were determined.

The teaching of the two online environments selected lasted two weeks, in the next class hour following each online environment teaching, the material was produced by the teacher. In line with the teacher’s demand, the teacher did not carry out any application in the first class hour as she preferred to study individually until the following week. In the process of material production, the teacher produced materials appropriate to the outcomes selected by the teacher on her own under the guidance of the researcher.

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Since the purpose of the study was to describe the instructional material development processes of an English Language teacher, the study was designed with the case study method, which describes the current situation. The data collected were analyzed with the content analysis method. The data gathered via the researcher’s journals, observations and the videos recorded during the teaching of online environments and the production of instructional materials were analyzed in line with the purpose of the study. In order to reveal the areas in which the individualized professional development activity could lead to a difference, the research data were categorized using the similar expressions found in the data set. Accordingly, the findings were gathered under four headings: the teacher’s guidance of the process in line with her own pace of learning, her fulfilling the learning responsibility, her interests during the process and her positive attitudes towards the process among the factors that could influence the productivity of the professional development activity. The findings revealed that the teacher had positive attitudes towards the professional development activities carried out; she was interested in the process and aware of her duties in the process; and that she directed the process in line with her own pace to fulfill her responsibilities. In relation to the purpose of the study, it was found out that a flexible teaching process was designed; the teacher had positive attitudes towards the process; and that she successfully completed the process producing the instructional materials in line with the target of the professional development activity.

The online environment teaching and the material development activities were carried out in an environment at a time appropriate to the teacher. Thus, it was seen that the teacher participated in all the lessons and completed the process producing the targeted materials.

Regarding the positive aspects of the professional development conducted and supported with the findings obtained in the study, it could be stated that the teacher controlled her own learning; that it was possible to make the teaching process flexible and thus to arrange the style and pace of learning depending on the teacher; and that at the end of the process, the teacher had positive attitudes towards the process producing the targeted materials.

As a suggestion to be put forward in the light of the study conducted, individualized professional development activities could be put into practice more in future studies. Arranging the process in line with teachers’ interests and needs is thought to increase the productivity of the professional development activities in favor of teachers. Similarly, for future research, the present study carried out with one teacher could be replicated with more than one teacher.

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Investigation of Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Opinions about Using GoAnimate to Create Animated Videos*

Fen Bilgisi Öğretmen Adaylarının Animasyon Oluşturmada GoAnimate Kullanımına İlişkin Görüşlerinin

İncelenmesi

Munise Seçkin KapucuEskişehir Osmangazi University, Turkey

[email protected]

Esra ErenEskişehir Osmangazi University, Turkey

[email protected]

Zeynep Yurtseven AvcıEskişehir Osmangazi University, [email protected]

AbstractThis study aims to investigate the process of animated video creation by pre-service science teachers and analyze their opinions about how this technology can be used for science instruction. Fifteen pre-service science teachers participated in this study. During the study, students learned how to prepare animated videos using GoAnimate program, then they were required to prepare their own animations related to their middle school science subjects. This research is designed as a qualitative case study. Sample of the study was selected using criterion and easily accessible sampling methods to determine the participants. The data was collected through the face-to-face individual interviews. A semi-structured interview form that contains the questions

** This paper is the revised and enriched version of the research presented at 2nd International Instructional Technologies & Teacher Education Symposium (ITTES, 2014) in Afyon, Turkey.

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related with the animated video creation process and pre-service teachers’ opinions about this technology has been prepared by the researchers. The duration of the interviews was around 15 minutes. Content analysis was used for the data analysis. According to the findings: the pre-service science teachers who participated in the study did not have any prior experience with animation technology, they had some difficulties to use this technology for the first time; most of them stated that animated videos would be engaging and could be endearing, but they had concerns about that students would be more interested in visuals instead of deeper understanding; they perceived animated videos being more helpful for middle school level and also suggested GoAnimate should have more characters available for science animations. In line with the research findings, several suggestions were given for the use of visual materials in science education.

Keywords: Pre-service science teachers, animated video creation, GoAnimate, science education

ÖzBu çalışmada fen eğitiminde animasyonların kullanım süreci incelenmiştir. Çalışmanın amacı fen bilgisi öğretmen adaylarının animasyon videoları hazırlama sürecini incelemek ve fen derslerinde bu teknolojinin nasıl kullanılabileceklerine ilişkin öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerini analiz etmektir. Çalışmaya onbeş fen bilgisi öğretmen adayı katılmıştır. Çalışma kapsamında öğretmen adaylarına GoAnimate programı kullanılarak animasyon hazırlama süreci öğretilmiştir. Sonrasında öğrencilerden fen konularıyla ilişkilendirilmiş animasyon hazırlamaları beklenmiştir. Araştırma nitel durum çalışması yöntemiyle desenlenmiştir. Örneklem seçiminde ölçüt örneklem ve kolay ulaşılabilir örnekleme teknikleri kullanılmıştır. Görüşmeler bireysel olarak yüz yüze gerçekleştirilmiştir. Yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler için animasyon videoları hazırlama sürecine ve öğretmen adaylarının bu teknolojileri kullanım süreçlerine yönelik sorular yöneltilmiştir. Görüşmeler yaklaşık olarak 15 dakika sürmüştür. Verilerin analizinde betimsel analiz kullanılmıştır. Araştırmadan elde edilen bulgular incelendiğinde öğretmen adaylarının GoAnimate programı kullanılarak hazırlanan eğitsel animasyonların görsel olduğunu, ilgili çekici olduğunu ve öğrencilere feni sevdirebileceği yönünde görüş belirttikleri görülmüştür. Bununla birlikte öğretmen adayları GoAnimate kullanılarak eğitsel animasyon hazırlarken zorlandıkları ve hazırlanan eğitsel animasyonların her konuya uyarlamasının zor olabileceğini belirtmişlerdir. Ayrıca öğretmen adayları seviyeye uygun karakter olması yönünde animasyonların geliştirilmesine yönelik önerilerini dile getirmişlerdir. Araştırmanın sonuçlarına dayalı olarak fen eğitiminde görsel araçların kullanımına yönelik olarak öneriler geliştirilmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Fen Bilgisi öğretmen adayları, animasyonlu video oluşturma, GoAnimate, fen eğitimi

Introduction

It is undeniable that today’s students are surrounded by and using computers, videogames, and all the other types of digital technologies (Horzum, 2011; Prensky, 2001a; 2001b). Learning activities that are parallel with the technology literacy skills are suggested as resulting higher learning outcomes and motivation (Conole & Alevizou, 2010). Web 2.0 technologies are only the most recent in a long line of tools used in education and to develop learning objects. Multimedia, video, and animation have existed for some time. All have been used to bring technology to education with the intent of improving learning. The number of Web 2.0 tools available are increasing and their collaborative and contribution-based nature offers various opportunities for the future of education (Bower, Hedberg & Kuswara, 2010). 21st century educators are required to utilize student-centred and interactive approaches in accordance with contemporary technologies.

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In this context, Turkish Ministry of Education makes significant investments for the Project called “Movement of Enhancing Opportunities and Improving Technology”, known as FATIH. Some aims of this project are to equip classrooms with wireless Internet, smart boards, and provide tablets to teachers and students. It is anticipated that these Technologies will be available in 40 thousand schools with 620 classrooms in 5 years (MEB, 2012). Development of required e-content for instruction is another aspect of FATIH project. This content includes educational materials such as e-books, animations, videos, presentations, educational games and so on.

Along with the recent improvements in technology; utilization of multimedia with voice, graphic, and text components and animations is increasing as well (Daşdemir & Doymuş, 2012). These new types of learning materials support improved learning through various rich teaching settings. Studies (Burke & Greenbowe, 1998; Kıyıcı & Yumuşak, 2005) specifically state the importance of information and communication technologies to enhance science teaching and learning. The abundance of sciencific concepts and principles makes science courses hard to understand for students (Taber, 2002). The main purpose of science courses is not making students memorize the definitions and formulas, instead it aims to improve critical and reflective thinking skills among students (Lind, 2005). It is suggested that teachers have a critical role to offer this effective teaching in schools through preparation of approppriate learning environments (Kara & Özgün Koca, 2004). Güvercin (2010) suggests computer technologies among the most powerful educational materials.

One of the widely used computer-assisted multimedia environments is animation. Use of animations can have an important effect in teaching abstract or complex topics and can be more effective than traditional teaching methods in terms of enhancing students' achievement (Aksoy, 2013; Pekdağ, 2010; Rohendi, 2012). There is a substantial body of literature on multimedia, video, and animation for some time and the main issue in most of them is integrating technology into education for the improvement of learning (Lerma, 2007; Rosado Feger & Thomas, 2011). When applied properly, animation presents information in a more intriguing and easier way to understand than static media (Ali & Madar, 2010; Dancy & Beichner, 2006; Madar & Hashim, 2011). The contributions of animations with audial and visual components to learning were summarized as: enhancing comprehension, increasing motivation, reinforcement of the material, recalling information, offerring more engaging learning environments, and providing timely feedback (Rieber, 1990a; 1990b; 1991; Rieber & Kini, 1991). Animations can have positive effects on learning, since they have a dynamic view and having the feature of simulating abstract events (Lewalter, 2003; Lowe, 2003).

Animation creation platforms usually have several procedures such as coding or detailed control on movements of objects or characters (Kourik, 2012). However, with current improvements in technology easier animation creation tools, like GoAnimate have been developed. The current technologies are more accessible and easy to use, which carries educational animations to a higher stage in instruction process. Animation creation offers alternative ways of learning through increased visualization and intercation. Particularly in science education, teaching with animations can increase the visual aspect of the materials and provide alternative ways of learning scientific concepts through simulating abstract concepts.

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GoAnimate is one of the new generation of animation technologies. It is an online platform where users are allowed to create animations using themes that are equipped with backgrounds, characters and props that you can combine to make your animations; or users can start from scratch, select a background and drag and drop backgrounds, characters and props from the menus available on the side (Stratton, Julien and Schaffer, 2014). While some features are commercial, it also has a lot of features for free non-commercial use. Perez (2011) suggests the following as the advantages of using GoAnimate: no download and installation is needed, the option of selecting the template, character features and adding your own scripts to the animation to create a rich animation video as a storytelling platform for self-expression and creativity. GoAnimate can be used as a tool to share researched information about specific topics, promotes creativity for students and educators while engaging in learning and teaching more, can be used as an alternative way of information presentation. It can be used in so many fun ways in the classroom and would be a great tool for learning.

It is suggested that faculties related to teacher education need to ensure preparing pre-service teachers to teach effectively incorporating ICT into their teaching and learning strategies (NPADC, 2001; Lim, Chai, & Churchill, 2010). As being one of the contemporary technologies, Xiao (2013) reports that animation in the classroom is becoming more and more popular in education from teachers to students. In our current study, pre-service science teachers created educational animations using GoAnimate about science subjects. According to Hoban (2007), when learners create animations to teach a subject, they concentrate on the subject more and a deeper understanding occurs. In this context, pre-service science teachers could be more engaged in the learning of science concepts, while at the same time they are preparing educational materials. Additionally, if they could share those materials with their peers, their engagement would be even higher. To be able to create animations, pre-service teachers need to demonsrate and reflect on their content knowledge, which encourages them to learn the content more deeply and critically. When we search the literature, we see a significant amount of studies on animations and their effects on learning (Daşdemir & Doymuş, 2012; Elmstrom Klenk, 2011; Iskander & Curtis, 2005; Santos, 2009). Most of those studies are at primary or secondary education level and they are more about effects on student achievement. On the other hand, in the literature there is no example of qualitative research in which teachers’ or pre-service teachers’ opinions about animations have been examined. Teachers need animations to be used for the classroom teaching. Therefore, the process of animation preparation should be taught to pre-service teachers during their teacher education. In addition, within the scope of FATIH project, the Ministry of Education supports visual teaching-learning tools and the use of computers in classroom practice. This study is valuable in terms of teaching animation preparation process to pre-service teachers during their teacher education. A review of the literature reveals that there are no studies about preparation of educational animations associated with science topics using GoAnimate software. In addition, according to the studies related to animation are at theoretical level (Lowe, 2003; Pekdağ, 2010; Stratton, Julien, & Schaffer, 2014; Xiao, 2013). Studies on teachers (Genç, 2013) and pre-service teachers are expected to contribute to the field. Different than the reviewed literature, in our current study, we investigate pre-service science teachers’ animation creation processes about 5th grade science and technology topics. Additionally, their opinions were analyzed about how the educational animations can be used in science classes.

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This study aims to investigate the process of animated video creation by pre-service science teachers and analyze their opinions about how this technology can be used for science instruction. For this purpose, the following questions were addressed:

What are the pre-service science teachers` opinions about the process of animated video creation using GoAnimate?

What are the pre-service science teachers` opinions about pros and cons of using animated videos that were created using GoAnimate in science education?

What are the pre-service science teachers` suggestions about using animated videos that were created using GoAnimate in science education?

Method

Research Model

This research is designed using qualitative phenomenology approach. Phenomenology is the discipline studying appearances of things, or things as they appear in our experience, or the ways we experience things, thus the meanings things have in our experience. Phenomenology deals with how people perceive a phenomenon, describe, memorize, evaluate and communicate it with other people (Patton, 2001). Sample of the study was selected using criterion sampling and easily accessible sampling methods.

Participants

In the academic year of 2013-2014, 15 sophomores who are studying at the Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Department of Science Education, were participated in this study. The main criterion for the selection of pre-service teachers was set as taking Computer II course. 8 (53, 3%) of the participants are women and 7 (%46, 6) of them are men.

Procedures

During the spring semester, first GoAnimate was introduced to pre-service science teachers through the lecture and demonstrations. They learned how to prepare animated videos using GoAnimation. They had a chance to create short animations about any topic of their interestion during the in-class practice. Then, they were required to design an animation to engage pupils with scientific concepts as the final project. Students were required to prepare their animations related to their middle school science subjects. For the final project, students worked in groups of two or three. The following figures are the screenshots of two projects developed by pre-service teachers, so as you can acquire a quick view on what the tool may offer:

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Figure 1. Sample GoAnimate Project

Figure 2. Sample GoAnimate Project

Data Collection Tools

A semi-structured interview, which was prepared by the researchers, was used to collect data. The interview consists of the questions related with the three research questions of the study. During the development of the semi-structured interview relevant literature has been reviewed. Two experts were consulted about the nine open-ended questions prepared by the researcher. The questions were rearranged in accordance with the opinion of the experts.

Data Collection

Interviews were conducted individually and face-to-face. During the interviews, 9 questions which were addressing the research questions of the study were asked to the participants. The first five question were related with the first research question, the sixth and seventh questions are related with the second research question, and the last two

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questions were related with the third research question. The duration of the interviews was around 15 minutes. During the interviews, voice recorder was used with written permission of the participant. During the interviews, situations that may influence pre-service teachers and that may affect data collection process negatively were avoided. For instance, directing participants about their response to the questions were avoided. Participants were provided an interview environment that is silent enough to help them talking comfortably. The participants were informed about the purpose, content of the study and the length of the interviews. The interviewee listened them objectively.

Data Analysis

Descriptive and content analysis methods were used for the data analysis. In phenomenology researches, data analysis is to uncover experience and meanings (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2008). During the analysis, the collected data were coded and grouped under various themes. Data were reported by including direct quotations from opinions. In the study, a code was assigned to each pre-service teacher, which was used in direct quotations, so that participants’ identities were kept confidential. At the end of analysis process, the two researchers examined the analysis that they made separately and obtained consensus about codes and themes. In order to ensure internal validity of the research, the perception of the pre-service science teacher about the process of animation preparation was defined using direct quotations and then they were interpreted. To ensure external validity, the methodology of the research was described in details. For the sake of the reliability, each researcher coded the data separately and independently. An overall comparison was performed, no statistical analysis was applied. At the end of the discussion about the incongruent codes, the researchers came to an aggreement. The levels of compliance in coding were close to each other.

Findings

In this part, the findings of the research is presented, supported by direct quotations from science teachers' opinions

Pre-service Sience Teachers’ Opinions about the Process of Animated Video Creation Using Goanimate.

In this section, student responses to the first five (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) questions were analyzed. Interview questions are included in Appendix 1. Data obtained from the opinion of pre-service teachers were examined under opinion, experience, preparation steps, encountered difficulties, and individual and group work themes (Table 1).

Table 1Animation Preparation Process

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Theme Sub-theme fOpinions Being Visual 6

Beneficial 5Increase the interest 4Enjoyable 3Facilitates understanding of the course 3Suitable 3

Experience Realized -Not realized 1

6Preparation steps Difficulties 9

Vocalization 4Having fun 4Being in English 3Choose of characters 3

Difficulties Asynchrony between sound and movement 5Being in English 4Selecting appropriate characters for the scenario 4Restricted with 30 second 3Voices of the characters 3

Individual and Group Work

Group work 10

Individual work 5

In the opinions theme, pre-service teachers mostly stated that GoAnimate provided a visual representation. A participant (K-7) underlined the benefit of educational animations as “The use of animation is useful because there are experiments in science education. Since it is an animation, it is easier for the students to visualize them in their minds”, whereas another participant (K-2) stated his opinion as “Since science education is a discipline that is better apprehended with experiments and observations, and educational animations appeal to the eye, I believe that students can understand more easily, I think instruction with educational animations will be enjoyable”. Another participant (K-3) stated his opinion as “I think educational animations are very useful in science education, because visual intelligence is improved when students see something visually. It is more effective, easily remembered, concepts get more concrete”.

The opinion, which was mostly mentioned under opinions theme, is that educational animations are beneficial. A participant (K-9) shared his opinion as “Educational use of animation includes contents which are useful for the education and training of individuals” whereas another supportive opinion (K-8) was “There is science in every area of life. I think it is important to show many of these kinds of animated movies to the students”.

Another opinion, which was mentioned under opinion theme, is that educational animations increase the interest. A participant (K-4) stated that “It may have a positive effect to perform the education in a fun way.

Other opinions, which were mentioned under opinion theme, are educational animations being enjoyable / funny, making contribution to the comprehension of the course and

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being suitable. A participant (K-5) expressed his opinion as “I think it is appropriate to use educational animations in science education. They should learn science by living it. They should be inside it. It is more enjoyable like this; with visual animations”. A participant (K-2) expressed his opinion about course becoming easier to understand as “Students comprehend more easily” whereas another one (K-16) stated that “It is easier to learn with animations instead of memorizing”. Under suitability theme, a participant (K-16) expressed his opinion as “I think educational animations are suitable for science education. It is not always scientific; it is more fun in terms of rising attention. It is easier to learn with animations instead of memorizing”. Some other sub-themes that were mentioned by the participants less frequently were popularizing the course and helping for permanent learning.

Under experience theme, all pre-service teachers stated that they did not have any experience about animation preparation before taking Computer II course. A participant (K-10) stated that “I did not have similar experience before. I did not even know there were such software”.

Under preparation steps theme, pre-service teachers mostly stated that they encountered difficulties while preparing educational animations using GoAnimate software. A participant (K-3) shared his opinion as “At the beginning I was having difficulty. We had difficulty in hearing while teacher was explaining. We learned to use the software partially” whereas another participant (K-5) expressed himself as “At the beginning, I had difficulty in creating a story. I wrote a long story. We shortened it a little while processing. But as a result it was nice”. The other opinions, which were mostly mentioned under preparation stages theme, are vocalization and having fun. About vocalization a participant (K-10) shared his opinion as “Since we worked in group, it was hard to create the scenario. Themes, characters were limited. We changed the scenario three times. It was hard to connect. We had difficulties in vocalization and recording”. Participants expressed that they had difficulty to fit the voice to the character's movement while vocalizing (K-16). About having fun a participant (K-6) expressed his opinion as “It was funny to prepare the animation. We recorded our voice while the animation was streaming. It was fun. It was hard to combine”.

Other opinions, which were mentioned under preparation step theme, are the software being in English, and having difficulties in character selection. A participant (K-7) stated the problems that he encountered with the following words: “I didn’t have any problem in selecting the personalities and characters. I had difficulties in the production and recording because it was in English. We spent a little more time at the thinking stage. I watched the cartoons created before. I didn’t have any problem since the characters were fitting well to the topic that I would lecture”. About character selection a participant (K-9) said that “First of all GoAnimate consists of visual elements. I started touching everything. Than I had some difficulties in the selection because when varieties increase, choosing is getting more complex. I had language problems and suffered during recording”. Other opinions that were mentioned less under preparation steps were: it was sometimes hard to choose or arranging movements of characters and recordings; time management issues; making changes for scenario creation was necessary, understanding the content of the software was important before background creation and matching the appropriate level.

Regarding individual and group work themes, it was found that pre-service teachers mostly preferred to work in groups. A participant (K-7) underlined the benefit of group

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work as “We need different friends for vocalization” whereas another participant (K-9) expressed his opinion as "When working with groups, different opinions complement each other" whereas another participant (K-16) stated that she prefered working individually. She said “Individual because I don’t think that group work would be fair. Two persons cannot sit on the same computer at the same time. Individual work after the formation of the scenario is preferable”. One participant expressed the opinion as both individual and group work might be useful.Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Opinions about Pros and Cons of Using Animated Videos That Were Created Using Goanimate in Science Education

In this section, students’ responses to the sixth and seventh questions were analyzed. Data obtained from the opinion of pre-service teachers were examined under pros and cons and contributions themes (Table 2).

Table 2 Pros and Cons of Using Animated Videos in Science Education

Theme Sub-theme fPros and Cons Pros 19

Engaging 6Easy to understand 4Visual 3Easily remembered 3Cons 16Difficult to adapt to all topics 4Direct pupils to visual monitoring rather than studying

3

Distracting 3Preparation takes too much time 3

Contributions Creating love of science in children 6Concretization 5Increase the interest 4Easy to remember 3Visual 3

For the pros and cons theme, most of the pre-service teachers stated that they think these animated videos are engaging, but they have concerns about if these video would lead students to just watch to the movie instead of deeper understanding of the concept.

Under pros theme, most of the pre-service teachers emphasized that educational animations prepared by using GoAnimate software are engaging. A participant (K-6) stated that “Pros are: it draws attention of children, and it contributes to the development of science.” whereas another participant (K-15) declared his opinion as “Science courses are very comprehensive ones. Students may become more active, we can increase their interest towards the course. Technical conditions may be unfavorable.” Another opinion (K-16) supporting this view is as following; “I think it is appropriate and engaging. I don’t think that it will draw much attention from 8th grades because they are at puberty.... Multiple animations can be created and combined. It may be used in drawing interest to the topics”. Another opinion, which was mostly mentioned under pros theme, is that educational animations are easy to understand. A participant (K-7) expressed his opinion as “It enables students to understand the courses more easily.

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They come willingly.” Other opinions, which were mentioned under pros theme, are about educational animations being visual and easy to remember. The opinion of a participant (K-2) about being visual is as “There is no laboratory in each class. Moreover, since we will lecture small grades, working in the laboratory may be dangerous. You cannot explain them all; showing is much more useful, in this way you can even show the kettle boil, they can understand more easily. First you can put the kettle on, than you can show it boiling. They were always lecturing us these topics verbally; it would not draw much attention. On the other hand if it is explained using GoAnimate it becomes easier to remember because it appeals the eye”. Other opinions that were mentioned least under pros theme are about educational animations being enjoyable / funny, useful and popularizing the course. Under cons theme, the opinion, which was mostly mentioned, is the difficulty of adapting educational animations to every topic. A participant (K-8) expressed his opinion as “Since the scenes are limited for every science topic, it would be difficult to adapt” whereas another (K-14) commented as “If it was prepared incorrectly, without knowing the topic or it was too long or too short, it might not be beneficial. Other opinion are directing pupils to watching rather than studying, distracting and preparation taking too much time. About directing pupils to watching rather than studying, a participant commented as “It leads children to computers and televisions instead of studying”. About distracting, a participant (K-3) expressed his opinion as “Movies may be distractive. You should not select characters that can be distracting”. About preparation taking too much time a teacher (K-7) said that “Too much time is spent in preparing animations”. Other opinions that were mentioned under cons theme are: GoAnimate software requires pro membership and lack of understanding the software effects the animation creation process negatively.

Under contributions theme, pre-service teachers mostly emphasized that animations creates love of science in children. A participant (K-2) expressed his opinion as “It may popularize science more among children” whereas another participant (K-16) commented as “I think the course can be appreciated more”. Other opinions, which were mostly mentioned under contributions theme, are the use of educational animations on science education will contribute to concentration and increasing students` interest. A participant (K-7) expressed his opinion as “It will help to concretize” whereas another participant (K-9) commented as “Images in science education can be concretized with this software”. Being easy to remember and visual are also among the mentioned opinions. The opinion of a participant (K-2) about being easy to remember is “It is more memorable” whereas another supporting opinion (K-13) is “It enable them to learn more permanently”. About being visual a participant (K-1) commented as “When children see something visually, it always remains in the mind” whereas another opinion (K-4) sharing this view is “Visual representation increase everyone's perception level”. The opinions that were mentioned less frequently under contributions theme are facilitating the lecture, effective time management, satisfying curiosity and being instructive.

Pre-service Science Teachers’ Suggestions about the Usage of Animated Videos That Were Created Using GoAnimate in Science Education.

In this section, student responses to 8th and 9th questions were analyzed. Data obtained from the opinion of pre-service teachers were examined under grade level, topics, and suggestions for improvement themes (Table 3).

Table 3

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Suggestions about Using Animated Videos in Science Education

Theme Sub-theme fGrade Level Secondary school 8

Primary school 7Topics Physics 4

Biology 4Suggestions for improvement

Characters suitable with the levels 7Diversity in movements 5Training to teach the software 5Software being in Turkish instead of English 3Diversity in background 3Diversity in voices 3

Under grade level theme, most of the pre-service teachers stated that educational animations prepared by using GoAnimate software were suitable for secondary school level. A participant (K-4) expressed his view as “More suitable for 5-6th grades. It will be more effective on 5-6th grades” whereas another opinion (K-9) supported this view as “It addresses to young children. It can be used at the first grade of secondary school”. A participant (K-13) expressed his opinions in favor of primary schools as “It can be used for 4-5th grades or less but it would be too simple for older students, such as 6th grades, it would not draw their attention” another participant (K-15) stated that “It is suitable for primary school, 1-2-3-4th grades”. Only one participant (K-16) said that utilization of educational animations would be effective in all levels saying “I think it can be used in high school, even in the university. It can be used most intensely for childhood and adolescence”.

Under topic theme, they stated that the animations were mostly suitable for physics topics. Participants expressed their opinions about physics and biology together. A participant (K-15) stated his opinion as “It would be very helpful for the topics such as electricity, induction, weather, lightning, life sciences and nature” whereas another supportive opinion (K-5) was “Lovely animations can be prepared in biology and physics”. Other sub-themes of the topic theme were science education, English education, mathematics education, chemistry courses, verbal issues and topics related with the nature.

Under suggestions for improvement theme, most of the pre-service teachers expressed their opinion about characters being suitable with the levels. A participant (K-1) stated his opinion as “Characters should be appropriate to each age level”, whereas another participant (K-4) suggested as “More characters can be added. Different positions may be included”. Other opinions, which were frequently mentioned under suggestions for improvement theme, are diversity in movements and providing training to teach the software. About the diversity in movements a participant (K-6) commented as “There are few individual movements. They should not include very silly characters” whereas another supportive opinion (K-2) was “They can allow people to move in more directions”. A participant (K-14) shared his opinion about providing training to teach the software as “I saw this program at the university. If this program was taught to high school students, they may like it and investigate a topic more deeply, they would learn in more details. Thus, more research can be achieved. It will improve students` learning” whereas another participant (K-15) expressed his opinion as “More time should be allocated to this

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issue and an environments should be provided that students can learn it. More information about planning and the usage of animations should be provided”.

Other opinions, which were less frequently mentioned under suggestions for improvement theme, are software being in Turkish instead of English, having diversity in background and voices. A participant (K-16) stated his opinion about the software being in Turkish instead of English as: “I have not heard about GoAnimate before. Users must obtain more information about this site. Since this site is in English, it would be nice to be explained by a dedicated person. We can improve by preparing different animations and choosing different scenarios. To make better animations, we need to better understand the site better”. The other opinion for suggestions for improvement theme was 30 seconds time restriction should be longer.

Discussion, Conclusion and Suggestions

This study is based on animations, which is one of the technological tools, and the opinion of pre-service science teachers about the use of educational animations, which were prepared with GoAnimate software, in science education have been examined. Results of the study are presented below.

The analysis of the data obtained from the opinions of pre-service teachers about animation preparation process using GoAnimate in science education showed that most of the pre-service teachers mentioned that the use of educational animation in science education is visual, they encountered difficulties while preparing animations using GoAnimate, they had no experience about animation preparation before attending Computer II course and they prefered working in group. The analysis of the data obtained from the opinions of pre-service teachers about pros and cons of using educational animations prepared with GoAnimate software in science education showed that most of the pre-service teachers mentioned that educational animations prepared using GoAnimate software were engaging and could popularize science among students. However, pre-service teachers also stated that the adaptation of educational animations prepared using GoAnimate software to all topics might be difficult. In a study conducted by Ayvacı, Abdüsselam and Abdüsselam (2012), it was observed that students from the test group had fun while watching animation supported cartoons, they did not get bored while acquiring the gains that they should learn; they developed positive behaviors toward science. The results of this study support the findings of the study conducted by Ayvacı, Abdüsselam and Abdüsselam (2012). In addition, the findings obtained from this study coincide with the results of other researches (Daşdemir and Doymuş, 2012; Karaçöp, 2010; Yakışan, Yel and Mutlu, 2013). Aşçı (2006) and Kaba (1992) in their studies mentioned that visual branches, such as cartoons and animations, draw easily the attention of students, moreover cartoons and animations possess the task of education in addition to entertaining, in their own internal structure. In addition they stated that, since cartoons may enhance the imagination of students, they will contribute to an increase in the desire to learn by converting the teaching process into a more enjoyable process. Hoban (2007) stated that animation preparation was quite attractive because students had fun while using digital technologies, in addition they need to know science to be able to explain in their animation, thus this process helps them to understand science topics.

The analysis of the data obtained from the suggestions of pre-service teachers about the usage of educational animations prepared with GoAnimate software in science education

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showed that most of the pre-service teachers mentioned that animations prepared using GoAnimate software were suitable for secondary school and physics course. As improvement suggestions, most of the pre-service teachers expressed their opinion about characters being suitable with the levels.

In line with the research findings, several suggestions were given. Pre-service science teachers expressed their opinions about the use of educational animation prepared using GoAnimate software was engaging and interesting, it might help to popularize science among pupils but it might be hard to prepare educational animation for each topic and it might be difficult to find suitable characters. Pre-service Science Teachers need classroom environments where they can implement the animated videos that they have prepared. Thus, Computer II course and material development and design courses should cooperate. Quantitative and qualitative studies can be conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of animated videos that was created by Pre-service Science Teachers. Pre-service Science Teachers should be encouraged to prepare and use animated videos in other courses as well. Teaching programs may offer elective courses featuring animated video creation. Within the scope of FATIH Project, in-service trainings about creation and use of animated videos can be given to teachers. Some features of GoAnimate should be improved, pre-service teachers should have training before using it, and Turkish version should be available for use. GoAnimate is not a software created for educational purposes. A software producing animations for educational purposes, supporting Turkish, can be developed.

As a result, this study is significant in terms of determining opinions of pre-service science teachers about the use of educational animations, which were prepared with GoAnimate software, in science education. Students interact with many visual learning tools in their daily lives. In this respect, teachers are required to use visual learning tools in their courses, to draw students' attention. In this study, due to the particularity of the topic, data gathering tools were not diversified, only conducted interviews were used. Future researches may use more diversified data gathering tools and researches including pre-service teachers, students and teachers can be designed. Also experimental studies, evaluating the effectiveness of educational animations prepared by pre-service teachers can be conducted.

Acknowledgement

This paper is the revised and enriched version of the research presented at 2nd International Instructional Technologies & Teacher Education Symposium (ITTES, 2014) in Afyon, Turkey. Furthermore, we would like to thank to experts who provided us professional feedback during the development stages of the scale and pre-service teachers who participated in this study.

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Daşdemir, İ., & Doymuş, K. (2012). 8. sınıf kuvvet ve hareket ünitesinde animasyon kullanımının öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına, öğrenilen bilgilerin kalıcılığına ve bilimsel süreç becerilerine etkisi. Eğitim ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1 (1), 77-87.

Daşdemir, İ., & Doymuş, K. (2012). Fen ve teknoloji dersinde animasyon kullanımının öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına, öğrenilen bilgilerin kalıcılığına ve bilimsel süreç becerilerine etkisi. Pegem Eğitim ve Öğretim Dergisi, 2 (3), 33-42.

Elmstrom Klenk, K. (2011). Computer animation in teaching science: effectiveness in teaching retrograde motion to 9th graders, A Doctoral Dissertation of Philosophy in Education University of Rhode Island and Rhode Island College.

Genç, M. (2013). Öğretmen Adaylarının Bilgisayar Animasyonları Hakkında Görüşleri: Hücre ve Dokular Örneği. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(2), 288-300.

Güvercin, Z. (2010). Fizik dersinde simülasyon destekli yazılımın öğrencilerin akademik başarısına, tutumlarına ve kalıcılığa olan etkisi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Adana

Hoban, G. (2007). Using slowmation to engage preservice elementary teachers in understanding science content knowledge. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 7(2), 1-9.

Hoban, G. F. (2009). Facilitating learner-generated animations with slowmation. In L. Lockyer, S. J. Bennett, S. Agostinho & B. Harper (Eds.), Handbook of research on learning design and learning objects: issues, applications, and technologies (pp. 312-329). Hershey, USA: IGI Global.

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Horzum, M. B. (2011). İlköğretim öğrencilerinin bilgisayar oyunu bağımlılık düzeylerinin çeşitli değişkenlere göre incelenmesi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 36(159), 56-68.

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Yıldırım, A. H., & Şimşek (2008). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri.

GENİŞLETİLMİŞ ÖZ

Bugünün öğrencileri bilgisayarlar, video oyunları ve diğer pek çok dijital teknolojiyle kuşatılmıştır (Horzum, 2011; Prensky, 2001a; 2001b). Web 2.0 araçları öğretim materyali hazırlama amacıyla kullanılan güncel teknolojilerdendir. Multimedya araçları, video, animasyonlar önceleri de eğitimde kullanılan teknolojiler olsa da, son yıllardaki teknolojik gelişmelerle birlikte ses, grafik ve metin öğeleri olan bu teknolojilerin öğretim amaçlı kullanımı tekrar yaygınlaşmıştır (Daşdemir ve Doymuş, 2012). Bu araçlardan en yaygın

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kullanılanlardan biri de animasyonlardır. Soyut ve karmaşık konuların öğretiminde animasyon kullanımının geleneksel yöntemlere göre öğrenci başarısını artırmada daha etkili olduğu görülmüştür (Aksoy, 2013; Pekdağ, 2010; Rohendi, 2012). Teknolojinin sağladığı kolaylıklar ile üretilmiş eğitim içerikli animasyonlar eğitim sürecinde önemli görevler üstlenmektedir. Fen eğitiminde animasyon kullanımı görsel zenginliği ve etkileşimi artırarak konuların öğretilmesinde öğrencilere alternatif yollar sunmaktadır.

Yapılan çalışmalar bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerinin özellikle fen öğretiminde katkı sağladığını savunmaktadır (Burke ve Greenbowe, 1998; Kıyıcı ve Yumuşak, 2005). Fen derslerinin çok kapsamlı olması öğrenciler tarafından öğrenilmesini zorlaştırmaktadır (Taber, 2002). Fen derslerindeki genel amaç öğrencilerin kavram ve formülleri ezberlemesi değil, öğrencilere eleştirel ve yansıtıcı düşünme becerilerini kazandırmaktır (Lind, 2005). Bu amaçla uygun öğrenme ortamlarının hazırlanmasında öğretmenler önemli rol oynar. Bilgisayar teknolojileri de etkili öğretim materyali hazırlamada önemli araçlardandır (Güvercin, 2010). Bununla birlikte öğretmen yetiştirme programlarının bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerini etkili kullanmak amacıyla öğretmen adaylarına gerekli donanımı sağlaması gerekmektedir (NPADC, 2001; Lim, Chai ve Churchill, 2010).

Bu çalışmada fen öğretmen adayları güncel bir animasyon hazırlama programı olan GoAnimate programını kullanarak eğitim amaçlı animasyonlar hazırladılar. Hoban’a (2007) göre öğrenciler bir konuyu öğretmek amacıyla bir animasyon hazırladıklarında o konuya ilgileri artmaktadır ve konuyu derinlemesine kavramaktadırlar. Bu bağlamda öğretmen adayları öğretim materyali hazırlarken aynı anda fen konularını da öğrenmektedir. Bu nedenle öğretmenlik eğitimleri sırasında öğretmen adaylarına animasyon hazırlama sürecinin öğretilmesi gerekmektedir. Ayrıca FATİH projesi kapsamında MEB görsel öğrenme-öğretme araçlarını ve sınıf uygulamalarında bilgisayar kullanımını desteklemektedir. Öğretmenlik eğitimi sırasında öğretmen adaylarına animasyonların hazırlama sürecinin öğretilmesi açısından bu çalışma değerlidir. Öğretmen adaylarına GoAnimate programı kullanılarak eğitsel animasyon hazırlama ve sürece ilişkin deneyimlerinin ortaya çıkarılması açısından bu çalışma diğer çalışmalardan farklılık göstermektedir. Ayrıca literatür incelendiğinde animasyonlarla ilgili yapılan çalışmaların kuramsal boyutta olduğu göze çarpmaktadır (Rieber, 1990a; 1990b, 1991, Hoban, 2007, 2009). Öğretmen ve öğretmen adaylarıyla ilgili yapılan çalışmalar ve nitel çalışmalar sınırlı sayıdadır. Bu çalışmada öğretmen adaylarının animasyon videoları hazırlama sürecinin incelenmesi ve fen derslerinde bu teknolojinin nasıl kullanılabileceğine ilişkin görüşlerinin analiz edilmesi amaçlanmıştır.

Bu araştırma nitel olgubilim (fenomoloji) yaklaşımıyla desenlenmiştir. Örneklem seçiminde ölçüt örneklem ve kolay ulaşılabilir örnekleme teknikleri kullanılmıştır. Çalışmaya 2013-2014 eğitim öğretim yılında Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Fen Bilgisi Öğretmenliği Anabilim dalında 2. Sınıfta öğrenim gören 15 öğretmen adayı katılmıştır. Araştırma grubunda yer alan öğretmen adaylarının 8’i (%53.3) kadın, 7’si (%46.6) erkektir. Bahar yarıyılında, öğretmen adaylarına öncelikle GoAnimate programı sunum ve uygulamalarla tanıtılmıştır. Daha sonra kendilerinin GoAnimate programını kullanarak animasyon videoları hazırlamaları istenmiştir. Öğretmen adayları sınıf uygulamaları sırasında kendi seçtikleri bir fen konusuyla ilgili kısa bir animasyon oluşturmuşlardır. Bu çalışmada verilerin toplanması amacıyla araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılmıştır. Görüşme formunda araştırmanın üç alt problemiyle ilgili sorular yer almıştır. Görüşmeler bireysel olarak yüz yüze gerçekleştirilmiştir. Görüşmelerde fen bilgisi öğretmen adaylarına animasyon videoları hazırlama sürecine ve öğretmen adaylarının bu teknolojileri kullanım süreçlerine yönelik

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olarak hazırlanan 9 soru yöneltilmiştir. Görüşmeler yaklaşık olarak 15 dakika sürmüştür. Görüşmelerde katılımcılardan izin alınarak ses kayıt cihazı kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde içerik analizi yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Araştırmada elde edilen veriler analiz sürecinde kodlanmış ve amaçlara dayalı olarak temalar altında toplanmıştır. Veriler görüşlerden doğrudan alıntılara yer verilerek raporlaştırılmıştır. Araştırmada her bir öğretmen adayına bir kod ad verilmiş, raporlaştırmada görüşlerden doğrudan alıntılar yapılırken bunlar kullanılarak katılımcıların kimlikleri gizli tutulmuştur. Analiz süreci sonunda iki araştırmacı ayrı ayrı yapmış oldukları analizleri inceleyerek kod ve temalar üzerinde uyum sağlamışlardır.

Araştırmadan elde edilen bulgular incelendiğinde öğretmen adaylarının GoAnimate programı kullanılarak hazırlanan eğitsel animasyonların görsel olduğu, ilgili çekici olduğu ve öğrencilere fen dersini sevdirebileceği yönünde görüş belirttikleri görülmüştür. Bununla birlikte öğretmen adayları GoAnimate kullanılarak eğitsel animasyon hazırlarken zorlandıklarını ve hazırlanan eğitsel animasyonların her konuya uyarlamasının zor olabileceğini belirtmişlerdir. Ayrıca öğretmen adayları GoAnimate programında öğrenci seviyeye uygun karakter olması yönünde önerilerini dile getirmişlerdir. Araştırma sonuçları doğrultusunda çeşitli önerilere yer verilmiştir. Fen bilgisi öğretmen adayları GoAnimate programıyla hazırlanan eğitsel animasyonların fen eğitiminde kullanımının ilgi çekici olabileceği, öğrencilere fen dersini sevdirmeye yardımcı olabileceği, ancak her konuya uygun eğitsel animasyon hazırlamanın ve seviyeye uygun karakter bulmanın zor olabileceği yönünde görüşler bildirmişlerdir. Fen bilgisi öğretmen adaylarının hazırladıkları animasyonları kullanabilecekleri sınıf ortamlarına ihtiyaç vardır. Bu nedenle materyal geliştirme ve tasarımı dersiyle bilgisayar dersleri iş birliği içinde yürütülebilir. Fen bilgisi öğretmen adaylarının hazırladıkları animasyonların etkililiğini değerlendirmeye yönelik nicel ve nitel çalışmalar yapılabilir. Fen bilgisi öğretmen adaylarının diğer derslerde eğitsel animasyonları hazırlayıp kullanmaları sağlanmalıdır. Öğretmen yetiştirme programlarında eğitsel animasyonlara yönelik seçmeli dersler verilebilir. Fatih Projesi kapsamında da eğitsel animasyon hazırlamaya ve kullanmaya yönelik öğretmenlere hizmetiçi eğitimler verilebilir. Animasyon hazırlarken kullanılan GoAnimate programının içeriğinin geliştirilmesi, programının öğretmen adaylarına daha önceden tanıtılması ve programın Türkçe versiyonunun oluşturulması gerekmektedir. GoAnimate eğitim amaçlı hazırlanmış bir yazılım olmayıp, Türkçe destekli eğitim amaçlı animasyon hazırlamaya elverişli yazılımlar geliştirilebilir.

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Appendix 1. The Interview Form

GOANİMATE PROGRAMIYLA HAZIRLANAN EĞİTSEL ANİMASYONLARIN KULLANIMINA YÖNELİK GÖRÜŞME FORMU

Yönerge: Fen Bilgisi öğretmen adaylarının fen eğitiminde GoAnimate programıyla hazırlanan eğitsel animasyonların kullanımına yönelik görüşlerini belirlemeye yönelik bir çalışma yapıyoruz. Bu konu ile ilgili fen bilgisi öğretmen adaylarıyla görüşmeler yapıyoruz. Görüşme yapmayı kabul ettiğiniz için çok teşekkür ederiz. Görüşmelerin ortalama 20 dakika gibi bir sürede gerçekleşeceğini düşünüyoruz. Lütfen, sizden elde edilen görüş ya da bilgilerin sadece bu araştırmada kullanılacağından ve başka kimseyle paylaşılmayacağından emin olunuz. Tekrar kıymetli vaktinizi ayırarak görüşlerinizi bizimle paylaşmayı kabul ettiğiniz için size teşekkür ederiz. Bir sorunuz yoksa görüşmeye başlamak isteriz.

Görüşülenlere İlişkin Demografik Bilgiler1. Cinsiyetiniz: 2. Yaşınız:3. Sınıf Düzeyiniz:4. Bilgisayar I Dersi Geçme Notunuz:5. Görüşme:6. Tarih:…../……/2014

Görüşme Soruları1. Fen Eğitiminde eğitsel animasyon kullanımına yönelik düşünceleriniz nelerdir?2. Daha önce yani bu dersi almadan önce eğitsel animasyon hazırlama deneyiminiz

oldu mu? Olduysa deneyimlerinizi paylaşır mısınız?3. GoAnimate kullanarak animasyon hazırlama aşamalarındaki (senaryoyu

oluşturma, sahneleri oluşturma, karakterleri seçme/canlandırma, seslendirme, kaydetme, paylaşma) deneyimlerini paylaşabilir misiniz?

4. Eğitsel animasyon hazırlama sürecinde karşılaştığınız güçlüklerden bahsedebilir misiniz? Zorlandığınız herhangi bir aşama oldu mu?

5. GoAnimate kullanarak animasyon hazırlarken bireysel çalışmayı mı, grup çalışmasını mı tercih edersiniz? Nedenlerini açıklar mısınız?

6. GoAnimate kullanarak hazırlanan eğitsel animasyonların Fen Eğitimi’nde kullanımının olumlu ve olumsuz yönleri hakkında neler düşünüyorsunuz?

7. GoAnimate kullanarak hazırlanan eğitsel animasyonların Fen Eğitimi’ne ne gibi katkılar sağlayacağını düşünüyorsunuz?

8. GoAnimate kullanarak hazırlanan eğitsel animasyonların hangi sınıf düzeyi ve hangi konular için kullanılabileceğini düşünüyorsunuz?

9. GoAnimate kullanarak hazırlanan eğitsel animasyonların kullanımının geliştirilmesine yönelik önerileriniz nelerdir?

10. Son olarak eklemek istediğiniz bir şey var mı?

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The Portrait of a Good Foreign Language Teacher: A Cross-Interview Analysis of Private Language Course

Administrators’ Opinions

İyi Bir Yabancı Dil Öğretmen Profili: Özel Dil Kursları Yönetici Fikirlerinin Çapraz Mülakat

Analizi

Şakire ErbayKaradeniz Technical University, Turkeysakira61@hotmail

Elif ErdemKaradeniz Technical University, Turkey

[email protected]

Hasan SağlamelKaradeniz Technical University, Turkey

[email protected]

AbstractThe attempt to present the profile of a good language teacher is an early arrival, dating back to 1920s. The literature to date abounds with much scholarly attention to exploration of mainly students’ and teachers’ point of view regarding the issue. However, the paucity of research into other different perspectives in Turkey serves as the backcloth of the current study qualitative in nature, which employs in-depth interviews with the six administrators of six private courses in a province in the northeast part of Turkey with the aim of filling this hiatus. The data gathered via individual in-depth interviews were analysed via content analysis, in which the researchers went through the transcribed texts to find the recurring themes, enumerate them, create broad categories out of them, and pick excerpts that could support their interpretations. Although it was not intended to provide definitive good language teacher profile, issues such as a finely-tuned classroom authority, energy, tolerance, creativity, a sound knowledge of language, an ongoing professional development, enhancement of student autonomy, good communication skills, and teaching experience were found as the distinguishing effective teacher characteristics, analogous to the previous studies. However, the findings contradict with the seemingly omnipresent tendency towards describing native speaker as good language teacher in the existing literature in that local Turkish teachers were described as effective teachers with their in-class teaching roles, second language learning experience, strong empathy with students while their native counterparts were valued solely for their communicative ability and potential role to add to institution prestige. The current study with a glimpse of Turkey is believed to help capture the essence of the issue by providing a close scrutiny of a different

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perspective, in turn yield insight for prospective English language teachers and teacher education planners.

Keywords: Teacher qualities; good language teacher; private course; cross-interview analysis

Özİyi dil öğretmen profilini tanımlama çabaları 1920’lere kadar uzanan köklü bir gayrettir. Günümüze kadar uzanan bu alanyazın, meseleyi çoğunlukla öğrenci ve öğretmen açısından ele alan sayısız çalışmalarla doludur. Fakat Türkiye’de bu konuda farklı görüş açılarını araştırmak için yapılan çalışmalar yok denecek kadar azdır ve bu bariz açık, Türkiye’nin kuzeydoğusundaki bir ilde bulunan altı özel dil kursundaki toplam altı yönetici ile detaylı bireysel görüşmelerin yapıldığı özünde nitel olan bu çalışma ile doldurulmaya çalışılmıştır. İyi dil öğretmeni profilinin sabit tanımı hedeflenmese de alanyazında var olan çalışma sonuçlarına benzer olarak hassas dengelenmiş sınıf otoritesi, enerji, tolerans, üretkenlik, iyi bir hedef dil bilgisi, sürekli kişisel gelişim, öğrenci özerkliğini geliştirme, iyi iletişim becerileri ve eğitim tecrübesi gibi özelliklerin iyi bir dil öğretmeni ile özdeşleştirildiği görülmüştür. Fakat sonuçlar art alanyazında yaygın olarak bulunan doğal konuşmacı ile iyi dil öğretmenini özdeşleştirme eğiliminin belirlendiği çalışmaların aksine çıkmış, ve yerel Türk dil öğretmenleri sınıf içi öğretim rolleri, ikinci dil edinim tecrübeleri, öğrencilerle kuvvetli empati kurabilme yeteneklerinden dolayı iyi dil öğretmeni olarak etiketlenirken doğal konuşmacılar sadece hedef dildeki iletişim becerileri ve kuruma prestij kazandırma potansiyellerinden dolayı övülmüşlerdir. Türkiye gerçeğine ışık tutan bu çalışma ile daha önceki çalışmalara ek olarak farklı bir bakış açısının detaylı incelenmesi ile meselenin özüne inerek öğretmen adayları ve eğitim planlayıcılarına gelecek için fikir verme amacı güdülmüştür.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Öğretmen nitelikleri; iyi dil öğretmeni; özel kurslar; çapraz görüşme analizi

Introduction

Teaching is one of the most difficult profession as teachers are supposed to be familiar with a great number of issues including content, general pedagogy, curriculum, pedagogical content, learners and their characteristics, educational context, and educational ends, purposes, and values as well as philosophical and historical grounds (Shulman, 1987). Specifically, Harmer (2007) argues that teaching a language is a demanding activity and could be categorised as both a science and art. The profession can be regarded as a science because reacting to different events, adopting various roles appropriately, performing certain tasks such as preparation, keeping record, having certain skills such as managing classroom, matching tasks and groups, using various activities and topics, planning appropriate destinations in the form of learning outcome, knowing about language system, materials and resources, classroom equipment, and keeping-up-do-date require teachers to know the procedure of how to do things, which could create the sense of a scientific endeavour. On the other hand, teaching a language could be regarded as an art since establishing good rapport with students, recognising their individuality, listening to them, respecting them, and being even-handed require teachers to create a healthy relationship with their students.

As the quality of education is associated with teacher qualifications, drawing the profile of an effective teacher is regarded vital in education, and this attempt is welcome since it may result in erasing problems stemming from teachers (Dincer, Goksu, Takkac, & Yazıcı, 2013). Writing that the word “effective” comes from the Latin word effectīvus referring to creativity and production, Gao and Liu (2013, p. 84) describe effective teachers as the

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ones who can “engage students in the learning process and maximize student academic achievement and other school outcomes”. Describing the qualities of an effective teacher is regarded as one of the two important issues that determine teacher education pedagogy, and it is seen as a difficult undertaking (Korthagen, 2004). However, as one of the key factors in successful education, it is argued that description of good teacher qualities needs to be given careful consideration (Onem, 2009).

Even though considerable attention has been paid to define the good teachers’ traits, an absolute standard list to describe the hallmarks of best teaching does not exist. As highlighted by Gao and Liu (2013), examining good teacher characteristics has become a matter of consideration since the 1920s. Providing a list of good teacher qualities is a difficult attempt as teachers are different from each other, they can be successful in different ways, and students’ views regarding these qualities change (Harmer, 2007). Although they have provided a list of traits, Celik, Arıkan, and Caner (2013) claim that teacher effectiveness should be regarded as “as a fluid rather than a fixed phenomenon” (p. 295) since good teachers know that continuing professional growth is vital in teacher effectiveness, and these characteristics may change in time. This makes the task of trait determination far from prescriptive.

The studies on the perception of good language teachers have mostly focused on the perspectives of either students/teachers or both of them (Onem, 2009). As students’ and teachers’ perspectives are believed to reflect the profile of a good language teacher, the existing literature is somehow limited to state-funded institutions. The recent study aims to expand our understanding of good language teacher profile and reflect a different perspective for the sake of providing a fuller picture from the private language courses’ perspective in Turkey rather than find a conclusive answer at a substantive level guided the study. The researchers are of the opinion that this kind of research has practical value in specific Turkish language teaching context as practising or prospective teachers may need locally rather than globally described teacher characteristics that can suit their needs in their specific teaching contexts. This in turn may help Turkish teacher education institutions avoid “irrelevancy of teacher education to the realities of Turkish schools” (Cakıroglu & Cakıroglu, 2003, p. 254).

Literature Review

It is crystal-clear in the existing literature on language pedagogy that the profession of language teaching is both quite challenging and unique among other fields. For instance, in a detailed study with five groups of practising and prospective teachers, namely 20 postgraduate students, 29 language teacher conference delegates in UK, four subject specialists, 151 Hungarian pre-service English teachers, and 24 Slovene undergraduates in English, Borg’s (2006) found out how unique and challenging the profession of language teaching is. He reached the following 11 themes as key characteristics: the nature of subject, the content of teaching, methodology, teacher-learner relationships, non-native issues, teacher characteristics, trainings, status, errors, student body, and commercialisation. First, language subject is seen more dynamic and relevant to real life. Second, the content includes not only four basic skills but also various issues such as culture, communication and learning skills. Third, language teaching is much richer in methodologies and techniques. Fourth, language teachers are more communicative with their pupils. Fifth, language teachers teach a language other than their mother tongue, and they are compared to native speakers. Sixth, creativity, flexibility, and enthusiasm are the three most basic teacher characteristics. Seventh, it requires serious trainings for

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each teacher qualification. Eighth, the status of language teachers is much lower than the teachers in other fields. Ninth, language teachers are more likely to tolerate incorrect student output. Tenth, language has more adult learners than the other subjects. And lastly, some commercial forces play key roles in language teaching.

The natural outcome of the challenging and unique nature of language teaching profession is the sheer emphasis put on its teacher qualities. Although Goodywn (1997) accepts that describing a good language teacher is “extraordinarily sophisticated and subtle” attempt, he outlines eight aspects of the qualification of a highly accomplished teacher as personal characteristics, professional identity, subject knowledge, planning and review, assessment and recording, documentation, relationships with pupils and colleagues, and contextual understanding. While personal characteristics refer to being self-reflective, tolerant and communicative, having eagerness to try out new things, and being good at guiding, professional identity includes characteristics such as having a strong ELT background, being interested in professional development, being receptive to change and acting as an agent in innovation, respecting other colleagues and being a role model for them. As the name speaks for itself, subject knowledge stands for the degree of teacher knowledge on topics they are responsible to teach, and incorporating it into practical teaching taking the context into consideration is of seminal value. In addition, while the aspect of planning and review requires teachers to create and follow both challenging and realistic plans, assessment and recording dimension is related to knowing about various assessment techniques and using them appropriately. Documentation refers to preparing classroom materials and departmental guidelines. The aspect of relationship with pupils and colleagues is about promoting student thinking and autonomy and collaboration with peers. Lastly, contextual understanding is being aware of the local circumstances of students and communicating with parents. Goodywn (1997) notes further that it is naive to think that every single teacher can reach at an equal level in all the eight aspects above.

While taking all the above issues into account, in their detailed review of the related literature, Dincer et al. (2013) create fewer characteristics: socio-affective skills, pedagogical knowledge, subject-matter knowledge, and personality characteristics. Socio-affective skills include being motivating and enthusiastic, having interaction with students, showing positive attitudes towards students, responding to their needs, and creating a stress-free learning environment. As the name speaks for itself, pedagogical knowledge refers to the knowledge of process and strategies that help teachers deal with content. It includes knowing how to give feedback, organising and explaining the content, using various approaches and integrating technology into one’s own pedagogy, and managing the classroom. While pedagogical knowledge is about knowing how to do things, subject-matter knowledge refers to the knowledge about one’s specific field such as speaking English well, having the knowledge of English lexicon and pronunciation, to include just a few. Lastly, personality characteristics such as being motivating, creative, enthusiastic, patient, kind, tolerant, open-minded, flexible, optimistic and so forth are the ones that help teachers deal with their students successfully. Dincer et al. (2013) conclude that although the issue is too complicated to be summarised with a list of characteristics, a good language teacher should have “a balanced combination” (p. 6) of these four basic aspects.

Another issue of ongoing debate regarding the profile of good language teacher is the dichotomy of native speaker teacher and non-native speaker teacher. The related literature shows that as native teacher is regarded as both model speaker and ideal

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teacher, English Language Teaching (ELT, henceforth) has yielded to this “pervasive ideology” (Holliday, 2006, p. 385) although there has been strong resistance to it recently, non-native teachers are mostly marginalised in this profession. While native speaker language teachers are described with adjectives such as active, collaborative, learner-centred, their non-native contemporaries are labelled as dependent, collectivist, hierarchical, passive, lacking self-esteem, and as Holliday (2006) succinctly puts, these descriptions “represent an imagined, problematic generalized Other to the unproblematic Self of the ‘native speaker’” (p. 386). To complicate the matter even further, this ideology has affected employment policy as one of the several aspects of professional life, and many non-native English teachers are not favoured by language institutions although they are highly qualified in their field (Shin, 2008). In a questionnaire study conducted with ninety private language courses, universities, and further education institutions to find out the recruitment criteria in language teaching, Clark and Paran (2007) found out that three quarters of all participants and more than half of the private language courses among the three institutions placed much importance on native English speaker criteria. Other than the criteria of nativeness, institutions attached importance to aspects such as teaching qualifications, performance in interview, teaching experience, educational background, recommendation, and visa status. Despite the omnipresence of this tendency towards native speaker language teacher, education shareholders from different contexts including administrators, teachers, and students may hold the opposite view. For instance, in a study conducted by Celik et al. (2013) with 998 Turkish undergraduates, being a native speaker teacher was found to be an unimportant quality of a good language teacher. In Ustunluoglu’s (2007) study, it was found that native and non-native teachers are regarded valuable at different levels. While non-native teachers were found more advantageous in in-class teaching roles due to their experience as second language learner and in-class management roles, their non-native counterparts are admired because of their in-class communication skills and their individualistic characteristics such as being relaxed, cheerful, energetic, easygoing, friendly, and humorous.

On a similar note, Andrews (2007) does not associate language teacher competence with the place of teacher on native speaker/non-native speaker (NS/NNS, henceforth) continuum or ethnicity. Rather, he writes that having knowledge of language, about language, and of students and using them harmoniously are of paramount importance for efficient language teachers. Furthermore, he writes that with the development of alternative pedagogies to hegemonic Anglo-American ELT such as English as a Lingua Franca, the traditional dichotomy of NS/NNS has started to be questioned.

Shin (2008) writes that although non-native language teachers are not preferred due to their language competence, lack of cultural understanding, and social language in professional relationship, they have certain advantages such as good grammar knowledge, language learning experience, and the ability to empathise with learners. Therefore, she recommends that they “need to continuously improve their own skills in written and oral English and become familiar with the culture and discourse of the schools and communities in which they work” (p. 62) if they want to struggle with the injustice in recruitment policies. Another argument in favour of non-native teachers comes from Holliday (2006), who states that the issue of native-speakerism should be treated at prejudice level, and “that dominant professional discourses must be put aside if the meanings and realities of students and colleagues from outside the English-speaking West are to be understood” (p. 386).

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A frequently recurring theme discussed within the frame of this issue is the importance of establishing rapport with students. As Senior (2006) writes, what distinguishes language teaching from other subjects is that classroom interaction is of crucial importance for language teachers as it is both a means and a goal itself in the teaching process. Establishing rapport with students is as important as pedagogy, for “without the vital links or threads that bind them to their classes in unique, personal ways, the essentially human process of classroom language learning is a soulless endeavour” (p. 266).

Scholars have also voiced their concerns regarding teachers’ desire to have an ongoing teacher development. Teacher development requires the teacher to understand themselves as a teacher and increase their teaching skills over time, and in Richards and Farrells’ (2011, p. 167) own words, it “includes personal and individual reflection on yourself as a teacher but should go beyond this to include the exploration of new trends and theories in language teaching, familiarization with development in TESOL, and the development of a specialization in your teaching”.

In addition to much theoretical commentaries on the profile of the good language teacher, the analysis of the existing literature has shown that various effectiveness patterns have emerged in studies from three basic perspective categories, namely, student, teacher – whether prospective or practising-, and comparative studies.

Understanding Students’ Perspective

Sakurai (2012) conducted a survey with 492 tertiary level and language course students from five different Arab countries to examine the images of Arabian learners of Japanese of the “good” native and non-native Japanese language teachers. The results show that while the participants place a higher value on native Japanese teachers’ knowledge and experience, practical teaching, support for students’ learning, and attempt to create friendly atmosphere, they emphasized that Japanese teachers with an Arabian background should interact with students, have knowledge of Japanese language and culture, and be experienced and high-qualified.

Koc (2012) conducted a more comprehensive questionnaire study to investigate elementary, secondary, and high school students’ perceptions of good language teacher. The findings which were divided into two as affective characteristics and teaching skills show that he participants attached great importance to affective characteristics in a good language teacher. While they mostly wanted their teachers to avoid discrimination and be patient, they appreciated characteristics such as organising game and song activities, assigning homework, and praising students less. They also wanted their teachers to keep order in the classroom, increase their motivation, pay attention to their needs and build good relationship between them. Surprisingly, the researcher found that the higher the grade level is, the less important the characteristics such as teachers’ being experienced, assigning homework, praising students, communicating with parents, designing song and game activities, taking students’ views into consideration are.

Another recent study with a Turkish background belongs to Celik et al. (2013). Based on their study with almost 1000 university students, they draw the profile of a highly achieving language teacher as the one who:

exhibits fairness in decision-making; is successful in reducing students’ anxiety; demonstrates enthusiasm;

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teaches pronunciation well; teaches speaking skills adequately; has a sound knowledge of vocabulary; teaches reading skills adequately; has a sound knowledge of grammar; is adept at providing explanations in Turkish (mother tongue); is good at classroom management; teaches writing skills adequately (p. 294)

Understanding Teachers’ Perspective: Practising and Prospective

Studies exploring teacher’ perspective are a complementary angle of the issue. Although there are several attempts to reach a consensus regarding good teacher qualities at global level, culture pays a key role in this description. In their cross-cultural investigation of desired teachers personality traits with 155 secondary school American and Chinese teacher candidates, Gao and Liu (2013) found several common effective teacher descriptors although their participants come from two quiet different cultures. Both parties were of the opinion that an effective teacher should be adaptable, enthusiastic, fair, agreeable, caring, friendly, honest, respectable, patient, and responsible. Furthermore, they should have higher expectations of their students and a good sense of humour. Still, the American teacher candidates were found to attach more importance to adaptability, humour, and responsibility and less importance to patience, agreeableness, caring, and friendliness than their Chinese counterparts. They attribute this difference to cultural differences in that while America is an individualistic and low-context society, China is a collectivistic and high-context society. Therefore, American teachers are expected to meet individual needs, care for their development, and avoid personal contacts while their Chinese counterparts are expected to enable students to get high scores from exams and have intimate family contact with students.

In their survey study conducted with 215 secondary school English teachers in Iran Khojastehmer and Takrimi (2009) found that out of their four dimensions, instructional strategies that includes qualities such as monitoring group work, using various activities, taking individual differences into consideration, preparing effective exams, attending to students’ needs and so forth were regarded as the most important teacher qualification category. Communication (social) strategies that include qualifications such as being enthusiastic and encouraging, maintaining discipline, and creating a cheerful atmosphere followed instructional qualifications. Although personal characteristics dimension has received much attention in western world, personal traits including characteristics such as teacher flexibility, support, justice, and so on was not regarded as important as the two above. Lastly, knowledge that includes competence in language skills and the use of teaching methods attracted less attention among the four dimensions.

Comparative Studies

In a comparative study with 163 high school teachers and 339 high school students in Korea, Park and Lee (2006) found that while the teachers ranked English proficiency the highest, students were seen to value pedagogical knowledge most. However, both parties valued socio-affective factors the least. Similarly, Onem (2009) conducted a comparative study to see whether there was a difference between students’ and instructors’ view of good teacher with 300 university prep class students and 56 instructors in the eastern part of Turkey. She largely found symmetry between the views of both parties as they

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valued personal qualities such as being patient, open to new ideas, talkative and smiling most and teaching skills such as using various techniques, teaching learning strategies, and using authentic materials less. Yet, the groups differed in the importance they attached to socio-affective skills and academic qualifications. While socio-affective skills such as motivating students, helping them, being enthusiastic, and creating a stress-free learning atmosphere got the second high median score for the student participants, it was in the third rank for the instructors. In addition, academic qualities that include skills such as having good field knowledge, being familiar with the current developments in the field, speaking English clearly, and having good and clear pronunciation were seen to be less important for the students than the instructors.

In order to understand the possible contribution of the current study to the related literature, it is worth referring to teacher education and recruitment in Turkey from the outset. As Yıldız (2003) writes, the only education institutions that educate teacher in general and language teacher in specific are education faculties. Teacher education programs have been exposed to various modifications since 1940s including founding education institutions for secondary school teacher education in 1940s, designing two-year language teacher education in 1960, extending this time to three years in 1967, and finally four years in 1978, and founding education faculties in 1982. He goes on writing that due to Turkey’s changing economical and social conditions in parallel with the ones in the world, the need to educate people well and have high quality working power, and the desire to be a member of the European Union, these education faculties have undergone several reforms since 1982, and with the new education law (Law no. 4360) in 1997, these faculties governed by the Higher Education Council started to educate teachers with an enriched balanced curriculum on subject-matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and school experience activities. As Seferoglu (2004) writes, due to the gap between language teacher supply and demand, graduates of English-medium programs were once employed as language teachers with an English language certification. Although education programs have serious problems in Turkey such as not preparing students for the real Turkish schools, lacking teaching philosophy and sociological values, and having bad physical conditions (Gokmenoglu, 2013), they go on education with several modificatios, and today, teachers graduating from education faculties and English literature departments (with the education formation certification) are employed as permanent and contracted if they manage to get the required grade from the Public Personnel Selection Examination and the Teaching Knowledge Test (Cermik, Kurt, Eser & Ay, 2013), and the others work as paid staff at mostly private language courses in Turkey although there is a general attitude towards a contracted structure (Tuncer, 2012). However, as Ustunluoglu (2007, p. 67) describes, Turkey “not quite European and certainly not Asian but somewhere in-between” is a country where non-native language teachers are welcome every year.

The stimulus for the current study was to explore the good language teacher profile that plays a vital role in private language institutions’ recruitment criteria. The major research question guided the study was how the institutions described the good language teacher. As minor research areas, the researchers aimed at understanding personality traits, pedagogical knowledge, subject-matter knowledge, social-affective skills, the NS-NNS issue, and education background and experience. The present study is believed to be significant for mainly three reasons. First, it meets the originality criteria suggested by Blaxter, Hughes, and Tight (2006). They list fifteen different meanings of originality, citing Phillips and Pugh (2005, cited in Blaxter et al., p. 13), three of which could be directly applied to the present study. These are conducting an empirical study that has

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not been carried out yet, carrying a study that has not been done before in the researcher’s country, and adding to the existing knowledge in a new way. They write that researchers should look for originality in their research topics and questions in that they need to contribute to the existing literature rather than repeat what has been elaborated on earlier. As the issue has not been analysed yet by anyone in Turkey and abroad on the grounds that the existing literature abounds with studies on only teacher and student point of view, to the knowledge of the researchers, the researchers were the first ones to try it out, and the study has provided new information written for the first time. Second, analysing various perspectives of the good language teacher is a promising attempt as it can throw light on possible areas that need supplementation in teacher education so that prospective teachers can be educated in harmony with the country’s realities and stimulate other researchers. Last but not least, the findings are hoped to better inform policy development as well as improve teacher education practice in Turkey. They are also expected to be invaluable in informing prospective teachers about the expectations of the private sector in Turkey.

Methodology

Research Design

The present study was designed as a contextual qualitative study which is “concerned with identifying what exists in the social world and the way it manifests itself” (Ritchie, 2003, p. 27). The researchers aimed at presenting the detailed profile of good language teacher described by private language institutions in a north-eastern province of Turkey. These qualifications were believed to reflect the expectations of the private sector from prospective language teachers in Turkey. The desire to unpack the issue of good language teacher and how this concept is understood by private language institutions which are closely connected with the matter generated the necessary motivation in the study.

Setting and Participants

The data were collected from six private language institutions from a north-eastern province of Turkey via convenience sampling, which is the most frequent qualitative sampling approach. As the aim was to get a deeper understanding rather than to “estimate the incidence of phenomena in the wider population” (Ritchie, Lewis, & Elam, 2003, p. 81), the researchers chose their province due to ease of access. The researchers gathered the data from all six private language institutions out of seven in the city. The remaining one rejected to participate in the study due to their hectic schedule. In each private course, one available administrator or vice director was conveniently chosen as participant for the sake of practical cooperation; thus, the overall number of the participants is six. All these six administrators or vice directors have ELT experience mostly in public schools: however, as their comments show, since they were not satisfied with the physical conditions, lack of opportunities for professional development, and unsatisfying payment, they preferred to work at private sector, and in the course of events, they started to run their own business or work as administrators in them.

Data Collection and Analysis

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As the data gathering technique, in-depth individual interview was employed due to its four key factors. First, as in-depth interview is a combination of structure and flexibility, it allowed the researchers to start with an interview schedule inspired by the existing literature but discussed relevant issues spontaneously. Second, the interactive nature of interview allowed both the researchers and the participants to work together and influence each other. Third, the interview probes started interaction at a surface level first, but later follow-up and bridge questions led to a fuller understanding of the issue. Lastly, the generative nature of interview allowed the creation of new thoughts (Legard, Keegan, & Ward, 2003).

As generated data that “give insight into people’s own perspectives on and interpretation of their beliefs and behaviours – and, most crucially, an understanding of the meaning that they attach to them” (Ritchie, 2003, p. 36) were intended to be gathered, in-depth individual interview was employed. The interview protocol of the present study included eight basic questions and several follow-up questions inspired by the following studies: The Distinctive Characteristics of Foreign Language Teacher by Borg (2006), The Characteristics of Effective English Teachers As Perceived by High School Teachers and Students in Korea by Park and Lee (2006), Turkish University EFL Students’ and Instructors’ Views on The Concept of The Good (English) Foreign Language Teacher by Onem (2009), and Common Characteristics of an Effective English Language Teacher by Dincer et al. (2013). The in-depth interview data were gathered with the following questions: Who is the good language teacher?, How should the personality of a good language teacher be?, What kind of methods should a good language teacher use?, How is it important for a good language teacher to have a good understanding and use of English?, How is it important that a good language teacher should give lectures at the target language?, Should a good language teacher be a native or non-native speaker? Why?, From which country do you prefer your language teacher come?, Is the school which a language teacher graduated from important ? Why?, Should a good language teacher be experienced? If yes, how long? Where should a good language teacher get this experience?, and How should a good language teacher’s relations with his/her students be? The questions aimed at exploring the following six areas: personality characteristics, pedagogical knowledge skills, subject-matter knowledge, the issue of NS-NNS, the importance of education background and experience, and socio-affective skills. An expert holding a PhD degree in applied linguistics was consulted on for the validity and clarity of the instrument.

The in-depth interviews were conducted face-to-face in order to capture “depth, nuance and the interviewee’s own language as a way of understanding meaning” (Legard, Keegan, & Ward, 2003, p. 142). In addition, the researchers were sensitive to four ethical issues explained by Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2007). First, the researchers engaged the administrators of the private language institutions in the study with an oral informed consent that includes explanation of the procedure, any possible risks or benefits, and the freedom to withdraw at any moment they wanted. Second, confidentiality was ensured in that the identities of the administrators were not allowed to be known publicly as the researchers assigned numbers to the institutions. Third, the ethical dilemma deception, not telling the truth, was avoided as the researcher clearly explained the aim and the procedure to the administrators. Lastly, the study took the non-maleficence issue into consideration as the researchers ensured that all the evaluation and comments would respect private language institutions by using an unbiased language in the research report.

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The data were analysed with content analysis. First, all the audio recorded interview data were transcribed word by word. Later, the transcripts were read through two times, and in the second time marginal notes were taken. Then, these codes, i.e., themes, grouped as categories (Bryman, 2004). Overall, the analysis could be entitled as cross-interview like in cross-tabulations which compare and contrast the results of several variables together rather than group findings regarding similar codes in absolute tables (Krippendorff, 2003). Similarly, the data indeed of any type of interviewing, including individual, group, or focus-group, could be analysed in a comparative and contrastive way to avoid the repetition of any similar findings and unnecessary elaborations. While creating the categories, the researchers mainly made use of the interview prompts determined in advance, i.e., personality traits, pedagogical knowledge, subject-matter knowledge, social-affective skills, the NS-NNS issue, and education background and experience. The researchers looked through the whole transcribed text for coding the data, and later they categorised the long list of codes as the end product based on the prompts. They also checked for possible overlapping in coding and summarised the quantitative data.

Credibility Measures

Various strategies were used to ensure validity in the current study. As Cohen et al. (2007) remark, ensuring infallible human judgement among two or more coders is vital for consistency. Therefore, all the three researchers serving as coders reviewed the data several times, read between lines, and collaborated during the process to ensure a common interpretation of the findings. In order to ensure trustworthiness, an external auditor holding an MA degree in the field was requested to review both the research process and the analysis to check the accuracy of the findings (Creswell, 2009). Furthermore, as rich and in-depth descriptions are believed to increase trustworthiness, the researchers described the whole process clearly.

Results and Discussion

The gathered data were coded, enumerated, and the categorised codes were presented under the following six aspects: personality traits, pedagogical knowledge, subject-matter knowledge, social-affective skills, the NS-NNS issue, and education background and experience.

Personality Traits

The analysis shows that the participants provided a wide range of characteristics regarding the personality of the good language teacher. Almost all the course administrators attached great importance to a well-balanced personality which is a combination of both love and discipline (n=5). They stated that although language teachers should be loving, caring, smiling, and moderate, it is of utmost importance to know where to stop and maintain discipline in the classroom. They frequently emphasized that good language teachers should never be a doormat, yet they should avoid overplaying authority and hurt students’ feelings. The administrator of the first institution explained this balance with a self-explanatory metaphor:

“I mean the classroom may lose its focus; therefore, you should not allow them to behave badly and be lax. You know think about a handful of sand.

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You should hold it neither tightly nor loosely as in both situations you would have no sand in your hand.”

Similarly, the administrator of the second institution highlighted this point, when he said that caring teachers are loved by their students, but the ones with good discipline and authority are better:

“Let me express it like this: if you consider personality traits, the expectations of students here, if I see the situation form students’ angle, students want their teacher to care for them. Of course a caring teacher becomes students’ favourite one. The second important point is understanding. We expect a total understanding from most of our teachers, of course this does not mean that we expect this from all teachers. Based on my experiences, I can say that a caring teacher is effective to a point, but strict teachers, I mean the disciplined ones are more successful in some certain areas.”

This emphasis on teacher authority may be attributed to culture in that in collectivist and high-context cultures such as Turkey, teachers have an unshakable authority in the classroom and respecting a teacher is in direct proportion to authority. In accordance with the study of Eristi (2012), who found that providing discipline is seen as one of the basic roles of teachers by students in Turkey, the present study showed that private language courses tended to describe the discipline aspect as an important role of language teachers. Eristi (2012) attributes this focus on discipline to the exam-driven education system of Turkey, in which several parties including school administrators, teachers, and parents have high expectations of students. Creating a classroom where students cannot disrupt the teacher is regarded as a way of making these expectations come true. Similar conclusions were reached by Ustunluoglu (2007), pinpointing this preference as the common belief that “ achievement is maximized if the teacher organizes and manages the classroom as an efficient learning environment where academic activities run smoothly and transitions are brief and orderly” (p. 73). Similarly, the value attached to maintaining discipline in the present study upholds the findings of Khojastehmer and Takrimi (2009), who found this characteristics under the title of communication skills much more important than subject-matter and pedagogical knowledge. However, the importance attached to personality traits and the attempt to list a wide variety of these kind of characteristics are in opposition to their study from teachers’ perspective which pictured personality characteristics less important than instructional and communication (affective) skills. Yet, in accordance with Onem’s (2009) comparative study conducted on students and teachers, personality traits are believed to distinguish good language teacher from a poor one.

The other desired personality traits that a good language teacher should possess and that can play vital role in these private language institutions’ recruitment criteria can be listed from the most frequent to the least one as follows: being energetic (n=3), just(n=2), understanding (n= 2) tolerant (n= 2), respectful (n=2), patient (n=2 ), caring and loving (n=2) creative (n= 2), a role model for the students (n=2), motivating (n= 1), friendly (n=1 ), a leader (n= 1), social (n= 1), positive (n= 1), moderate(n=1), comforting (n= 1), open to criticism (n= 1), open to innovation (n= 1), cheerful (n=1), and good at observation (n= 1). The following except taken from the interview data conducted with the administrator of the fifth institution can summarise how much importance they attach to the five attributes listed above, namely being positive, caring and loving, good at observation, moderate, and understanding:

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“A good language teacher should be positive all the time, because you are teaching another language, and it has several different approaches, methods, methodological approaches. I mean you need to be a good observer all the time. First, you need to observe your students, what do they need most? May be listening. Student A may need more listening practice than Student B, and thus the most important trait is being a good observer. Of course teachers should be always very moderate. When students make mistake, they should be understanding. (...) I think you need to be milder and more understanding regarding their mistakes. Of course, they should have good communicating skills, what you are doing is completely about communication.”

Pedagogical Knowledge

The second aspect about which the administrators provided a rich variety of characteristic is pedagogical knowledge skills. The administrators highlighted the importance of knowing the process of teaching. The analysis showed that all the six institutions laid weight on the use of English as the medium of instruction. They see spoken language regarded the use of target language as the most secure way of exposing students’ to English. They stated that the use of Turkish in classes ends up with language inefficiency and lack of authenticity. Therefore, they advise teachers to use alternative strategies such as body language, gesture, visuals, and real objects. Yet, the participants welcome a little bit Turkish when the teacher is in grammar classes, explains complex language structures, teaches low levels, and is caught short in explaining something. However, the following quotation can best summarise the strict attitude of the private courses towards the employment of English as the medium of instruction:

“Yes, they should rarely use Turkish. Anyway, we commonly cite an example to adults and children. You did not use to understand all the sentences your mother said to you, but thanks to their gestures and repetition, you have learned your mother tongue. It means that learning occurs in this way. First, you will hear without understanding, and then you will get the message thanks to movements, gestures, etc. However, if we use Turkish as the medium of instruction, our attempt turns into explaining a mathematical formula.”

This “English-only” emphasis among the administrators are in accordance with the arguments of scholars such as Polio and Duff (1994) who argue that teachers should be trained about how to provide comprehensible input in target language. The participants’ circumstance can be exemplified as the weaker form of L1 discouragement, supporting minimising mother tongue usage in classroom rather than the strongest form totally banning L1 in language instruction (Cook, 2001). They were found not to take L1 use as “a naturally occurring phenomenon” (Moore, 2013, p. 251). One explanation for this mostly-English emphasis in good teacher description may be associated with what Cook (2001) writes: the attempts of most methods except for Grammar-translation Method to describe the ideal language classroom as an atmosphere where the interaction is held in the target language result in good language teacher profile with a little L1 use. As the participating administrators voted for communicative teaching that can help students express themselves in English, an ability they cannot gain in state schools despite long years of language instruction, they favoured the employment of L2 in classroom.

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The content analysis also brought out some other required pedagogical skills in a good language teacher as follows: managing the classroom well (n=6), engaging in an ongoing professional development (n=4), integrating all skills rather than focusing on segregated skills (n=3), enhancing student autonomy (n=2), having the ability the transfer the input appropriately (n=3), using methods and techniques appropriately (n=2), focusing on communicative teaching (n=2), integrating technology into classes (n=1), supporting one’s instruction with body language and visuals (n=1), creating a real-life classroom atmosphere (n=1), teaching learner strategies (n=1), keeping up with the curriculum (n=1), having the knowledge of pedagogical formation (n=1), and having the knowledge of diverse students such as young learners (n=1).

Apart from the use of L2 in classes, engaging in an ongoing professional development is an eye-catching theme of pedagogical skills that is worth elaborating on in the analysis. The administrator of the fifth course expressed this issue vehemently when he said, “I can say that language teachers must always improve themselves. I mean they must improve themselves by keeping up with the latest developments regarding language in the world and following the books and journals about language acquisition all the time”. Although the administrators tolerate inexperience, they were found not to allow for a static professional life. Language teachers are expected to conduct professional development activities that can take many forms including reading current sources in their field and particularly the ones in second language acquisition, listening to BBC radio, reading both classic and current books in English, communicating with not only their local colleagues but also foreign ones, opening up to exchange of views, and going abroad. However, their desire to have a critical stance, open up to criticism, collaborate with both local and foreign colleagues, share ideas and activities with other teachers, and observe the classes of experienced teachers could be understood as their tendency to see language teaching as a collective rather than a solitary activity (Zhao, 2013). To conclude, these findings uphold the argument of Richards and Farrell (2011) that a good language teacher should reflect on their actions by having a critical stance, closely follow current trends in ELT, and truly have language teaching down to fine art.

Subject-matter Knowledge

The analysis also shows that a good language teacher is expected to not only know the process well but also have a sound knowledge of theory and a good understanding and use of English. The most frequent themes were the knowledge of English grammar and lexicon (n=3) and the ability to communicate in English well (n=3). Especially, the latter was frequently highlighted by the administrators. The excerpt below taken from the administrator of the second language course can show the general attitude towards the lack of communicative skills in English:

“What is the most frightening is that recently a committee came from the United States so as to conduct a study. They were conducting a study to explore English language education at state school in Turkey. 85 % of the language teachers communicated with the committee members thanks to translators. These people, I mean our language teachers cannot communicate with an American person. This is a quite calamitous situation.”

The other characteristics regarding subject-matter knowledge can be listed as follows: having the knowledge of meta-language and language families (n=1), knowing other

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cultures (n=1), having the knowledge of current methods and techniques (n=1), and explaining the importance of language and its usages (n=1).

The most frequent theme regarding subject-matter was found to be the fact that good language teachers were described as the ones with a sound knowledge of both vocabulary and grammar, a finding which mirrors the results of Celik et al. (2013). The explanation for this high proportion of preference for good language knowledge can be the highly exam-driven nature of Turkish education system, requiring especially grammar and vocabulary-based language knowledge rather than oral production and speaking.

Social-affective Skills

In addition to characteristics with an academic nature, there are some non-academic ones that appeal to emotions and attitudes. The analysis showed that the most socio-affective skill for a good language teacher is having good communicative skills so as to create a healthy relationship with students (n=6). This ability is seen even more important than having pedagogical and subject-matter knowledge. As the administrator of the second course put it:

“The second point that I want to highlight again is that teachers should be never afraid of communicating with students and they should know the ways how to form healthy relationship with students. As you know, the percent of the role of the teacher in learning English is 20, or may be 30 with a very" good teacher, but then the remaining responsibility belongs to students. Here the communicative aspect of the teacher is vital as a teacher can teach students well via good interaction although he lacks subject-matter knowledge.”

The consensus on the importance of good communication skills for a good language teacher upholds the argument of Senior (2006), who argues that establishing good rapport with students is the soul of language teaching.

The second most important characteristics was found to be enthusiastic and reflect how one loves teaching (n=4). They believe that if the teacher can reflect this energy and love to students, there remains no single student to whose affections the teacher cannot play on. In this way, although students may not like the language itself, they do their best due to their love for the teacher, and this in turn naturally brings about success in time. In addition, responding to students’ individual needs was found to be the third most frequent theme regarding socio-affective skills (n=3). The administrator of the third course explains the justification as follows:

“Because teachers are managers. They should respond to them individually and try to understand their psychological and other problems, advantages and disadvantages as well as discover their abilities, and language aptitude. They should be attentive to all students individually.”

The other socio-affective skills are extending social activities with students outside the school borders (n=2), developing the skill to communicate successfully to a wide range of students form children to adults (n=1) and having eye contact (n=1).

The NS-NNS Issue

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The issue of nativeness/non-nativeness is another issue that has not gone unnoticed in the related literature. Although there were various views regarding the nationality of the good language teacher, most of the courses voted for the recruitment of local Turkish teachers as language instructors (n=3). The administrators accepted their attraction in oral production and listening classes, yet most made a distinction between instructive nature and natural communicative aim of language education. They believe that since non-native language teachers know the local culture and empathize with students due to being learners once, they can adopt the role of education coach and prepare students for the future well. As the administrator of the fifth course explained her preference for non-native speaker teacher:

“No, I attach great importance to the how to teach part. If you do not know how to teach, for instance our native tongue is Turkish, I am not a Turkish teacher. If you assign me to teach Turkish as a native Turkish speaker, I could never teach Turkish, because I do not know how to teach and where to start. Therefore, a native speaker teacher should be always in your course for the sake of course brand. The first question of the students who visit our course for the first time is whether we have a native speaker teacher or not. Their existence for our institution can be generally regarded as a contribution; however, if that native speaker is not a teacher, it is at a much lower level than me. Non-native teachers know their students better due to their experiences. We have really good non-native language teachers who have truly improved themselves.”

The results also showed that only one course was in favour of solely native speaker teacher, and the remaining two courses voted for recruiting both native and non-native language teachers, yet the attached greater importance to non-native ones. While they preferred native teachers for teaching grammar, and instructing beginner levels, they preferred their native colleagues for speaking classes, higher-level students, and course prestige. While this finding is in opposition to the results of Clark and Paran (2007), who found that language institutions and universities tend to take antivenins into account in language teacher recruitment, it closely reflect the findings of Celik et al. (2013), whose student participants did not associate good language teaching with belonging to the Inner Circle countries that refer to the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, where English is used as the dominant language with extended exposure in the society in the commonly-cited concentric circle model devised by Kachru (1985, cited in Matsuda, 2012: 2). As Shin (2008) writes, in the current study non-natives were preferred especially for their good grammar knowledge, language learning experience, and their ability empathise with their learners with their learner experience and culture sharing. Especially, the experience of non-native teachers as second language learners have put them in a much more advantageous position regarding in-class teaching roles in which they teach learning strategies better and become more empathetic to students’ needs (Ustunluoglu, 2007).

Education Background and Experience

Lastly, the researchers aimed at understanding whether graduating from a prestigious university and teaching experience play as an important role as an aspect in the description of the good language teacher and naturally recruitment criteria. Although four of the administrators stated that being a graduate of a well-known university was not a

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sign of being a good language teacher and did not count as a recruitment criterion for them, two of them confessed that the name of the university was seen as a good label for the candidates, and they put then name of these candidates at the very beginning of their interview list. However, still they expressed that they did not automatically choose them. For instance, the administrator of the fifth institution described the process as follows:

“If the teacher has these features, these traits, we ask them to teach a demo class. If the teacher shows the features I have already mentioned, manages to communicate with the students successfully, and reflects his/her energy and love of teaching to both us and the students, he/she is a suitable candidate for us. The teacher should have the ability to keep students receptive all the time in the class, and the students need to understand them. If we recognise this positive energy in the candidate, ten we entitle them as a good language teacher and hire them.”

Although there were different views about the role of a prestigious university in recruitment, all participants reached a consensus regarding the importance of experience in the description of a good language teacher. The following excerpt taken from the first participant can best summarise this consensus on the importance of teaching experience:

“A teacher can of course start over from scratch, but they cannot start as a good teacher. Rather they start as teachers having a good mind to do so. Because this can go for all of us. Unfortunately, a teacher cannot be a perfect teacher without having classroom and student experience. This is directly proportionate to it. I mean you live and learn how to behave, how to survive in a chaos atmosphere. Of course, experience is not an inborn talent, but as I have said before, an inexperienced person can start only as a teacher who takes baby steps to be a teacher.”

Surprisingly, the administrators confessed that prospective teachers having gained experience at private language courses rather than state schools were more charming for them as they have more professional development opportunities such as having peer-coaching activities, preparing presentations, undergoing intern training, having orientation training, to list just a few. Furthermore, three of the participating administrators advised teachers to have international experience if they want to be a good language teacher as it was believed to guide students regarding English accent. Despite the consensus on the importance of experience, the administrators could not reach an agreement on the length of experience time. The experience duration according to the participants changes from 6 months to 4 years. The results seem to contradict the results from Werbinska (2009), who did not find experience as an important variable in language teaching effectiveness. However, the results are parallel in that the importance of experience in terms of duration varied among the participants. To sum up, all the participating courses associated success in teaching language with experience and exposure to real classrooms. This emphasis is in parallel with the attempt of education faculties to build the bridge between theory and practice via five-hour school experience practice at both first and fourth grade during pre-service education in which pre-service teachers are expected to know school atmosphere, teaching profession, and school management (Yıldız, 2003). Similarly, the private language courses emphasise experience as an important characteristic of a good language teacher and aim at expanding student horizon with such orientation programs.

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Conclusion

The results of the current study show that private language institutions in Turkey attach great importance to personality traits of a language teacher as a distinguishing factor such as teaching energy, tolerance, respect, and a well-balanced stance between love and discipline. Especially the emphasis on well-balanced authority in language classroom could be explained with culture in that exam-driven education systems from high-context cultures regard organised and smooth classrooms with a finely-tuned classroom atmosphere as the key to success (Gao & Liu, 2013). In addition to personality traits, pedagogical knowledge is regarded another important are that distinguishes good language teacher, and private language courses appear to have a strong consensus on the importance of classroom management skills, an ongoing professional development, skill integration, enhancement of learner autonomy, and transfer of input appropriately. However, they made the point of L2 usage forcibly, stating that mother tongue usage is not natural in language classrooms (Moore, 2013). When it comes to subject-knowledge aspect, it was found that especially having a sound knowledge of grammar and vocabulary is what distinguishes a good language teacher, and this tendency could be explained with the exam-driven Turkish education system in which exams basically test students’ grammar knowledge and reading skills. Besides, the courses were found to have a consensus on the importance establishing of rapport with students with good communication skills, which reflects Senior’s (2006) emphasis on maintaining classroom community with group dynamics. The courses were found to prefer non-native language teachers, yet admired both parties for their certain skills, reflecting the findings of Ustunluoglu (2007) on role separation. Although they do not see nationality as a distinctive characteristic of good language teacher, they vote for their recruitment of native speaker teachers for speaking and listening courses as well as course prestige. However, they attach great importance to the experience of second language learning, empathy, and in-class teaching role of non-native teachers. Lastly, although the courses do not associate graduation from a well-known university with good language teaching, they attach great importance to teaching experience via intern training, peer-coaching activities, and orientation programs.

The aim was not to provide a definitive answer to the question of who the good language teacher is, yet the findings show that there are some common qualities emphasised by the three parties, namely students, teachers, and institutions such as the importance of teaching energy, tolerance, establishment of rapport, good communication skills ensuring classroom community maintenance, creativity, enhancement of student autonomy, ongoing professional development, a sound knowledge of language and teaching process, empathy with students, response to individual needs, a finely-tuned discipline, to list just a few.

Although the description of effective language teacher has a long tradition, the current study is believed to add to the attempts of capturing the essence of good language teacher profile with the exploration of a different perspective, namely private language institutions in addition to the plethora of the literature exploring teachers’ and students’ point of view. It is believed to solve the problem of the paucity of research into language teacher qualities from various perspectives in Turkey. Furthermore, it is of utmost importance to conduct these kinds of studies aiming at drawing a local-specific picture rather than a global ideal one so as to help education authorities in certain education

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contexts who need this picture from several points of view to improve the existing conditions. Lastly, quoting the argument of Celik et al. (2013) again in support of the researchers’ stance, the researchers believe that more parallel studies are needed as teacher effectiveness should be regarded as “a fluid rather than a fixed phenomenon” (p. 295).

A note of caution is necessary that as the current study was limited to qualitative methods and only one province, it cannot give an adequate description of Turkish context. Therefore, further studies with a mixture of research techniques in harness and larger samples from a large geographical coverage are needed.

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GENİŞLETİLMİŞ ÖZ

Öğretmenlik; tatmin edici içerik sunabilme, eğitimbilim ve alan bilgisine sahip olma, öğretim programı takibi, bireysel farklılıkları dikkate alarak öğrenci ihtiyaçlarına cevap verebilme, içinde bulunulan eğitim bağlamını tanıyıp tüm paydaşlarıyla ortak noktada buluşabilmek gibi pek çok yeterliliğin bir arada bulunmasını gerektirdiğinden en zor mesleklerden biri olarak addedilmektedir. 21. yüzyılda dünyanın sınırların kaybolarak küresel bir kasabaya dönüşmesi sonucu özellikle dil öğretimi büyük önem kazanmış ve bunun etkiliği de iyi öğretmen özellikleri ile bağdaşlaştırılmıştır. İlgili artalan incelendiğinde iyi dil öğretmenini tanımlama gayretinin çok eskilere dayandığı görülmekte ve günümüzde de hızından bir şey kaybetmemektedir. İlgili çalışmalar genelde ya öğrenci, ya öğretmen veya karşılaştırmalı bakış açısıyla ele alınmakta ve iyi öğretmen profili çeşitli boyutlardan incelenmektedir.

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Bu hedefle yola çalışan çeşitli araştırmalara bakıldığında öğretmen profilinin farklı boyutlarının ele alınmış olduğu görülmektedir. Ancak alanyazın detaylı bir biçimde incelendiğinde özellikle vurgulanan bazı temel boyutların genelde dört başlık altında toplandığı rahatça görülmektedir. Bunlar: sosyal-duyuşsal beceriler, pedagojik bilgi, alan bilgisi ve kişilik özellikleridir. Adından da anlaşılacağı üzere sosyal-duyuşsal beceriler motivasyon, öğretme coşkusu, sağlıklı iletişim becerileri, olumlu tutum geliştirme, öğrenci ihtiyaçlarına cevap verebilme gibi alt yetenekleri kapsamaktadır. Pedagojik bilgi eğitim sürecinin nasıl olması gerektiğini vurgularken alan bilgisi içeriğe hakim olmayı kapsamaktadır. Kişilik özellikleri ise öğrenme ortamını olumlu hale getirmeye ve öğrencilerle sağlıklı iletişim kurmayı kolaylaştıracak sabır, nezaket, üretkenlik, açık fikirlilik, esneklik gibi kişisel özelliklerini içermektedir. Öğretmenlik sürekli gelişen bir kavram ve kültür ilintili olduğu için bu çerçeve iyi bir dil öğretmeni profili çıkarmada bağlayıcı olmamaktadır. Doğal konuşmacı-anadili başka öğretmen olma ikilemi, tecrübenin rolü, mezun olunan üniversitenin prestiji gibi farklı boyutlar da işin içine girmektedir.

İyi bir dil öğretmen profili çıkarma Türkiye’de de akademik mecraların odak noktası olmaktadır. Meseleyi gerek öğrenci gerekse de öğretmen açısından ele alan çeşitli çalışmalar bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışmaların sonucu genelde yurtdışında yapılan çalışmalarla paralellik göstermektedir: en çok önem atfedilen özellikler öğretmenin kişisel özellikleri, alan bilgisi hakimiyeti ve iletişimsel becerile olarak resmedilmektedir. Ortaya çıkan bu paralellikler artık konuyu farklı paydaşlar açısından da ele almanın zamanı geldiğini düşündürmektedir.

Bu çalışmanın amacı, iyi bir dil öğretmeninin özelliklerini Türkiye’deki özel dil eğitim kurumları açısından ele almak, sonuçları var olan alanyazında farklı bakış açılarıyla karşılaştırmak ve bu kurumların eğitim personeli alma ölçütlerinin temel dayanağını ortaya çıkarmaktır. Bu amaçla nitel bir çalışma planlanmış ve Türkiye’nin kuzeydoğusundaki bir ilde bulunan tüm özel dil kursları yöneticilerine ulaşmak hedeflenmiştir. İldeki yedi kur yöneticisine ulaşılmış ve görüşme yapmayı kabul eden 6 kurs yöneticisi ile yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler yapılmıştır. Bilgi toplama aracı olarak kullanılan bu yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşmelerdeki sorular alanyazındaki çalışmalar bazı alınarak hazırlanmıştır. Bu sorulara ek olarak duruma göre sonda soruları da sorulmuş ve görüşmelerde ses kaydı yapılmıştır.

Toplanan bilgi alanyazından esinlenerek kişisel özellik, pedagojik bilgi, alan bilgisi, sosyal-duyuşsal beceriler, doğal konuşmacı-Türk öğretmen ikilemi, ve eğitim geçmişi ile tecrübenin önemi olmak üzere altı alt başlık altında nitel içerik analizine tabi tutulmuştur.

Kişilik özellikleri ile ilgili sonuçlar incelendiğinde en çok vurgulanan özelliğin sevgi ve disiplinin dengeli bir biçimde harmanlanması olduğu görülmektedir. Her ne kadar iyi bir dil öğretmeni güleç, sevecen, ılımlı olarak tarif edilse de dozajında ayarlanmış bir otoriter anlayışı iyi dil öğretmeni kavramıyla bağdaştırılmıştır. Bu durum Türkiye gibi yüksek bağlamlı kültürlerde ve sınav-odaklı eğitim ortamlarında başarının önemli oluşuyla açıklanabilir, çünkü bu tür bağlamlarda başarıyı getirecek olan şeyin istenmeyen davranışları ortadan kaldırarak dersin akışının kesilmesini engelleyen otorite olduğuna inanılır. Diğer kişilik özellikleri enerjik, adil, anlayışlı, toleranslı, saygılı, sabırlı, sevecen, üretici, rol model, güdüleyici, arkadaş canlısı, lider, sosyal, olumlu, rahatlatıcı, eleştiriye ve yeniliğe açık, neşeli ve iyi gözlem yeteneğine sahip olma olarak sıralanabilir.

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Pedagojik yeterlilik boyutuna bakıldığında iyi bir dil öğretmeni tanımında en sık vurgulanan özelliğin dersin İngilizce anlatılması ve dili hakim bir şekilde kullanılabilmesi olduğu görülmüştür. Sınıfta anadil kullanımı doğal bir olgu olarak görülmemekte ve jest mimik, görseller gibi alternatif yollarla bu yoldan kaçınılması önerilmiştir. Bu durum, Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Metodu dışında diğer tüm metotların ideal dil öğretmenini hedef dili kullanarak özgün bir ortam oluşturmaya çalışan kişi olarak tanımlama gayretiyle açıklanabilir. İyi öğretmende arzu edilen diğer pedagojik yeterlilikler şöyle sıralanabilir: iyi sınıf yönetimi becerisine sahip olmak, sürekli mesleki gelişim çabası içinde olmak, tüm dil becerilerini harmanlayarak öğretmek, öğrenci özerkliğini geliştirmek, içeriği kitleye uygun aktarabilmek, farklı yöntem ve teknikleri yerine göre kullanabilmek, iletişimsel eğitime odaklanmak, teknoloji entegrasyonu sağlamak, vücut dili ve görsellerle eğitimi destekleyebilmek, gerçek-yaşamda olduğu gibi bir sınıf ortamı oluşturmak, strateji öğretmek, öğretim programını takip edebilmek, pedagojik formasyon bilgisine sahip olmak, farklı öğrenci kitlelerine eğitim verebilme bilgisine sahip olmak.

Alan bilgisi boyutu ele alındığında iyi bir dil öğretmeninde bulunması gereken en önemli yeteneklerin İngilizce dilbilgisi, kelime becerilerine sahip olmak, hedef dilde kendini çok iyi ifade edebilmek, üstdil becerilerine sahip olmak, diğer kültürler ve dil aileleri konusunda bilgi sahibi olmak, yöntem ve teknik teorik bilgisine hakim olmak, dil eğitiminin önemi ve farklı dil kullanımları hakkında bilgi sahibi olmak olduğu görülmüştür. Ancak bunlar arasında en çok vurgulanan becerinin dilbilgisi ve kelime bilgisi oluşu sınav odaklı Türk eğitim sisteminde genelde konuşma ve dinleme becerilerinden ziyade dilbilgisi, okuma ve kelime bilgisinin ölçülmesinin hedeflenmesi olarak açıklanabilir.

Sosyal-duyuşsal becerilerle ilgili sonuçlara bakıldığında iyi iletişim becerilerine sahip olmanın en çok önemsenen sosyal beceri olduğu görülmektedir. Buna ek olarak coşkulu olmak ve mesleğini ne kadar sevdiğini öğrenciye aktarabilmek, öğrencinin bireysel özelliklerine hitap edebilme yeteneğine sahip olmak, göz teması kurabilmek ve sınıf dışında da öğrenciyle sıcak ilişki kurabilmek sık sık vurgulanan temalar olmuştur.

Doğal konuşmacı-Türk öğretmen ikilemi ile ilgili sonuçlar var olan alanyazının aksine Türk dil öğretmenlerinin çok daha tercih edildiğini ve dolayısıyla öğretmen milliyetinin iyi dil öğretmeni tanımında çok da bağlayıcı olmadığını göstermektedir. Katılımcılar bu iki tür öğretmenin yeteneklerini ayırt etme yoluna gitmiş ve doğal konuşmacıların konuşma, dinleme derslerinde ve kurumun prestijinde rol oynayabileceğinin altını çizmiştir.

Son olarak da eğitim geçmişi ve deneyim boyutuna bakıldığında iyi bir üniversiteden mezun olmanın iyi bir öğretmen olunacağı anlamına gelmediği vurgulanmış, önemli olanın sürekli mesleki gelişme çabası içinde olduğu belirtilmiştir. Ancak iyi bir dil öğretmeni deneyim ile bağdaştırılmış ve bu deneyimin alanında deneyimli meslektaşları gözlemlemek, staj yapmak, uyum eğitimi almak, yurtdışı deneyimi yaşamak gibi yollarla kazanılması gerektiğinin altı çizilmiştir.

Sonuç olarak çalışmanın amacı tanımlayıcı bir iyi dil öğretmeni profili çizmek olmasa bile sonuçlar Türkiye bağlamında iyi bir dil öğretmeni profilini çizme açısından değerlidir. İyi eğitimci tanımını küresel ve idealist çerçevede yapan çalışmalara ek olarak yerel bazlı alan çalışmaları yapmak öğretmen eğitimine ışık tutabilir, adayları farklı beklentilere karşı hazırlayabilir ve var olan alanyazına da katkı sağlayabilir.

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Kitlesel Açık Çevrimiçi Derslerin Kullanımına İlişkin Uzaktan Eğitim Uzmanlarının Görüşleri

Perceptions of Distance Education Experts Regarding the Use of MOOCs

Eren KesimAnadolu Üniversitesi, Türkiye

[email protected]

Hakan AltınpullukAnadolu Üniversitesi, Türkiye

[email protected]

ÖzBu araştırmanın amacı kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin yapı ve işleyişine ilişkin var olan durumu ortaya koyarak, uzaktan eğitim alanında görev yapan eğitim uzmanlarının, kitlesel açık çevrim içi derslerin hayat boyu öğrenme ve bilgi ekonomisine katkılarına ilişkin görüşlerinin belirlenmesidir. Nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden durum çalışması kullanılarak desenlenen bu araştırma kapsamında çalışmanın katılımcıları ölçüt örnekleme yöntemiyle belirlenmiş, böylece araştırmanın katılımcıları kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerle ilgili akademik yayınları bulunan, çevrimiçi ders tasarımı sürecinin bir parçası olmuş olan uzmanlardan oluşmuştur. Veri toplama süreci kapsamında, önce belirlenmiş olan 11 tane kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders sağlayıcısını kapsayan doküman analizi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Daha sonra bu doküman analizi sonuçlarını da içeren ve 5 maddeden oluşan veri toplama aracı kullanılarak, uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarıyla bir yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu görüşmeler sonucunda elde edilen veriler, yapılan içerik analiziyle çözümlenmiştir. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre; yapılan doküman analizi perspektifinde kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin dünyadaki mevcut durumu, belirlenen 7 değerlendirme kriterine göre ortaya konmuştur. Bunun yanında uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin hayat boyu öğrenme sürecine ve bilgi ekonomisine yönelik katkılarıyla, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin cazip

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hale getirilmesine ilişkin görüşleri tema ve alt temalar kullanılarak ve doğrudan alıntılar verilerek paylaşılmış, ilgili araştırma bulguları kapsamında araştırmacılara yönelik öneriler sunulmuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler; hayat boyu öğrenme; bilgi ekonomisi; sürekli mesleki gelişim

AbstractThe purpose of this study is to portray the current situation of massive open online course (MOOC) structures and operations, and determine the opinions of educational experts in the field of distance education regarding the contribution of MOOCs to lifelong learning and the knowledge economy. The research, modeled as a qualitative case study, with participants selected using criterion sampling thus the participants comprised of experts whom have been a part of the design process of MOOCs and have academic publications regarding MOOCs. During the data gathering process, a document analysis covering 11 predetermined MOOC providers was conducted. The results of this analysis were combined with 5 items to establish a data gathering tool, utilized to conduct semi structured interviews with distance education experts. The data gathered from these interviews were subjected to content analysis. The results are indicative, from the perspective of the document analysis conducted, based on 7 evaluation criteria determined to portray the current situation of MOOCs. In addition, the opinions of distance education experts regarding the contribution of MOOCs to life long learning and the knowledge economy, and making MOOCs more attractive, have been provided with direct quotations and through themes and sub themes. Various recommendations have been made for researchers based on relevant research findings.

Keywords: MOOCs; life-long learning; knowledge economy; continuing professional development

Giriş

Temel dinamikleri on dokuzuncu yüzyılın sonlarına doğru uluslararası ekonomi ve uluslararası ekonomik ilişkilerin gelişmesiyle şekillenen küresel ekonomi, günümüzde dinamik bir gerçekliği temsil etmektedir. Sadece uluslararası ekonomi için değil, gelişen yeni teknolojilerle birlikte dünyada mesafelerin kısalmasını, dünyada yaşayan insanların birbirlerini daha fazla tanımasını sağlayan bir süreç olarak küreselleşmenin etkileri her geçen gün yoğun olarak hissedilmektedir (Eckes, 2011).

Ülkelerin ekonomik ve sosyal gelişim süreçlerinde rekabet avantajı sağlamalarında bilgi vazgeçilemez ve stratejik bir konuma gelmiştir. Küreselleşme süreciyle hız kazanan bilginin artış ve yayılma hızı, bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerinin gelişmesiyle birlikte tüm ülkeleri doğrudan etkilemektedir. Bu bakımdan bilgi ekonomisi, stratejik öneme sahip olan bilginin üretilmesi için eğitim ve araştırma süreçlerine yatırım yapma, ortaya çıkan sosyal, kültürel ve ekonomik gelişmelere hızlı bir şekilde uyum sağlayarak yeni bilgiler üretebilme dinamiğini yansıtmaktadır. Bu değişkenleri doğru analiz ederek hayata geçiren ülkeler, küresel bilgi ekonomisinde üretmiş oldukları yüksek katma değere sahip ürünlerle rekabet üstünlüğü sağlamaktadırlar (Dahlman, Routti ve Ylä-Anttila, 2007).

Yirmi birinci yüzyılda ülkeler arasında yaşanan ekonomik rekabet sürecinde, fiziki sermaye yatırımlarından çok insana yapılan yatırımı karakterize eden beşeri sermaye yatırımları önem kazanmıştır. Bu anlamda beşeri sermaye, ülkelerin küresel rekabet sürecinde avantaj sağlayabilmelerinin en stratejik değişkeni haline gelmiştir (Goldin ve Katz, 2008; Duderstadt, Atkins ve Van Houweling, 2002).

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Beşeri sermaye kavramı, örgütlerin sahip oldukları finansal ve fiziksel sermayeden farklı bir bakış açısını yansıtmaktadır (Huysman, 2004). Ülkelerin sahip oldukları yetişmiş insan gücünü temsil eden beşeri sermaye, risk alabilen, girişimcilik özelliği olan ve yeniliklere açık bireyler aracılığıyla ekonomik sistemin gelişmesine olumlu katkı sağlamaktadırlar (Halpern, 2005). Beşeri sermaye kuramı gelecekte, eğitim-öğretim süreçleriyle okulların öğrencilere sağladıkları faydaları, eğitim öğretim süreçlerinin kalitesinin arttırılmasını ve hayat boyu öğrenme anlayışının bireyler için sağlayacağı getirileri içerecek şekilde yeniden ele alınmalıdır (Livingstone, 2012, s.105).

Dijital teknolojilerin eğitim kurumlarında kullanılmaya başlanmasıyla birlikte, sadece eğitim kurumları için değil dijital toplumun genelinde ve iş hayatında öğrenme sürecinin yeniden yapılandırılması bir zorunluluk haline gelmeye başlamıştır (Ossiannilsson, 2014). Gelişen yeni teknolojiler, yeni bilgilere ulaşmak isteyen bireyler için özellikle öğrenme süreçlerini yeniden yapılandırabilmek için yeni olanaklar hazırlamaktadır. Belirli bir kuruma bağlı kalmadan bireyler internet kaynaklarına ulaşarak öğrenme süreçlerine dinamizm katabilmektedirler (Kop, 2011).

Bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerinin gelişmesiyle, tüm ülkeler bu sürecin etkileriyle karşılaşmaktadırlar. Bu perspektifte özellikle mobil teknolojilerin gelişmesiyle, bireyler bu teknolojileri gereksinimlerini karşılamak için daha fazla kullanmaya başlamışlardır. Mobil teknolojilerin yaygın olarak kullanılması, sosyal medya araçlarının ve bulut bilişimin popülerlik kazanması mobil öğrenme kavramının gelişmesini sağlamış, mobil öğrenme süreçlerinin gelişmesiyle birlikte dünyada eğitim hizmetlerinin sunulmasında da yeni bakış açıları ön plana çıkmıştır (de Waard, 2013).

Mobil öğrenme sürecinde bireyler, akıllı telefonlardan ya da kişisel dijital yardımcılardan gereksinim duydukları eğitim içeriklerine ulaşabilmektedirler. Bir başka ifadeyle mobil öğrenme, bireylerin yeni gelişen teknolojileri kullanarak istedikleri eğitim içeriğine erişebilme yeterliklerini temsil etmektedir. Mobil öğrenme sürecinde özellikle bireylerin gereksinim duydukları eğitim içerikleri bireylere önceden belirlenmiş ya da sabit bir konumda sunulmamaktadır. Mobil öğrenme sürecinde bireyler gelişen yeni teknolojileri kullanarak yeni bilgilere ve eğitim içeriklerine her yerden erişim olanağına sahiptirler. Mobil öğrenme bu anlamda yeni öğrenilen bilgilerin gerçek hayata ve iş ortamına doğrudan uygulanmasına olanak vermektedir (Mishra, 2013).

Açık ve uzaktan eğitim, toplumsal değişim sürecinde bireylerin çeşitlenen gereksinimlerine çözüm bulabilmek için ortaya çıkan bir yaklaşımı temsil etmektedir. Bireylerin artan ve çeşitlenen gereksinimlerine her yerden hızlı bir şekilde erişebilme olanaklarının gelişmesiyle, açık ve uzaktan eğitimde yeni bakış açıları ortaya çıkmaktadır. Açık ders malzemelerinin kullanımının yaygınlaşmasından sonra günümüzde, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler yeni ve popülerliği her geçen gün artan bir olgu olarak gelişmektedir (Stracke, 2014).

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler, dünya genelinde kendi isteğiyle öğrenme sürecine yön vermek isteyen öğrenen bireyleri bir araya getiren büyük ölçekli bir öğrenme ortamını karakterize etmektedir. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler çok kapsamlı bir öğrenme yönetim sistemini bünyesinde barındırmazlar. Bu yapılar genellikle öğrenme sürecini yapılandırmak isteyen çok fazla kişinin kolayca erişebileceği, ders içeriği oluşturabileceği, tartışmalar yoluyla iletişim kurabilecekleri sosyal medya araçlarını kullanmaktadırlar. Bulut bilişim alt yapısında ya da internet tabanlı olarak kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler, herkesin ilgi duyduğu bir derse kayıt yapmasına, bu dersle ilgili içerikler oluşturmalarına

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ve dersle ilgilenen kişilerin bu içeriğe erişmesine olanak sağlayarak çevrimiçi öğrenme ortamlarında ders kaynaklarının bireyler tarafından her zaman ve her yerden paylaşımına olanak sağlamaktadır (de Waard, 2013, s.357).

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler ve e-öğrenme olanakları, öğrenciler, yetişkin bireyler, iş hayatında çalışanlar ve kendini geliştirmek isteyen herkes için hayat boyu öğrenme sürecinde önemli fırsatlar sunmaktadırlar (Stracke, 2014). Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler, her dersin kendi özelliğine ve yapısına göre bünyesinde gelişmiş öğrenme ortamlarını barındırmaktadır. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler bu bağlamda çok fazla sayıda öğrenene daha büyük ölçekli, daha kaliteli açık ders erişimine olanak vererek daha az maliyetle eğitim hizmeti sunulmasını sağlamaktadır. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin dünyadaki kurumsal ve seçkin yükseköğretim kurumları tarafından yapılandırılması ve eğitim hizmetinin bu dersler aracılığıyla da verilmeye başlanması, uluslararası küresel yükseköğretim alanında karar vericilerin ve araştırmacıların kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslere daha fazla odaklanmalarını sağlamıştır. (Baker, Evans, Greenberg ve Dee, 2014, s.5).

Bu araştırmanın amacı, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin yapı ve işleyişine ilişkin var olan durumu ortaya koyarak, uzaktan eğitim alanında etkin olarak rol alan uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının söz konusu derslerin hayat boyu öğrenme ve bilgi ekonomisi bağlamında katkılarına ilişkin görüşlerini belirlemektir. Bu amaçları gerçekleştirmek amacıyla şu alt amaçlar belirlenmiştir:

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin yapı ve işleyişi ile ilgili dünyadaki mevcut durum nedir?

Uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının; Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bireylerin hayat boyu öğrenme sürecine katkılarına

yönelik görüşleri nelerdir?

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bilgi ekonomisine katkılarına yönelik görüşleri nelerdir?

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin cazip hale getirilmesine yönelik görüşleri nelerdir?

Yöntem

Araştırma, nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden durum çalışması olarak desenlenmiştir. Durum çalışmalarında bir duruma ilişkin ortam, birey, olay ya da süreçlerin bütüncül bir yaklaşımla araştırılarak ilgili durumu nasıl etkilediklerine ya da ilgili durumdan nasıl etkilendiklerine odaklanılmaktadır (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2013). Bu yöntem araştırmacılara gerçek yaşamdaki olayların, süreçlerin ya da davranış örüntülerinin anlamlı ve bütüncül niteliklerini ayrıntılı ve derinlemesine bir biçimde ortaya koyma olanağı sunmaktadır (Yin, 2009). Durum çalışmalarında genellikle birden çok veri toplama yöntemi işe koşularak zengin ve birbirini destekleyebilecek veri çeşitliliğine ulaşılabilir (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2013). Bu araştırmada kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslere ilişkin dünyadaki genel durumu ve mevcut ortamların niteliklerini yansıtmaya yönelik bir doküman analizi gerçekleştirilmiş, ardından bu konuda yetkin uygulayıcı ve araştırmacılar ile gerçekleştirilen yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmelere başvurularak bu durumun ayrıntılarına ve duruma ilişkin paydaş görüşlerine ilişkin tamamlayıcı veri sağlanmıştır.

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Çalışmanın Katılımcıları

Bu araştırmada ilgilenilen durum ile ilgili zengin bilgiye sahip olduğu düşünülen uzmanlarla derinlemesine çalışabilmek amacıyla, amaçlı örnekleme yöntemlerinden ölçüt örnekleme yöntemine başvurulmuştur (Patton, 2002). Ölçüt örnekleme yönteminde önceden belirlenmiş belirli ölçütleri karşılayan tüm durumlarla çalışılmaktadır (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2013, s.140). Araştırmanın katılımcılarıyla ilgili kişisel bilgiler Tablo 1’de sunulmuştur.

Tablo 1Uzaktan Eğitim Uzmanlarına Ait Kişisel Bilgiler

Uzaktan Eğitim

UzmanlarıCinsiyet Yaş Ünvan Kıdem

U1 Kadın 32 Yard.Doç.Dr. 12 YılU2 Erkek 34 Yard.Doç.Dr. 12 YılU3 Erkek 28 Araş.Gör 5 YılU4 Kadın 39 Yard.Doç.Dr. 11 YılU5 Erkek 33 Yard.Doç.Dr. 12 YılU6 Kadın 33 Araş.Gör. 12 YılU7 Erkek 35 Öğr. Gör. 11 YılU8 Erkek 35 Öğr.Gör. 12 YılU9 Erkek 51 Doç.Dr. 28 Yıl

U10 Erkek 30 Yard.Doç.Dr. 6 Yıl

Araştırma kapsamında kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerle ilgili yayını olan, bireysel olarak çevrimiçi ders tasarımı sürecinde rol almış uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarına ulaşılmıştır. Böylece kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslere ilişkin hem kuramsal hem de uygulamalı olarak tecrübeye sahip paydaşların görüşlerinden yararlanılarak mevcut durumun derinlemesine ve doğru kaynaklardan yararlanılarak irdelenmesi hedeflenmiştir.

Veri Toplama Aracının Geliştirilmesi ve Verilerin Toplanması

Durum çalışmalarında, çalışmanın bazı bölümlerini birbirinden bağımsız olarak raporlaştırmak, araştırmanın bütününü yorumlayabilmek için bir sınırlılık yaratabilmektedir (Güler, Halıcıoğlu ve Taşğın, 2013, s.316). Nitel analiz kapsamında kullanılacak doküman analizi sürecinde, araştırma kapsamıyla ilgili verileri elde edebilmek için yeterli düzeyde tarama işlemi yapılması gerekmektedir (Gürbüz ve Şahin, 2014, s.381).

Nitel araştırmaların belirlenen amaçlarını gerçekleştirebilmek için görsel ve yazılı birçok dokümandan yararlanılabilmektedir. Araştırma kapsamında belirli bir olay ya da olgu ile ilgili farklı kaynaklardan bilgilere ulaşmak, yeni ve farklı bakış açılarını incelemek, araştırmanın geçerliliğini arttırabilmektedir (Akturan, 2013, s.117). Nitel araştırmaların veri toplama sürecinde e-postalar ve internet adresleri gibi elektronik dokümanlardan da yararlanılabilmektedir (Creswell, 2014).

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Bu araştırmada, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslere ilişkin dünyadaki genel durumu ve mevcut ortamların niteliklerini yansıtmaya yönelik yapılan doküman analizi iki önemli amacı bünyesinde barındırmaktadır. Birinci amaç, yapılan doküman analizi sonuçlarının, veri toplama aracının geliştirilmesine yardımcı olması, ikinci amaç ise, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin yapı ve işleyişi ile ilgili dünyadaki mevcut durumun betimlenmesini sağlayabilmektir. Dünyada kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders sağlayıcılarına ait pek çok internet adresi bulunmaktadır (Littlejohn, 2013).

Araştırmanın belirlenen amacı perspektifinde yapılması düşünülen doküman analizinde sınırlılık yaşamamak için, Littlejohn (2013, s.4) tarafından sadece internet adresleri belirtilen seçilmiş 11 tane kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders sağlayıcısını ve onların internet adreslerini kapsayan ilk doküman analizi 1-10 Mart 2014 tarihleri arasında yapılmıştır. Yapılan doküman analizinde 11 tane kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders sağlayıcısının (Coursera, Edx, Udacity, Futurelearn, Openstudy, Codeacademy, Openlearning, NPTEL, Khan Academy, Udemy ve ALISON) internet adreslerinin mevcut potansiyelleri incelenmiş, tüm internet adreslerinde ortak olan nitelikler saptanarak bu nitelikler birer değerlendirme ölçütü olarak belirlenmiş ve yapılan doküman analizi tek bir tabloda karşılaştırmalı olarak özetlenmiştir. Araştırmacılar, yukarıda belirtilen 11 tane kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders sağlayıcısının ilgili sitelerinin her birine üye olarak, daha geniş bir yelpazede elektronik dokümana erişim olanağı bulmuşlardır.

Doküman analizi kapsamında ortaya çıkan değerlendirme ölçütleri; internet adresleri, mobil uygulama desteği, sertifikasyon-diploma olanakları, bireysel ve mesleki gelişim, içerik hazırlama ve ders desteği, staj, eğitim ve istihdam olanakları, ilgi alanına yönelik derslerin verilmesi, ders sayısı ve aktif öğrenci sayısı olmak üzere toplam 9 başlıkta oluşturulmuştur. Elde edilen bulgular, veri toplama aracının geliştirilmesi sürecine klavuzluk etmiştir. Bu sebeple önce kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin kuramsal temelleriyle, bilgi ekonomisi ve hayat boyu öğrenmeyle ilgili alan yazın taraması yapılmış, daha sonra bu üç temel alanla ilgili ulaşılan bilgiler, yapılan doküman analizinde ortaya çıkan 9 temel değerlendirme ölçütü çerçevesinde bir araya getirilerek 10 maddeyi içeren pilot görüşme formu oluşturulmuştur. Daha sonra bu pilot görüşme formu, Uzaktan Eğitim, Eğitim Yönetimi ve Bilgisayar ve Öğretim Teknolojileri alanında uzman 4 öğretim üyesine gönderilmiştir. Belirtilen 4 öğretim üyesiyle yapılan görüşmeler sonucunda veri toplama aracında uzman öğretim üyelerinden gelen değerlendirme sonuçlarına göre gerekli olan düzeltmeler yapılmış, böylece veri toplama aracına 5 maddeyi içeren son şekli verilmiştir.

Daha sonra görüşme formu görüşme sürecine başlamadan kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerle ilgili yayını olan ve bireysel olarak çevrimiçi ders tasarımı sürecinde rol almış olan 2 uzmana gönderilerek pilot uygulaması yapılmış ve bu 2 uzman araştırmanın çalışma grubunun dışarısında bırakılmıştır. Yapılan pilot uygulama sonucunda veri toplama aracına son şekli verilmiştir. Veri toplama aracının son şeklini içeren görüşme soruları aşağıda sunulmuştur:

1. Sizce kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bireylerin yeni bilgilere erişimi bağlamında katkıları nelerdir?

2. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bireylerin sürekli mesleki gelişimi açısından önemi nedir?

3. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bireylerin hayat boyu öğrenme sürecinde etkili olabilmesi için sizce neler yapılmalıdır?

4. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerde bireyler için hedeflenen kazanımların gerçek hayata yansıtılması sizce nasıl mümkün olabilir?

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5. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerle bireyler için hedeflenen kazanımların ekonomik değere dönüşmesi yönünde ne tür uygulama önerileriniz bulunmaktadır?

Araştırmanın veri toplama süreci için gerekli olan izin Açıköğretim Fakültesi Dekanlığından alındıktan sonra, çalışmanın katılımcılarını oluşturan uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarından görüşme süreciyle ilgili randevular alınmıştır. Uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının araştırma süreciyle ilgili bilgilendirilmelerinden sonra veri toplama süreci 07-16 Nisan 2014 tarihleri arasında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Görüşmeler ortalama yarım saat sürmüş ve 214 dakika 42 saniyelik bir görüşme kaydı elde edilmiştir.

Yapılan doküman analizinin 1-10 Mart 2014 tarihleri arasında elde edilen bulguları, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslere ilişkin dünyadaki genel durumu ve mevcut ortamların niteliklerini yansıtmaya yönelik olarak araştırma bulgularının oluşturulduğu 20-25 Ağustos 2014 tarihleri arasında yeniden gözden geçirilmiş, elde edilen 9 değerlendirme ölçütü içerisinde yer alan ders sayılarının ve aktif öğrenci sayısının, değişkenlik göstermesi sebebiyle dünyadaki mevcut durumu yansıtma amacını sınırlayabileceği varsayımıyla bu değişkenler çıkartılarak, doküman analizi kapsamında ortaya çıkan değerlendirme ölçütleri; internet adresleri, mobil uygulama desteği, sertifikasyon-diploma olanakları, bireysel ve mesleki gelişim, içerik hazırlama ve ders desteği, staj, eğitim ve istihdam olanakları, ilgi alanına yönelik derslerin verilmesini içeren 7 değerlendirme ölçütünü kapsayan nihai haliyle bulgular bölümünde Tablo 2’de, araştırmanın birinci alt amacını yansıtacak şekilde oluşturulmuştur.

Verilerin Analizi

Uzaktan eğitim uzmanları ile gerçekleştirilen yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmelerden elde edilen verilerin çözümlenmesinde içerik analizi kullanılmıştır. Araştırma kapsamında toplanan veriler derinlemesine incelenerek birbirine benzeyen veriler temalar ve belirli kavramlar etrafında bir araya getirilerek anlaşılır biçimde düzenlenip yorumlanmıştır (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2013, s.259). Nitel araştırmalarda özellikle verilerin analizi sürecinde; verilerin organize edilmesi, verilerin yazılı hale getirilmesi, temaların oluşturulması ve araştırma verilerinin tablolar halinde sunulması büyük önem taşımaktadır (Güler, Halıcıoğlu ve Taşğın, 2013, s.44).

Elde edilen görüşme kaydı, araştırmacılar tarafından yazılı metne dönüştürülmüştür. Yapılan dönüştürme sonucunda 50 sayfalık bir metne ulaşılmıştır. Bu metin yapılacak olan içerik analizi için görüşme formuna aktarılmıştır. Oluşturulan bu görüşme formu, nitel araştırma ve uzaktan eğitim alanında uzman 3 öğretim üyesine gönderilmiştir. Uzman öğretim üyeleri, birbirlerinden bağımsız olarak ilgili görüşme formunu baz alarak tema ve alt temaları oluşturmuşlar ve bunları bir Excel tablosuna aktarmışlardır. Daha sonra araştırmacıların da katılımıyla, uzman öğretim üyelerinin oluşturmuş oldukları tema ve alt temalar ortak bir Excel dosyasında bir araya getirilerek, bir görüşme kodlama anahtarı oluşturulmuştur. Her bir tema, alan uzmanlarının görüşlerini yansıtacak şekilde Excel tablosuna nihai olarak aktarılmış ve temalarla ilgili görüş birliği ve görüş ayrılıkları tabloda ayrıntılı olarak incelenerek, görüşme kodlama anahtarına son şekli verilmiştir. Süreç sırasında veriler kodlanmış, temalar bulunmuş, kod ve temalar düzenlenmiş ve son olarak bulgular tanımlanarak yorumlanmıştır. Araştırma kapsamında elde edilen temaların kodlamalarını da içeren veri toplama aracının güvenirliğinin hesaplanması sürecinde Miles ve Huberman (1994, s.64) tarafından belirtilen aşağıdaki formülden yararlanılmıştır:

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Görüş Birliği

Güvenirlik = -------------------------------------------- X 100

Görüş Birliği + Görüş Ayrılığı

Bu araştırmada, yukarıda belirtilen formül aracılığıyla yapılan hesaplamalar sonunda veri toplama aracının güvenirliği %91 olarak bulunmuştur. Araştırmanın bulguları kapsamında alt temalara ilişkin uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının görüşlerini içeren doğrudan alıntılarda, uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının gerçek kimliklerinin belirtilmesini önlemek amacıyla uzaktan eğitim uzmanları U1---U10 şeklinde sunulmuştur.

BULGULAR

Kitlesel Açık Çevrimiçi Derslerin Yapı ve İşleyişi ile İlgili Dünyadaki Mevcut Duruma İlişkin Bulgular

Littlejohn (2013, s.4) tarafından sadece internet adresleri belirtilen seçilmiş 11 tane kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders sağlayıcının (Coursera, Edx, Udacity, Futurelearn, Openstudy, Codeacademy, Openlearning, NPTEL, Khan Academy, Udemy ve ALISON) internet adresinin mevcut potansiyelleri yapılan doküman analizinde incelenmiş, tüm internet adreslerinde ortak olan nitelikler saptanarak bu nitelikler 7 değerlendirme ölçütüyle yapılan doküman analizi bulgularını karşılaştırmalı olarak özetleyen Tablo 2’de sunulmuştur.

Web sayfalarının büyük bir bölümünde üyelik sistemi kullanıldığı saptanmıştır. Kullanıcılar bu sitelere üye olarak profil sayfalarını düzenleyebilmektedir. Profil sayfalarında kullanıcılar aldığı dersleri, sınavlardaki puanlarını, genel ilerlemesini ve kazandığı sertifikaları da görebilmektedir. Böylece, siteye üye olan kişi sitenin kullandığı dilden, profil resmine kadar kişisel sayfasını özelleştirebilme imkanına sahip olabilmektedir.

Derslerin genel olarak çeşitli kategorilerde çok boyutlu yöntemlerle işlendiği belirlenmiştir. İncelenen sitelerin geneli için ele alındığında, öğrenen bireyler kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders sağlayıcılarının ilgili sitelerine girdiklerinde son derece sade, anlaşılır ve kullanıcı dostu bir arayüzle etkileşim sağlayabilmektedirler. Sunulan menüler ve diğer bağlantıların kullanıcıların aradıklarını daha kolay bulmalarına ve amaçlarına yönelik çalışmalarına yardımcı olacak şekilde tasarlandığı göze çarpmaktadır. Bazı kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders sağlayıcılarının internet adresleri kendilerine özel mobil uygulama desteğine de sahiptir.

Ayrıca site arayüzünden değiştirilebilen çeşitli dil seçenekleri de bulunabilmektedir. Birçok sitede üyelik sistemi kullanıldığı için kullanıcıların profil sayfası aracılığıyla kişisel ilerlemesi, gelişimi, aldığı dersleri yönetim paneli aracılığıyla görüntülenebilmektedir.

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Tablo 2Kitlesel Açık Çevrimiçi Ders Sağlayıcılarının İnternet Sayfalarının Doküman Analizi Sonuçları

Coursera Edx Udacity Futurelearn Openstudy Codecademy

Openlearning

NPTEL Khan Academy

Udemy ALISON

Adres https://www.coursera.org/

https://www.edx.or

g/

https://www.udacit

y.com/

https://www.

futurelearn.com/

http://openstudy.c

om/

http://www.codecadem

y.com/

https://www.openlearning.com/

http://nptel.ac.in/

https://www.khanacademy.org

/

https://www.udem

y.com/

http://alison.com/

Mobil Uygulama Desteği

Android ve IOS

Yok Android ve IOS

Yok IOS IOS Yok Yok IOS Android ve IOS

Yok

Sertifikas-

yon / Diploma

Olanakları

Sertifikasyon var

Sertifikasyon var

Sertifikasyon var

Sertifikasyon var

Sertifikasyon yok, kısa

bir süre sonra

uygulama başlayacakt

ır

Sertifikasyon yok

Dersi veren eğitmene

bağlı olarak değişmekte

dir

Sertifikasyon var

Dersi veren eğitmene

bağlı olarak değişmekte

dir

Sertifikasyon var

Sertifikasyon var

Bireysel ve

mesleki gelişim

Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet

İçerik hazırlama ve ders desteği

İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek

ekipleri vardır

İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekipleri vardır

İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekipleri vardır

İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekipleri vardır

İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekipleri vardır

İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekipleri vardır

İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekipleri vardır

İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekipleri vardır

İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekipleri vardır

İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekipleri vardır

İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek

ekipleri vardır

Staj, eğitim ve istihdam olanaklar

ı

Var Var Var Var Yok Var Var Yok Var Var Var

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İlgi alanına yönelik

derslerin verilmesi

Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet Evet

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Belirli aşamaları geçerek belli bir düzeye gelen öğrenenlere yönelik incelenen sitelerin büyük bölümünün sertifika fırsatı sundukları saptanmıştır. Bu sertifikalar genel olarak ücretli olmakla birlikte öğrenenlere gerek öğrenim süreçlerinde gerekse iş hayatında bazı imkanlar yaratmaktadır. Bazı sitelerde sertifika uygulaması olmasa da, birçok kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders sağlayıcının sitesinde geçerli diploma ve sertifika uygulaması olduğu belirlenmiştir.

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders sağlayıcılarının kullandığı siteler, öğrenenlerin hem bireysel hem mesleki gelişimlerini yaşam boyu sürdürmeyi amaçlayan platformlardır. Dünya çapında sunulan bu hizmetler tıptan mühendisliğe, felsefeden yabancı dil eğitime çok geniş bir yelpazede sunulmaktadır. Bu sitelerden yararlanarak kullanıcılar mesleki kariyerlerine katkı sağlayabildikleri gibi, bireysel anlamda da ilgi duyduğu alanda kendilerini geliştirebilme imkanına sahip olmaktadırlar. Bu sayede bireyler kendilerini yetiştirerek bilgi ekonomisine katkı sağlayabilmektedirler.

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin sağlayıcıları çok çeşitli alanlarda birçok uzman çalıştıran şirketlerdir. Belirli bir ekonomik modele göre profesyonel bir şekilde işletilen bu şirketlerde, her bölüme özgü birçok çalışan bulunmaktadır. Özellikle yazılım mühendisleri, içerik tasarımcıları, halkla ilişkiler uzmanları ve ders destek ekiplerinin bu süreçte yer aldıkları saptanmıştır. Ayrıca bu siteler çeşitli alanlardaki boş pozisyonları için yetişmiş, kalifiye personel arayışı içerisinde de olabilmektedirler.

Genel olarak kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersleri sunan bu sitelerin işleyişinde bazı farklılıklar olsa da, temel olarak benzer prensiplere sahip olduğu söylenebilir. Derslerin işlenmesinde çeşitli sunum, elektronik kitap, çizim veya grafik gibi araçlar kullanılmakla birlikte, bazı siteler çok daha farklı yöntemler kullanabilmektedirler. Dersler genel olarak kuramsal bilgi vermeye yönelik olarak videolu derslerle veya web tabanlı uygulamalarla işlenmektedir.

Uzaktan Eğitim Uzmanlarıyla Yapılan Görüşme Raporlarıyla İlgili Bulgular

Tablo 3Uzaktan Eğitim Uzmanlarının Kitlesel Açık Çevrimiçi Derslerin Bireylerin Hayat Boyu Öğrenme Sürecine Katkılarına Yönelik Görüşleri

Temalar Frekans (n)

1. Gelişimsel katkılar1.1. Mesleki gelişim 101.2. Bireysel gelişim 6

2. Katılımcıya yönelik katkılar2.1. Öğrenme maliyetlerinden tasarruf 42.2. İş yaşamından kopmadan yenilenme 32.3. Öğrenme zamanından tasarruf 2

3. Formal eğitim hizmetlerinden yararlanma3.1. Yapılandırılmış bilgiye erişim imkanı 53.2. Doğru ve güvenilir bilgiye erişim imkanı 23.3. Bilgi ve becerilerin sertifika veya diploma ile

belgelenmesi 14. Bilişim hizmetlerinden yararlanma

4.1. Zamandan bağımsız olması 54.2. Ortamdan bağımsız olması 54.3. Kontenjan sınırlıklarının olmaması 24.4. Çift yönlü etkileşimin olması 2

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Uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bireylerin hayat boyu öğrenme sürecine katkıları konusundaki görüşleri; Gelişimsel katkılar, katılımcıya yönelik katkılar, formal eğitim hizmetlerinden yararlanma ve bilişim hizmetlerinden yararlanma şeklinde dört alt temada toplanmıştır. Gelişimsel katkılara yönelik alt temalar, mesleki ve bireysel gelişim şeklinde iki alt temada toplanmıştır. Bu alt temalara ilişkin uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının görüşlerinden bazıları aşağıda belirtilmiştir:

“…daha çok yetişkin öğrenenlere hitap eden kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerde, siz belli bir lisans eğitimi aldınız hatta lisansüstü eğitimi aldınız bunlarda hani size yetmedi ve dünyada neler oluyor acaba şu konularda neler var diye merak edip kendinizi geliştirmek istediğinizde size bu amaca yönelik bir kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders olanağı sunuluyor. ” [U3].

“Mesleki gelişime yönelik düzenlenecek kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler öğrenen kişiler için gerçekten etkili olabilir. Bu süreçte sunulan ders materyallerinin, hazırlanan ders videolarının bu bağlamda kişilerin kendini geliştirmesi adına bir fırsat olabileceğini düşünüyorum.” [U4].

“Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerde eğer kişi bir iş yerinde çalışıyorsa iş yeri de kişiyi belli bir konuda eğitim alması için yönlendiriyorsa, kişi de kendini o alanda bir kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders bulup kayıt yaptırıp eğitim görebilir. Bunun yanında kişi bütünüyle kendi ilgisi ihtiyacı merakı doğrultusunda kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersleri seçip, kayıt yaptırıp bunlara devam edip tamamlayabiliyorsa bu bütünüyle kişinin kendi merakını doyurmak kendi bilgi gereksinimini karşılamak açısından kendisini besleyecek bir süreç olarak kabul edilebilir. Kitlesel çevrimiçi derslere yönelik motivasyon kaynağının mesleki gelişime katkısı farklı boyutlarda ortaya çıkabilir.” [U7].

“…örneğin tarih, müzik, sinema kültürü gibi konularda bile kişisel gelişim boyutunda kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerden yaralanabiliyorsunuz.” [U5]

Katılımcıya yönelik katkılar da öğrenme maliyetlerinden tasarruf, iş yaşamından kopmadan yenilenme ve öğrenme zamanından tasarruf şeklinde üç alt temada toplanmıştır. Bu alt temalara ilişkin uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının görüşlerinden bazıları şu şekildedir:

“Ekonomik açıdan baktığımızda da ciddi anlamda kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin insanlara katkısı olacaktır çünkü açık öğrenme dediğimiz zaman gerçekten eğitimde bir maliyeti düşürme söz konusu. Çünkü siz burada kitlesel bir eğitim yapmış oluyorsunuz dolayısıyla ekonomik anlamında da ciddi kazançlarınız ciddi kazanımlarınız oluyor. Ders materyallerinin en azından internet ortamında herkesin paylaşımına açılması, basılı materyal aldığınızda onlar için ekstra ücret ödediğiniz halde burada maliyet azalması söz konusu dolayısıyla buralarda ciddi kazanımlar var.” [U4].

“Ekonomik kazanım olarak düşündüğümüzde şu var yani sertifikayı alıyorsun ama bazıları bahsettiğim kredileri almak için para ödemek zorunda öyle sistemlerde söz konusu bunları tamamen açık kaynak felsefesiyle gitmesi durumunda başladığı gibi gitmesi durumunda her öğrenenin ilk kazanımları bu olacaktır. Öğrenme platformlarının sayısı o kadar arttı ki illaki bir kişi ilgisi olan bir konuyu bulabilir, bu durum da ekonomik anlamda katkı sağlayacaktır kendisine.” [U8].

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“Günümüzde bir öğrenci 4 yıllık fakülte okuyorsa eğer bitirdiğinde öğrendiği bilgilerin yarısı işe yaramaz hale gelmekte. Bunun için ne yapılması gerekiyor sürekli yeni bilgilerle bireylerin donatılması gerekiyor, kendini geliştirmesi gerekiyor. Bunu da sürekli çocukları sınavlarla tekrar üniversiteye kayıt ederek ya da iş hayatından koparıp kurslara alarak çözemiyoruz. Mesela ben geçenlerde kendim bir kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derse kayıt oldum mobil platformu üzerinden programlama mobil yazılım geliştirme programına, şimdi benim bunu öğrenmem için bir kursa gitmem veya bir dershaneye gitmem ya da üniversitede alabilmem mümkün değildi. Bunun mesleki anlamda birey için önemli olduğunu düşünüyorum kendim için gereksinim duyduğum bir konu olduğunu düşünüyorum bu imkanı sağladığı için böyle bir yönelimim vardı.” [U9].

“Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler, sistematik ve yapılandırılmış düzenli bir öğrenme ortamı. Bu anlamda zaten internetin de ihtiyacı olduğu bir ortam. Günlerce arayıp tarayıp bu konuda kim ne söylüyor kim ne çalışmış diye aramaktansa belli bir konuya ilgili bir kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders olanağı varsa zaten konuyu tüm boyutlarıyla öğrenme imkanlarına sahip oluyorsunuz aslında zamanınızı kısaltıyor bu öğrenme zamanınızı da çok kısaltıyor.” [U2].

Formal eğitim hizmetlerinden yararlanma, yapılandırılmış bilgiye erişim imkanı, doğru ve güvenilir bilgiye erişim imkanı, bilgi ve becerilerin sertifika veya diploma ile belgelenmesi şeklinde üç alt temada toplanmıştır. Bu alt temalara ilişkin uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının görüşlerinden bazıları şu şekilde özetlenmiştir:

“Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin sağladığı katkı örneğin halkla ilişkiler ve iletişimle alakalı bir dersin içeriğine ulaştığınız zaman amacı, önemi, hedefi, bu dersin sonunda elde edilen kazanımlar derli toplu bir havuz içerisinde size sunuluyor siz bir bütün halinde bunları görebiliyorsunuz.” [U3].

“İnternet kaynaklarına girdiğinizde evet bilgilere ulaşabilirsiniz ama bu bilgilerin ayıklanması konusunda birçok sorun yaşanıyor hangi bilgi doğru hangi bilgi yanlış bunu bilemiyorum ama yapılandırılmış bir eğitim ortamı olarak size birileri bunu kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler şeklinde sunduğunda gerçekten bilginin güvenilir ve yapılandırılmış şeklinde sunulması gündeme geliyor ki bu aslında çok önemli yani kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin sağladığı avantajlar arama motorlarındaki işte anahtar kelime yazdığınızda çıkan kaynaklarla karşılaştırıldığında çok daha etkili ve önemli.” [U2].

“Kayıt olduğunuz ve tamamladığınız dersin sertifikasını aldığınız zaman bu durum sizin için şunu ifade etmektedir: Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersi size sunan kurum, aşağıda verilen kredi geçerli olacaktır diye onu belirtmiştir. Siz bu sertifikayı alıp gittiğinizde hakikaten o üniversitede o dersi almış gibi muamele görebiliyorsunuz.” [U8].

Bilişim hizmetlerinden yararlanma, zamandan bağımsız olması, ortamdan bağımsız olması, kontenjan sınırlıklarının olmaması ve çift yönlü etkileşimin olması şeklinde dört alt temada toplanmıştır. Bu alt temalara ilişkin uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının görüşlerinden bazıları aşağıda şu şekilde belirtilmiştir:

“Bireylerin ilgi duydukları alanda eğitim ihtiyaçlarını istedikleri yıl içerisinde istedikleri dönemde karşılayabilmeleri açısından büyük bir esneklik sunduğunu düşünüyorum kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin öğrenen bireylere. Aynı

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zamanda dünyanın herhangi bir yerinde de olabiliyorsunuz ve herhangi bir yerinde bu konuda uzman kişiye ulaşabiliyorsunuz ve bu anlamda da gerçekten çok büyük olanaklar sunuyor bu dersler bireylere.” [U10].

“…herhangi bir şekilde kayıt olabilecekleri kontenjan sınırının olamadığı zaman ve mekan sınırlarının aşıldığı ortamlar bunlar.” [U4]

“Tabi ki burada etkileşim çok fazla yok ama internetin özellikle eğitim süreçlerinde kullanılmaya başlanmasıyla etkileşimli süreçler başlıyor ki buda sınıf ortamının gerçek yüz yüze eğitimin yapıldığı sınıf ortamına çok yakın eğitimlerin çevrimiçi olarak yapılmasına olanak sağlayabiliyor”. [U4]

“Başka araştırmacılar ya da başka hocalardan ya da başka insanlardan fikir alabiliyorsunuz onlarla etkileşime geçebiliyorsunuz bu ortamlarda”. [U5].

Tablo 4Uzaktan Eğitim Uzmanlarının Kitlesel Açık Çevrimiçi Derslerin Bilgi Ekonomisine Katkısına Yönelik Görüşleri

Temalar Frekans (n)

1. İstihdam1.1. Nitelikli insan gücünün yetiştirilmesi 21.2. Yeni meslekler için istihdam 11.3. Mesleki kariyer yapma 1

2. Yenilik (Entegrasyon)2.1. Bireylerin gereksinimlerine göre sürekli yenilenme 62.2. Değişim sürecine uyum sağlama 2

3. Ekonomik değer3.1. Ekonomik katkı sağlama 43.2. Bazı konularda ekonomik değer üretiminin uzun vadeli

olabilmesi 43.3. Üretime katkı sağlama 1

Uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bilgi ekonomisine katkıları konusundaki görüşleri; istihdam, yenilik, ekonomik değer şeklinde üç alt temada toplanmıştır. İstihdama yönelik alt temalar da nitelikli insan gücünün yetiştirilmesi, yeni meslekler için istihdam, mesleki kariyer yapma şeklinde üç alt temada toplanmıştır. Bu alt temalara ilişkin uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının görüşlerinden bazıları şu şekilde özetlenmiştir:

“Ekonominin en itici gücü aslında bilgili insan kaynağıdır. Bu gerçeklik zaten Bolonya sürecinin başlangıcının temelini de oluşturmakta. Bolonya sürecinde ve diğer ülkelerde aslında ekonominin itici gücünün nitelikli insan kaynağı olduğunun fark edilmesi ön plana çıkmıştır ve bu farkındalıkla Avrupa yükseköğretim alanı, Bolonya süreci, eğitimde kalite vs. gibi konulara odaklanılmıştır. Ülkeler açısından olaya bakarsak, eğer nitelikli insan kaynağınız varsa ve bu bilgiyi de amaca uygun hayata geçirebiliyorlarsa, uygularsa bu durum zaten ekonomik değere dönüşebilecektir.”[U2]. “Bilgi ekonomisi diye son günlerin çok önemli bir konusu var ve bu konuda kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerde yetiştirilen nitelikli iş gücü de belkide bilgi ekonomisine katkıda bulunabilir.” [U4].

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“Sürekli meslekler değişiyor yani bundan beş sene önce olmayan meslekler şuan var işte yaşam koçu deniyor sosyal medya danışmanlığı deniyor anlatabiliyor muyum? Yeni meslekler çıkıyor sonuçta. Siz insanlara bilgiler aktarıyorsunuz ve bu bir ekonomi siz burada ekonomiye katkı sağlıyorsunuz.” [U3]

“Özellikle mesleki alanda yoğunluk olacaksa kişilerin mesleki anlamdaki gelişimi eğer hayat boyu öğrenme kapsamında kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerle desteklenecekse zaten kalifiye eleman olma durumu olacak ve kendi mesleklerinde yükselme durumu olacak.” [U1].

Yeniliğe yönelik alt temalar da bireylerin gereksinimlerine göre sürekli yenilenme ve değişim sürecine uyum sağlama şeklinde iki alt temada toplanmıştır. Bu alt temalara ilişkin uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının görüşlerinden bazıları şu şekildedir:

“…mesleki gelişim anlamında bu bilgiyi hepimizin bir şekilde yenilemesi gerekiyor bunu da nasıl yenileyeceğiz sürekli yüz yüze kurslara giderek veya bir eğitim programına katılarak bu çevrimiçi de olsa sertifika veren veya işte diploma sağlayan bir eğitim kurumuna katılmak şeklinde de olabilir. Bir kitlesel çevrim içi derse katılarak bireyler kendilerini geliştirebilirler. Bu çok büyük bir imkan. Hem bilgi ekonomisi için hem de insanların kendilerini geliştirmeleri için gerçekten çok büyük bir fırsat.” [U2].

“Kişinin örneğin bir bilgisayar programcısı olduğunu düşünün. Bu kişiler zaten yazılım geliştirmeyle ilgili sürekli gelişmelerden ve değişikliklerden dolayı sürekli kendilerini yenileme baskısı altındadırlar. Bunlar zaten bu sürece alışık insanlardır. Yeni bir programlama dili çıktığında veya gündemde yeni bir güncelleme meydana geldiğinde sürekli olarak onları öğrenme konusunda kendilerini hemen yönlendirirler kaynaklara ve adı konmamış bir eğitim sürecini kendileri uygularlar.” [U7].

Ekonomik değere yönelik alt temalar da ekonomik katkı sağlama, bazı konularda ekonomik değer üretiminin uzun vadeli olabilmesi ve üretime katkı sağlama şeklinde üç alt temada toplanmıştır. Bu alt temalara ilişkin uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının görüşlerinden bazıları aşağıda şu şekilde belirtilmiştir:

“Kişilerin belli ürünleri üretmelerini sağlayarak yani şu andaki halk eğitim merkezlerimizdeki yapılan durumu kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler üzerinden gerçekleştirerek halka bazı temel yeterlikleri kazandırılabilir, bu yeterlilikler kişiler tarafından tercihe göre ekonomik bir faydaya dönüştürülebilir.” [U1].

“Yani bence şöyle eğitimin zaten tüm çıktıları beklenen çıktıları gizildir ve geleceğe yöneliktir. Dolayısıyla ekonomik beklentilerde çıktılarda geleceğe yöneliktir ve gizildir şuan ortaya çıkmaz beş yıl sonra ortaya çıkmaz on yıl sonra nasıl ortaya çıkar biliyor musunuz? O insan potansiyelinin ona ne diyebiliriz insan gücünün ondan sonra ekonomiye dahil olmasıyla farklı amaçlarla iş yapmaya başladıktan sonra eğitime katkıları ortaya çıkacaktır dolayısıyla geleceğe yönelik bir yatırımdır eğitim ekonomisi açısından geleceğe yönelik bir yatırımdır. Bence benim önereceğim şey şudur, kurumlar ülkeler ve uluslararası politika yapıcıları eğitim ekonomisi açısından sadece kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler için değil ben yine tüm elektronik ortamlar için konuşuyorum ama özellikle kitlesel açık çevrim içi derslerin yaşam boyu

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eğitim bağlamındaki eğitim ekonomisi katkısının kısa sürede değil uzun vadede değerlendirmesi gerekiyor” [U6].

“Çok güzel örnekleri vardı mesela bir tane yanlış hatırlamıyorsam Hindistan da bir kişi bir konuda kurs alıyor halıcılık tasarım kursu alıyor ve tamamlıyor sonra üretmeye başlıyor halı yapmaya başlıyor işte firma kuruyor iş kuruyor ekonomiye doğrudan böyle katkısı olabileceği gibi insanların yaşam kalitesini dünya görüşünü geliştirmesi açısından da kültürel anlamda da katkısı olabileceğini düşünüyorum kitlesel çevrim içi açık derslerin.” [U9].

Tablo 5Uzaktan Eğitim Uzmanlarının Kitlesel Açık Çevrimiçi Derslerin Cazip Hale Getirilmesine Yönelik Görüşleri

Temalar Frekans (n)

1. Katılımcılara yönelik teşvikler 1.1. Diploma veya sertifikalandırma 41.2. İlgi alanına yönelik derslerin verilmesi 41.3. Tanıtım ve bilgilendirme yapılması 31.4. Esnek program ve planlamaların yapılması 31.5. Mesleki kariyer imkanı 21.6. Staj (iş başında eğitim) olanaklarının sağlanması 21.7. Derslere katılımın ücretsiz olması 21.8. İstihdama yönelik derslerin verilmesi 1

Temalar Frekans (n)

2. Öğretim elemanlarına yönelik teşvikler2.1. Uzaktan eğitimin yasal olarak desteklenmesi 32.2. Teknoloji alt yapısının iyileştirilmesi 12.3. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin kullanımına yönelik hizmet içi

eğitim verilmesi 12.4. İçerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekiplerinin oluşturulması 1

Uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin cazip hale getirilmesine yönelik görüşleri; katılımcılara yönelik teşvikler ve öğretim elemanlarına yönelik teşvikler şeklinde iki alt temada toplanmıştır. Katılımcılara yönelik teşvikler ile ilgili alt temalar da diploma ve sertifikalandırma, ilgi alanına yönelik derslerin verilmesi, tanıtım ve bilgilendirme yapılması, esnek program ve planlamaların yapılması, mesleki kariyer imkânı, staj (iş başında eğitim) olanaklarının sağlanması, derslere katılımın ücretsiz olması, istihdama yönelik derslerin verilmesi şeklinde sekiz alt temada toplanmıştır. Bu temalara ilişkin görüşler ve yorumlar şu şekildedir:

“Üniversite eğiminin dışında da oldukça yüksek bir eğitim ihtiyacı söz konusu Türkiye’de. Üniversite ve sonrasında eğitim alan ya da eğitim ihtiyacını karşılamaya çalışan bireyler, üniversitenin açtığı ortak sertifika programlarına katılabilirler, o sertifika programlarını yine kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler üzerinden alabilirler ancak işte bu durumun geçerliliği aslında şu tamamen işverene bağlı yani işveren tanıyacak bu sertifikayı ona bağlı yani bu kamu kurumu da olabilir özel şirketlerde olabilir.” [U8].

“Burada bu derslerin gerçek hayata yansıtılması için bir ihtiyaçtan doğması gerekir. Nasıl ki yetiştirme boyutunda yani kişilerin mesleki gelişimleri

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boyutunda ihtiyaç duymaları halinde öğrendikleri bilgi kendilerinde kalıcı ve sürekli tekrarlanan bir yapıya bürünüyor ve gerçek hayata da bu durum yansıyorsa, kişilerin belirlenen amaçlar doğrultusunda öğretim hedefleri belirlenirken bir ihtiyaç analizi yapılıyor ve insanların neye ihtiyacı olduğu ortaya çıkartılıyor ve devamında ders tasarımı sağlanıyor ve amaçlar ona göre belirleniyorsa, bu kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerde de öyle olmalıdır.” [U1].

“Maalesef biz uzaktan eğitimciler kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersleri iyi tanıyoruz ama ülkemizde diğer insanlar bu gerçekliğin çok da farkında değiller. Dolayısıyla biz Açıköğretim Fakültesi olarak özellikle bir milyondan fazla öğrencisi olan bir fakülte olarak kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersleri topluma daha fazla tanıtmalıyız, bizim en önemli eğitim politikamızın bu olması gerekiyor. ” [U5].

“Kendi başına öğrenme, öz yönelimli öğrenme, kendi odağıyla öğrenme, kendi motivasyonuyla öğrenme, kendi ihtiyacı kadar öğrenme süreçleri oldukça önemlidir. Öğrenen bireylerin öğrenme süreleri farklı, öğrenme stilleri farklı, psikolojik durumları farklı, çevresel durumları farklı, aile faktörleri farklıdır. Bu durumda en iyi eğitim bireyin kendi alacağı kadar, kendi almak istediği zamanda aldığı eğitimdir. Belki de öğrenme sorumluluğunu onlara vermek lazım. Tabi öğrenme süreci aslında bireyin kendi sorumluluğundaki öğrenmedir ve dolayısıyla bu sürecin öğrenci açısından planlanması daha iyi olacaktır. ” [U6].

“Mesela katılım oranı çok yüksek bir sertifika programı var. Neden? Çünkü o sertifikayı aldığın zaman mesleğinde bir üst basamağa çıkacaksın. Bu gerçeklik açık ders malzemelerinde de böyle. Yani yetişkin eğitiminde bir sertifika programının bir değere dönüşebilmesi için o sertifikanın alındığında bireye gelecekte hangi kapıları açacağının bilinmesi çok önemlidir.” [U3].

“Kitaplardan alınan bilgilerin sektördeki karşılığının bilinmesi gerekiyor yani burada sektörel iş birliğinin etkileşimli bir şekilde doğrudan sektördeki o bilginin nasıl kullanılacağını yönelik bir takım ortamlar sunmamız gerekiyor. Örneğin çevrimiçi ortamlara gidiyoruz, sanal ortamlar, second life mesela değil mi? Bu noktada öğrenci o aldığı bilgileri, bir kuralı öğrendi ama bu kuralı gerçekten sosyal bir ortamda nasıl uygulayacak? O sektörde doğrudan bire bir nasıl uygulayacak? Bunun üzerinde durmalıyız. Eğer bunu da başarabilirsek o zaman büyük bir kazanım elde etmiş oluruz. Hani bunu staj ile yapabiliriz mesela Açıköğretim Fakültesindeki öğrencilerimiz uygulamaya dönük staj yapabilirler.” [U4].

“…ben kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersleri yürütecek öğretim elemanlarının üniversiteleri bünyesinde bu sürece devam etmelerini ancak kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin ücretsiz olmasını hatta bu süreçte desteğin kamu kurumları tarafından verilmesi taraftarıyım. “ [U9].

“Bugün baktığımızda örneğin bir muhasebe uzmanının, uluslararası muhasebe konusunda kendisini geliştirme hedefi koyarak, uluslararası bir kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derse muhasebeyle ilgili kayıt olmalıyım diye bir kendine hedef çizdiğinde, bu sürecin o muhasebe uzmanına iş hayatı boyunca kuramsal ve uygulama boyutunda katkı sağlaması gereklidir.“ [U7].

Öğretim elemanlarına yönelik teşvikler ile ilgili alt temalar da, uzaktan eğitimin yasal olarak desteklenmesi, teknoloji alt yapısının iyileştirilmesi, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin

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kullanımına yönelik hizmet içi eğitim verilmesi, içerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekiplerinin oluşturulması şeklinde dört alt temada toplanmıştır. Bu alt temalara ilişkin uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının görüşlerinden bazıları şu şekilde özetlenmiştir:

“Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin daha etkili yapılması için bu dersleri teşvik edici bir takım yasal kriterlerin getirilmesi çok doğru bir eğitim politikası olacaktır. Ayrıca kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin açılması için belli teşvikler yapılması çok doğru olacaktır. Çünkü bireyler hazır olan sistemlerden yararlanmak istiyorlar gerçekten, yeter ki fırsat verilsin. “[U4].

“Teknoloji politikaları olarak tabi erişim önemli. Gerek yurt çapında gerekse dünya çapındaki tüm bireylerin daha fazla erişime sahip olması lazım kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerle ilgili. Bunun sağlanabilmesi içinde internetin daha hızlı olması, internet alt yapısının sağlamlaştırılması, herkesin bilgisayar sahibi olması, herkesin tablet sahibi olmasının teşvik edilmesi, internet erişiminin ucuz olması oldukça önemlidir. “[U2].

“Ben öğretim elemanlarının öğrencileri daha çok bu sürece katmaları taraftarıyım. Öğrencilerin bilgileri doğru da olabilir yanlış ta olabilir ama sunsunlar ve bunu kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler üzerinden sunsunlar. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler tasarlatalım onlara. Ya bunu yapalım ya da en azından bir kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersi aldıralım öğrencilere. Gerekirse bu süreçle ilgili, hem öğretim elemanlarına hem de öğrencilere eğitimler verelim. Dolayısıyla burada öğretim elemanlarının biraz sürecin yönetsel tarafında olmaları gerekiyor. Bu bağlamda öğretim elemanlarının yeni gelişen teknolojileri etkili kullanmaları çok önemlidir. Gerekirse yeni gelişen teknolojiler ki bu kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler olabilir, onlara hizmetiçi eğitimler verilerek eksiklerini gidermeleri ve böylece öğrencileri yönlendirmelerinin sağlanması gerekmektedir. “[U3].

“Öğretim elemanlarının kendi dersleriyle ilgili destek ekiplerinin olması gerektiğini söyledim. Çünkü kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler aynı zamanda bir öğrenme ortamı. Dolayısıyla bu ortamların kendi doğası gereği içerik hazırlama ve destek ekiplerinin kurulması, üniversiteler bünyesinde çok önemlidir. Üniversitelerin bu konuda öğretim elemanlarını teşvik etmesi, teknik işleri kolaylaştırması, online ders materyallerinin hazırlandığı merkezler kurularak bu merkezlerde öğretim elemanlarının ders içeriklerinin geliştirilmesine yönelik katkıların sağlanması gerekmektedir. “[U4].

Sonuç ve Tartışma

Kalkınma kavramının yaşanan değişim ve dönüşüm sürecinde yeniden ele alındığı bilgi toplumunda, özellikle ülkelerin sahip oldukları beşeri sermaye ve çağın gereklerine göre yetişmiş insan gücü ön plana çıkmaktadır. İnsanların gereksinimlerini karşılayan mal ve hizmetlerin üretiminde bilgi, yirmi birinci yüzyılda daha fazla kullanılmaktadır. Bu gerçeklik bilginin özellikle katma değeri yüksek ürünler ortaya koyarak küresel ekonomide ülkelerin rekabet avantajı sağlamalarını olanaklı kılmaktadır. Bunun için tüm ülkeler, sahip oldukları insan kaynaklarının mevcut yeteneklerinin doğru analiz edilerek geliştirilmesi için politikalar üretmektedirler. Bunun için insan kaynaklarının mevcut yeterliklerinin geliştirilmesinde bir süreç olarak eğitimin rolü her geçen gün artmaktadır (Gürlesel, 2014; Fındıkçı, 2014; Özsoy, 2013).

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Yeni gelişen teknolojilerin yön verdiği değişim ve dönüşüm sürecinde tüm örgütler, bilgi toplumunda bu sürece hızlı bir şekilde uyum sağlama çabası içindedirler. Örgütlerin sahip olduğu en temel değer olan bireylerin bu süreçte kendilerini geliştirmeleri, örgütlerin belirledikleri amaçlarını gerçekleştirmeleri bakımından oldukça önemlidir (Ulukan, 2009).

Bilgi toplumunda bilginin sürekli değişebileceği gerçeği, gelecekte ulaşmaları beklenen hedefleri olan örgütler için nitelikli insan gücüne olan talep ve insanlara bazı temel yeterliklerin eğitim kurumlarından mezun edildiğinde kazandırılmasının gelecek için yeterli olmaması gerçeği, bireylerin mutlaka öğrenmeyi öğrenme yaklaşımını hayata geçirmelerini zorunlu kılmaktadır (Özdemir, 2013). Günümüzde eğitim örgütlerinin dışında da bireyler yeni bilgilere gelişen yeni teknolojileri kullanarak hızlı bir şekilde ulaşabilmektedirler. Öğrenme sürecinde bireylere, zamana ve fiziksel mekanlara yönelik bağımlılık giderek azalma eğilimi göstermektedir. Bununla birlikte bilgi toplumunda üzerinde durulması gereken en önemli konulardan birisi de bireylerin bilgiye ulaşma kaynaklarını öğrenmeleri ve bu kaynakları gereksinimlerini hızlı ve pratik bir şekilde karşılayabilmek için kullanabilmeleri yeterliliğini kazanmalarıdır (Erdoğan, 2008).

Bilgi toplumunda tüm toplumların yaşadığı değişim süreciyle birlikte, bilgi ekonomisi küresel ölçekte gelişmekte ve tüm dünyada bireylere atfedilen entelektüel mülkiyet ve fikri hakların önemi giderek artmaktadır. Bilgi ekonomisinde bireylerin ön plana çıkması, hayat boyu öğrenme yaklaşımına daha fazla önem vermeyi zorunlu hale getirmiştir. Yeni gelişen teknolojiler internet ortamında varolan öğrenme kaynaklarını zenginleştirerek, bireyleri sürekli mesleki gelişime teşvik edebilmektedir (Brown, 2005).

Dijital ekonominin gelişmesi sürecinde geniş bantlı internet erişimi yaygınlaşmış, yeni okuryazarlık türleri ön plana çıkmıştır. Geleneksel ekonomiyle, dijital ekonomi arasında belirgin olarak görülebilen en temel farklılık; bilginin üretimi, kullanımı ve yayılması sürecinde internetin ve internet teknolojilerinin yaygın olarak kullanılmasıdır (McAuley, Stewart, Siemens ve Cormier, 2010).

Bireylerin hayatları boyunca karşılaştıkları sorunların çözülmesi sürecinde çoğunlukla yeni bakış açılarına ve yeni bilgilere gereksinimleri vardır. Yaşanan değişim sürecinin hızlandırıcısı olarak gelişen yeni teknolojiler, bu bağlamda yetişkin bireylere gelişen yeni durumlara karşı uyum sağlayabilme olanağı vermektedir. Bu olanak, bireylerin yeni gelişen teknolojileri içselleştirmeleri ve amaca uygun kullanarak yeni bilgilere ulaşmalarıyla anlam kazanmaktadır (Gülbahar, 2009).

Warschauer (2011, s.6)’a göre, yeni gelişen teknolojilerin eğitim örgütlerinde kullanımının üç temel amacı vardır: Bu amaçlardan birincisi öğrencilerin akademik başarılarını arttırmak, ikincisi eğitimde ve toplumsal hayatta fırsat eşitliğini teşvik etmek, üçüncüsü de yirmibirinci yüzyılda ortaya çıkan yeni öğrenme biçimlerini geliştirmektir.

Değişim sürecinin toplumsal yapının genelini etkilediği bilgi toplumunda, toplumsal kurumların bu sürecin dışında değişmeden kalması olanaklı değildir. Toplumsal yapının tüm kurumlarıyla yaşanan bu değişim ve dönüşüm sürecine uyum sağlama çabaları, toplumsal kurumlardan birisi olan eğitim kurumunda da giderek daha fazla ön plana çıkmaktadır (Özdemir, 2013; Çelik, 2014).

Eğitim örgütlerinin yaşadığı dönüşüm süreci, özellikle eğitim hizmetlerinin finansmanı ve ortaya çıkan maliyetler boyutundan yükseköğretim kurumlarında da ayrıntılı olarak analiz edilmeye başlanmıştır. Bu süreçte eğitim politikaları çerçevesinde gösterilen en önemli çabalar yükseköğretim kurumlarının eğitim hizmetlerini sunarken yeni finans kaynakları bulabilmeleri, maliyetlerin azaltılarak olabildiğince kaliteli eğitim hizmetini toplum

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geneline sunabilmeleri üzerine yoğunlaşmıştır. Bu süreçte kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler ve diğer yeni bakış açılarına gereksinim duyulmaktadır (Yuan ve Powell, 2013).

Bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerinin gelişmesiyle birlikte, yüz yüze eğitim uzaktan eğitimle birlikte sunulmaya başlanmış ve bu iki yaklaşımı harmanlayan yeni bakış açıları ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu yeni bakış açılarının en önemli yansımaları, yükseköğretim basamağında ve yetişkin eğitimi alanında kendisini göstermiştir. Geleceğin eğitim politikalarının belirlenmesinde mobil öğrenme olanaklarının gelişmesiyle birlikte, eğitim içeriklerinin daha fazla sayıdaki öğrenen bireye kaliteli olarak nasıl sunulması gerektiği temel parametrelerden birisi haline gelecektir. Bu perspektifte özellikle örgün eğitim basamağından mezun olan bireylere, gelecekte gereksinim duyabilecekleri yeni yeterlikleri kazandırmayı amaçlayan kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler giderek önem kazanmaktadır (Aydagül, 2014).

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslere olan talebin gün geçtikçe artmasıyla birlikte bu dersler, çevrimiçi uzaktan eğitim kurumları tarafından üzerinde giderek daha fazla çaba sarfedilmesi gereken önemli bir konu başlığı haline gelmiştir. Birçok kurum, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders saylayıcılarla işbirliği yapmak, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin mevcut potansiyelinden ve olanaklarından yararlanmak istemektedirler (Conole, 2014; Clarà ve Barberà, 2013).

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersleri takip eden bireyler, ders içeriklerini paylaşma, harmanlama ve içerik ekleme süreçlerinde inisiyatif alabilmektedirler. Bu durum dersi seçen kişilere, sınıf ortamında öğretmen merkezli bilgi paylaşımı ve grup tartışmaları gerçeğinin çok ötesinde, seçilen dersle ilgili o derse kaydolan bireylerin geçmiş öğrenme yaşantıları ve deneyimlerine bakılmaksızın tüm bireylerin derse katkı sağlamalarına, birbirlerinin kişisel gelişimlerine yardımcı olmalarına ve ders içeriğini zenginleştirmelerine yönelik önemli olanaklar sunmaktadır (de Waard, 2013).

Yükseköğretim kurumları, yeni bilgileri üreten ve toplum geneline yayan diğer kurumlarla birlikte günümüzde ekonomik büyümenin hızlandırıcıları olarak kabul edilmektedirler (Poce, 2014). Dijital ekonominin temel parametreleri, diğer toplumsal kurumları olduğu gibi, eğitim kurumlarını da yoğun olarak etkilemektedir. Bu etkilenme sürecini yaşayan eğitim kurumlarından birisi de yükseköğretim kurumlarıdır. Gelişen yeni teknolojiler temelinde yükseköğretim kurumları kendilerinden beklenen görevleri yerine getirebilmek için işbirliğini teşvik eden, eğitim hizmetlerini daha geniş kitlelere ulaştırabilen daha açık bir yapıya dönüşmelidirler. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler, özünde değişimi hızlandıran bir gücü temsil etmektedir. Bu dersleri bünyelerinde barındıran tüm kurumlar, bu yeni gerçekliğe uyum sağlayabilmek ve kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersleri daha etkili sunabilmek için bir yeniden yapılanma süreci yaşamaktadırlar (Davies, 2014).

Dijital çağ, yükseköğretim kurumları için fırsat ve tehditleri ortaya çıkarabilmektedir. Dünya genelindeki küresel internet ağı yapılanmasının gelişmesi ve dijital içeriklerin artması, yükseköğretim kurumlarının tüm boyutları üzerinde önemli etkiler bırakmaktadır (Weller ve Anderson, 2013). Başar (2014)’a göre bilgi toplumunun önemli gerçekliklerinden birisini temsil eden bilgi ekonomisi perspektifinde, yükseköğretim kurumlarının yeni bilgilerin üretilmesine katkı sağlama sürecini, en az araştırma ve eğitim süreçleri kadar etkili kılmayı hedeflemeleri bir zorunluluk haline gelmiştir.

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler hayat boyu öğrenme yaklaşımının daha fazla benimsenmeye başlamasıyla birlikte, birbirlerinden farklı becerilere ve uzmanlık alanlarına sahip olan bireylerin daha fazla talep ettiği ve kendi öğrenme süreçlerini yönetme istekliliği gösterdikleri öğrenme ortamları olarak sürekli bir gelişme trendi

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göstermektedir. Bu sebeple kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersleri sunan yükseköğretim kurumları ve kitlesel açık çevrimiçi ders sağlayıcıları, öğrenen bireylerin kendi potansiyellerini daha fazla geliştirebileceği, bireysel farklılıklara daha fazla vurgu yapan ders tasarımlarına daha fazla önem vermelidirler (Littlejohn, 2013).

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler, fiziksel sınırlılıklar ve uzaklıkları ortadan kaldırarak, belirli bir paylaştırıcı bilgisayar ağının sınırlamalarına takılmadan, internet bağlantısı olan çok sayıda insanın bir dersi takip edebilmesine olanak sağlamaktadır. Ayrıca kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler, gerek senkron gerekse asenkron olarak dijital çağın tüm olanaklarını kullanarak bireylerin eğitim gereksinimlerini karşılamayı amaçlamaktadırlar. Bu özellikleriyle kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler, dijital çağda değişime uyum sağlama esnekliğini temsil etmektedirler (Weller ve Anderson, 2013).

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin yapı ve işleyişine ilişkin var olan durumu ortaya koymak; uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının söz konusu bu derslerin hayat boyu öğrenme ve bilgi ekonomisi bağlamında katkılarına ilişkin görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla gerçekleştirilen araştırma sonucunda ulaşılan sonuçlar şu başlıklarda özetlenmiştir:

Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin yapı ve işleyişi ile ilgili dünyadaki mevcut durumu belirleyebilmek amacıyla gerçekleştirilen döküman analizi sonucunda; kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin, bireylerin bireysel ve mesleki gelişimlerini zaman ve ortam kısıtlamalarından bağımsız olarak en verimli şekilde sağladıkları ortamlar olarak görüldüğü ön plana çıkmıştır. Kullanıcıların, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerde üyelik sistemi sayesinde kendi profillerini oluşuturarak sayfalarını istedikleri gibi kişiselleştirme imkanlarına sahip oldukları görülmektedir. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler aracılığıyla verilen bu üyelik sistemi sayesinde kullanıcılara kendi öğrenme hızlarında ilerleyebilme ve gelişimleri konusunda, hem kendilerine hem de eğitim veren uzmanlara gelişim raporlarının elde edilmesi olanağı sağlanmaktadır. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerde kullanıcılara motivasyonlarını arttırıcı pekiştireçler istenilen çıktılar elde edildikçe verilmektedir. Kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerde bilgi, mobil uygulama desteği de sağlanarak web teknolojisinin en gelişmiş uygulamaları kullanılarak öğrenenlere sunulabilmektedir.

Uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bireylerin hayat boyu öğrenme sürecine katkıları konusundaki görüşleri şunlardır:

Uzaktan eğitim uzmanları, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bireylerin mesleki ve bireysel gelişimlerine katkı sağladığını, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler sayesinde bireylerin öğrenme maliyetlerinden ve öğrenme zamanından tasarruf sağladıklarını, bireylerin iş yaşamından kopmadan yenilenme olanağına sahip olduklarını, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerle bireylerin yapılandırılmış bilgiye erişim şansına sahip olduklarını ayrıca doğru ve güvenilir bilgiye erişim imkanı bulduklarını, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bilgi ve becerilerin sertifika veya diploma ile belgelenmesini sağladıkları görüşlerini paylaşmışlardır. Ayrıca uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarına göre kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin zamandan ve ortamdan bağımsız olması, kontenjan sınırlıklarının olmaması, çift yönlü etkileşime izin vermesi gibi olumlu yönleri bulunmaktadır.

Uzaktan eğitim uzmanları, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bilgi ekonomisine katkıları konusunda şu görüşlere sahiptirler: Uzaktan eğitim uzmanları, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin nitelikli insan gücünün yetiştirilmesine katkı sağladığını,kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bireylere yeni meslekler için istihdam olanakları, mesleki kariyer yapma imkanı ve bireylerin gereksinimlerine göre sürekli yenilenme olanağı sağladıklarını, kitlesel açık

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çevrimiçi derslerin bireylerin değişim sürecine uyum sağlamasını kolaylaştırarak bireylerin üretime katkı sağlamalarını, böylece bu durumun bireylere ekonomik fayda olarak yansıdığını, bazı konularda ekonomik değer üretiminin uzun vadeli olabileceği görüşlerini paylaşmışlardır.

Uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin cazip hale getirilmesine yönelik şu görüşlere sahip oldukları tespit edilmiştir: Uzaktan eğitim uzmanları; katılımcılara yönelik olarak yapılandırılacak kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin diploma ve sertifikalandırma olanakları sağlaması, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bireylerin ilgi alanlarına yönelik olması, bireylere tanıtım ve bilgilendirmelerin sürekli olarak yapılması, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin mutlaka esnek program ve planlamalarla yapılandırılması, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin ücretsiz olması gerektiğini, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin bireylere mesleki kariyer imkanı, staj (iş başında eğitim) olanakları sağlayarak mutlaka bu süreci destekleyici olarak bireylere istihdama yönelik derslerin verilmesinin gerektiğini belirtmişlerdir.

Uzaktan eğitim uzmanları, öğretim elemanlarına yönelik teşvikler boyutunda; uzaktan eğitimin yasal olarak desteklenmesini ve kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler kapsamında teknoloji alt yapısının iyileştirilmesi gerektiğini, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin kullanımı kapsamında gerektiğinde öğretim elemanlarına hizmet içi eğitimler verilebileceğini ve kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslerin hazırlanmasında içerik hazırlama ve ders destek ekiplerinin oluşturulmasının önemini belirtmişlerdir.

Bu araştırmada ortaya konan tema ve bulgulardan yola çıkılarak, uzaktan eğitim uzmanlarının kitlesel açık çevrimiçi derslere ilişkin tutum ve yeterliklerini tarama yöntemiyle değerlendirmeye yönelik ölçeklerin oluşturulması, kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler kapsamında elde edilen sertifika ve belgelerin kurum veya kuruluşlarca kabul edilebilmesi için gerekli yasal düzenlemelerin yapılması önerilebilir. Ayrıca bireylerin mesleki veya kişisel gelişimlerini desteklemek amacıyla üniversiteler aracılığıyla eğitim gereksinimlerini temel alan kitlesel açık çevrimiçi dersler geliştirilebilir, bu dersler sonucunda istihdama yönelik geçerli belge veya sertifika sağlama olanakları katılımcılara sunulabilir.

Kaynakça

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EXTENDED ABSTRACT

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) embrace advanced learning environments which are customized to unique characteristics and needs of different individuals. In this regard, MOOCs can allow low-cost and large-scale access for a considerable number of students. As privileged educational entities and higher education institutions tend to structure, support and provide MOOCs, global decision-makers and researchers have begun to focus on these courses more often (Baker, Evans, Greenberg ve Dee, 2014).

The purpose of the current study was twofold. First, the current nature and functions of globally-renowned MOOCs were explored. Then, perceptions of distance learning experts regarding the contribution of MOOCs to lifelong learning and knowledge economy were investigated. To address the research questions, a qualitative case study was designed which began with a document analysis to investigate the common characteristics of the leading MOOCs. After the document analysis, semi-structured interviews were conducted with distance learning experts who are professionally interested in MOOCs. In this regard, a purposeful sampling procedure was followed to realize in-depth investigations with relevant professionals of MOOCs.

During the document analysis, internet addresses of 11 MOOC providers were explored, their potentials and affordances were examined, common features were highlighted and features relevant to the current study were summarized. These providers were Coursera, Edx, Udacity, Futurelearn, Openstudy, Codeacademy, Openlearning, NPTEL, Khan Academy, Udemy and ALISON. Findings were used to develop a semi-structured interview form. In addition, an extensive literature search was conducted on the theoretical foundations of MOOCs, knowledge economy and lifelong learning so that a more robust and relevant data collection tool could be prepared. Integration of the document analysis and the literature search revealed a 10-item interview form. In order to fine-tune the questions, the form was sent to four scholars in different fields including distance education, educational administration and educational technology. Their evaluations helped the researchers to modify the questions and reduce the number of interview items to five. Before the semi-structured interviews, the form was further piloted with two MOOC experts whose responses were not included in the research data.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten experts who had previously designed for a MOOC team or who had previously published about MOOCs. Content analysis techniques were implemented to analyze the data. After the themes and categories were revealed, the reliability of the coding procedure was also calculated which was ideal (91%).

Findings of the document analysis revealed that MOOCs could be considered as effective contexts to promote personal and professional development without time or space

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boundaries. Thanks to advanced membership features, users were able to generate their personal profiles and customize their learning environments. In addition, investigated platforms provided users with the opportunities to advance at their own speed and monitor their progress. Motivating reinforcements were also available to those who realized the learning module aims appropriately. Finally, course contents were available to users anytime and anywhere through embracing contemporary online connectivity and digital compression technologies such as mobile application supports.

Perceptions of the distance learning experts regarding the role of MOOCs on lifelong learning revealed that experts considered MOOCs contributive to both personal and professional development of individuals. First of all, MOOCs sustained economy in terms of time, space and money which are devoted to educational practices. Then, MOOCs helped individuals to pursue their educational goals without interrupting their professional lives, and to access structured and credible information. In addition, certification of the realized learning outcomes with relevant documents or diploma supplements were considered quite motivating and advantageous. Finally, MOOCs were considered quite advantageous as they were accessible without time and space barriers, provided large-scale access to higher number of students without quota constraints, and allowed for bidirectional interaction among participants.

While addressing the contribution of MOOCs to knowledge economy, distance learning experts underlined the importance of high-qualified human source in particular. They believed that MOOCs helped individuals to qualify for different jobs, advance in their current careers and take relevant professional development steps in accordance with their unique personal and professional needs. In this regard, MOOCs were considered supportive of personal and professional change readiness. Such a contribution further triggered the role of individuals on production, which financially benefited individuals as well. Finally, such a diffusion of contemporary knowledge and skills was believed to sustain a longitudinal economic advantage.

Experts further underlined the importance of making MOOCs more attractive to a larger audience. In this regard, they focused on the role of certification and diploma opportunities on the adoption of MOOCs. Furthermore, several suggestions were provided to diffuse MOOCs such as tailoring MOOCs in accordance with individual learning needs, introducing their affordances to potential user populations through relevant briefing activities, structuring MOOCs in a way to provide flexible programs for a larger variety of audiences, reducing the access costs, and providing modules to supplement employment opportunities. Accordingly, incentives to higher education faculty were discussed by the participants to ameliorate the current state of MOOCs such as official regulations to support distance education, empowerment of the technological infrastructure in a way to facilitate production and delivery, professional development and in-service training of lecturers to supplement the course content and delivery, and generating specialist teams to facilitate content preparation and course support.

Findings of the current study can be used to develop novel data collection tools so that the attitudes and competencies of both distance education experts and potential target populations regarding MOOCs can be investigated on a larger scale. In addition, educational administrators can take the necessary precautions to sustain the accreditation of MOOCs through contributing to official regulations on recognizing certificates and diploma supplements. Finally, higher education institutions can develop their MOOCs or contribute to existing ones to empower personal and professional development of individuals, and to share their unique expertise with the world. Providing

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the target audience with accredited certificates may also accelerate the process and increase the quality.

Factors Influencing Student Engagement and the Role of Technology in Student Engagement in Higher Education:

Campus-Class-Technology Theory*

Yükseköğretimde Öğrenci Bağlılığını Etkileyen Faktörler ve Teknolojinin Öğrenci Bağlılığındaki Rolü:

Kampüs-Ders-Teknoloji Kuramı****

Selim GünüçYuzuncu Yil University, Turkey

[email protected]

Abdullah KuzuAnadolu University, Turkey

[email protected]

AbstractThe purpose of the present study was to determine both the factors influencing student engagement and the role and influence of technology on student engagement. The study is important as it aimed at determining the views of students about student engagement and examining in detail the research data to be collected with two

** This study is a part of the first author’s doctoral dissertation.**** Corresponding author: Selim Günüc (Assistant professor), Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technologies, post code: 65000, Van/Turkey.

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different data collection techniques. The present study was designed as a grounded theory study. The research sample included a total of 45 student teachers. Of all the participants, 25 of them participated in face-to-face Interviews, and 20 of them were asked to take part in written compositions. In conclusion, it was seen that the components constituting and influencing student engagement were found to be campus engagement and class engagement. It was found out that for most of the participating students, use of technology in class was not an indispensable factor for student engagement. In addition, an effective technology integration would not only contribute much to student engagement but also constitute an important way of increasing student engagement. Finally, it was seen that use of technology in instructional activities constituted an important factor for student engagement, when the findings obtained via the interviews and the written compositions were taken into consideration together.

Keywords: Student engagement; campus engagement; cass engagement; technology; theory; higher education

ÖzBu çalışmanın amacı, öğrenci bağlılığını etkileyen faktörleri ve derste kullanılan teknolojilerin öğrenci bağlılığındaki rolünü belirlemektir. Bu çalışma, iki farklı veri toplama tekniğinin kullanılması ve durumun kendi doğal bağlamında incelenerek detaylı veri toplanması açısından önemlidir. Bu çalışma gömülü kuram ile desenlenmiştir. Araştırmanın katılımcıları toplamda 45 öğretmen adayı oluşturmuştur. Yüzyüze yapılan görüşmeler için 25, kompozisyon için 20 öğretmen adayı katılımcı olarak belirlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak, öğrenci bağlılığını etkileyen faktörler, kampüse ve derse bağlılık bileşenleri altında ele alınmıştır. Ayrıca, birçok öğrenci için derste teknoloji kullanımı bağlılıklarının artması için şart görülmemiştir. Ancak etkili teknoloji entegrasyonunun, sadece öğrenci bağlılığına katkı sağlamadığı ayrıca öğrenci bağlılığını artırmanın önemli yollarından biri de olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Tüm bulgular sonucunda, öğrenci bağlılığı ve teknoloji kullanımı arasındaki ilişkiler çalışma sonucunda geliştirilen Kampüs-Ders-Teknoloji Kuramı ile açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır.

Anahtar kelimeler: Öğrenci bağlılığı; kampüse bağlılık; derse bağlılık; teknoloji; kuram; yükseköğretim

Introduction

Today’s students referred to as learners of the 21st century, students of the new millennium, generation Y, Internet generation and technological natives are defined by Prensky (2001a) as “digital natives” as they are born into technology use and technology culture. It could be stated that for digital natives, technology is much more than a tool because it is considered a way of life and because technological environments are regarded as an ordinary natural environment. On the other hand, digital immigrants constitute the group of individuals who try to adapt themselves to the technological culture at a later time and who try to be involved in the digital world. It could be stated that today’s students are digital natives and that teachers introduced to technological culture at a later time are digital immigrants (Bayne and Ross, 2007). It is seen that these two generations, which have two different technological cultures, coming to conflict in class environment. The fact that students have experience in technology causes them to think that they are more knowledgeable about technology than teachers. In addition, some students believe that the Internet has an instructional potential more than teachers do (Kolikant, 2009). On the other hand, teachers think that students do not pay enough attention to their classes; that they are lazy; and that they are reluctant to learn. In order to fill this gap between teachers and students and to find a solution to this by building a bridge between them, Prensky (2001a) suggests that teachers should understand the

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language of digital natives and understand them well. One important, probably the most important, way of building this bridge could be said to be technology.

Digital natives have a different life style and behavior in many respects, yet the major difference is obviously related to technology use. It is seen that digital natives frequently use a number of digital environments and tools such as desktop and laptop computers, tablets, the Internet, e-mail, instant messaging, mobile phones, cameras, video cameras, MP3 players, memory sticks and social networks. It is also believed that digital natives have different preferences and styles of learning compared to the former generation (Prensky, 2001b). In addition, it is an important fact that according to some educators and researchers, digital natives use technology differently, have different thoughts, and learn differently (Oblinger and Oblinger, 2005; Prensky, 2001b).

Today’s students, digital natives, mingle with technology in their daily lives. Educational environments constitute an important part of students’ lives. Digital natives claim that schools should be organized in line with their own desires and needs (Kolikant, 2010). In this respect, it is thought that educational environments which are not designed for digital natives are likely to disengage students from the school, from the class and even from learning and that a conflict may occur between digital natives and the school (Pedró, 2006). Thus, students’ interest, perceptions and willingness are fairly important for academic achievement and attendance at school. Their engagement helps them benefit efficiently from the school. The historical development of the concept of student engagement dates back to years ago. In this respect, the foundations of engagement depend on time on task (Tyler, 1930s), quality of effort (Pace, 1960-1970s), student involvement (Astin, 1984), social and academic integration (Tinto, 1987, 1993), good practices in undergraduate education (Chickering and Gamson, 1987), outcomes and lastly on student engagement, which is a concept covering all of them (Nelson Laird and Kuh, 2005). Student engagement is a sociological and psychological concept (Kahu, 2013). Krause and Coates (2008) related student engagement to high quality in learning outcomes. Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges and Hayek (2007) defined student engagement as participation in effective instructional activities that lead to measurable outcomes in and out of class. Gunuc and Kuzu (2014) defined student engagement as the quality and quantity of students’ psychological, cognitive, emotional and behavioral reactions to the learning process as well as to in-class/out-of-class academic and social activities to achieve successful learning outcomes.

It could be stated that both the student and the institution, the two sharers of education, are responsible for increasing the level of student engagement (Trowler, 2010). In recent years, Educators drew attention to such problems as low level of student engagement, dropout at early age, poor student behavior and low level of academic achievement (Harris, 2008). In this respect, student engagement is an important part of the education system with such benefits as social network, sense of belonging, enjoyment of school, academic achievement and positive learning outcomes (Dunleavy and Milton, 2009; Furlong and Christenson, 2008). There are a number of factors to increase student engagement with campus and with class. It is also important to organize the environment in which students learn enthusiastically and ambitiously. For this reason, it is necessary to take technology into consideration as digital natives differ from other generations in this respect. The fact that technology now has an important place in students’ lives and that they want to mingle with technology in any place at any time makes it necessary to carry out effective technology integration into school environments. In other words, as technology is regarded by students as a way of life, it is important to investigate the role and influence of technology on student engagement. In addition, it is also important to

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investigate the factors influencing their campus engagement and class engagement as well as the relationship of these factors. When the related literature is examined, it is seen that there are some studies conducted to examine the relationship between technology and student engagement (Bouta, Retalis and Paraskeva, 2012; Gebre, Saroyan and Bracewell, 2014; Gurung and Rutledge, 2014; Veira, Leacock and Warrican, 2014); however, there is still a need for further research to investigate in detail the role and influence of technology on student engagement. Therefore, the present study is important as it aimed at determining the views of students about student engagement and examining in detail the research data to be collected with two different data collection techniques. In the light of all these, the overall purpose of the present study was to determine both the factors influencing student engagement and the role and influence of technology which uses in class (such as computer, internet, tablet, PowerPoint) on student engagement. Depending on this overall purpose, the following research questions were directed in the study:

1. What are the factors influencing student engagement? a. What are the factors influencing student teachers’ campus engagement?b. What are the factors influencing student teachers’ class engagement?

2. What is the role and influence of technology on student engagement?

Method

Research Design

The present study was designed as a grounded theory study. Grounded theory was developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967). Grounded theory is an inductive, theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic. Grounded theory design is a systematic, qualitative procedure used to generate a theory that explains, at a broad conceptual level, a process, an action, or an interation about a substantive topic (Creswell, 2008).

Participants

The participants in the present study were selected on random basis among volunteering third-grade and senior student teachers attending the Education Faculty of Anadolu University in the Spring Term of the academic year of 2012-2013. The reason for selecting the participants from the third-grade and fourth-grade classes was that it was possible to collect more detailed data in line with the research purposes as the participating students had taken several classes and thus had experience as a student on campus. The research sample included a total of 45 student teachers. Of all the participants, 25 of them participated in face-to-face Interviews, and 20 of them were asked to take part in written compositions. The identities of the participants were kept confidential, and they were asked for their written and oral consents to use the data to be collected for research purposes. In order to keep secret the identities of the participants interviewed, the interviews were coded as “I1..I25” (Interview1..Interview25). As for the data collected via the written compositions, they were coded as C1..C20 (Composition1..Composition20). Table 1 and Table 2 present the related information about the collection of the qualitative research data.

Table 1Information about the Interviews Held with the Participants

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Code

Department Grade Duration

(min.)

Date

I1 Computer Education and Instructional Technologies

3 27:05 03.04.2013

I2 Computer Education and Instructional Technologies

3 31:01 08.04.2013

I3 Computer Education and Instructional Technologies

3 40:08 03.04.2013

I4 Computer Education and Instructional Technologies

4 24:05 18.04.2013

I5 Computer Education and Instructional Technologies

4 16:19 12.04.2013

I6 Foreign Language Education 4 17:32 18.04.2013

I7 Foreign Language Education 4 20:59 18.04.2013

I8 Foreign Language Education 4 16:53 09.05.2013

I9 Foreign Language Education 4 16:17 09.05.2013

I10 Fine Arts Education 4 10:30 22.04.2013

I11 Fine Arts Education 4 15:53 22.04.2013

I12 Fine Arts Education 3 18:11 16.05.2013

I13 Fine Arts Education 3 21:44 17.05.2013

I14 Fine Arts Education 3 21:44 17.05.2013

I15 Primary Education 3 12:59 09.05.2013

I16 Primary Education 3 11:23 09.05.2013

I17 Primary Education 4 24:09 18.05.2013

I18 Primary Education 4 12:45 21.05.2013

I19 Primary Education 3 12:31 23.05.2013

I20 Primary Education 3 12:50 23.05.2013

I21 Special Education 4 07:30 11.04.2013

I22 Special Education 4 11:31 11.04.2013

I23 Special Education 4 20:25 21.05.2013

I24 Special Education 4 14:55 21.05.2013

I25 Special Education 3 13:12 21.05.20

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Table 2Information about the Compositions Written by the Participants

Code

Department Grade Date

C1 Special Education 3 20.05.2013

C2 Special Education 3 18.05.2013

C3 Special Education 3 25.05.2013

C4 Special Education 3 21.05.2013

C5 Computer Education and Instructional Technologies 3 21.05.2013

C6 Computer Education and Instructional Technologies 3 21.05.2013

C7 Primary Education 3 20.05.2013

C8 Primary Education 3 28.05.2013

C9 Primary Education 3 22.05.2013

C10 Primary Education 3 22.05.2013

C11 Primary Education 3 27.05.2013

C12 Primary Education 3 25.05.2013

C13 Primary Education 3 18.05.2013

C14 Primary Education 3 25.05.2013

C15 Primary Education 3 25.05.2013

C16 Foreign Language Education 3 28.05.2013

C17 Foreign Language Education 3 27.05.2013

C18 Foreign Language Education 3 28.05.2013

C19 Foreign Language Education 3 27.05.2013

C20 Foreign Language Education 3 27.05.2013

Data Collection Tools

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In the study, qualitative data collection tools were applied. For this purpose, semi-structured interviews and composition forms were used. The interviews were individually held on face-to-face basis. The semi-structured interview form included eight interview questions to determine not only the factors influencing the student teachers’ campus engagement and class engagement but also the role of technology in student engagement. With the help of the composition technique, the participants were asked to write down their views about the questions of “What is the role and influence of technology on classes, in-class and out-of-class activities and on your engagement with the requirements of the courses? Which technologies should be used to increase your engagement, and how?” The use of written compositions was thought to help examine in detail the role and influence of technology especially on their class engagement.

Data Analysis

For the analysis of the qualitative data, the data collected via the interviews and the written compositions were coded with the content analysis method. As a result of this coding process, the main themes, sub-themes and concepts were determined, and the related findings obtained were interpreted. Content analysis involved coding the data, determining the themes, organizing the codes and themes and interpreting the findings (Corbin and Strauss, 2007). The process of content analysis was conducted by two field experts, and the process continued until consensus on the themes was achieved. Following content analysis, the participants’ views regarding the themes were reported with direct quotations.

Confirmability, credibility, transferability and dependability were proposed as the criteria for trustworthiness of qualitative research by Lincoln and Guba (1985). Confirmability is measurement of how well the findings of an inquiry are supported by the data collected. Credibility is confidence in the 'truth' of the findings. Transferability shows that the findings have applicablity in other contexts. Dependability is assessment of the quality of the integrated processes of data collection, data analysis, and theory generation. In this context, triangulation, data audit, confirmability audit and code-recode techniques, which are included in the criteria, were used to establish trustworthiness in the study.

Findings

Findings Related to the Interviews

In order to determine the factors influencing campus engagement and class engagement interviews were held with the students. In addition, the study also aimed at determining the role influence of technology on student engagement.

Table 3Factors Influencing Student Engagement

Main theme

Sub-theme

Concept f

CA

MPU

S EN

GAGE

Campus

Campus environment (physical area) 13Campus activities 11Campus safety/peace 10Campus facilities (tools, cafes …) 8

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Main theme

Sub-theme

Concept f

MENT environment and

facilities

Student groups and sports teams 5Accommodation place 4Guidance/Goals/Objectives/Orientation 2Working in campus (part-time jobs) 2

Faculty-student

interaction and

facilities

Faculty facilities (canteen, library and so on) 12Faculty staff and relationships with students 7Equal opportunities among different faculties in the campus

6

Faculty administration giving value to students / having them feel special

5

Faculty activities 3

CLAS

S EN

GAGE

MEN

T

The faculty member

Students’ liking the faculty member 20In-class and out-of-class interaction with students (communication, respect, attitude, interest, value, friendliness)

18

Field competency 13Teaching the courses entertainingly 10Achieving active participation of students in class (interactive lessons)

8

Lecturing / Methods and techniques 8Efforts to teach 4Providing feedback 4Motivating the students 3Becoming a model 3Being fair in classes and assessment 1Faculty members’ respect/attitudes towards the class

1

Faculty members’ encouraging the class activities and projects

1

The structure and features of the course and classroom

Benefits/contributions of the course 18Teaching the course in an applied/practical manner

7

Physical conditions in the classroom (stuffy, hot, small)

6

Relating the lessons with real life 6Over-compelling courses or assignments 3Attitudes towards the department 2Classes in the morning 2Classes without a break 1

Student

Relationships with friends 16Eagerness to learn/developing oneself/sense of responsibility

6

Belief/self-confidence in achievement 4Liability for the family 3

ENGA

GEM

ENT

WİT

H

Technological

Technological infrastructure of classes and of the faculty

14

Technical defects in technology and lack of related support

6

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Main theme

Sub-theme

Concept f

TECHNOLOGY

infrastructure

Use of technology in campus activities 5Introduction of technological innovations 1

Technological infrastructure

Lectures’ competency in technology/effective integration of technological tools

18

Use of online environments such as Facebook and Twitter as a support to classes

18

Technological infrastructure in class 15Optional use of technology in class, yet if used, it should be effective

9

Technology use in assessment 1

As can be seen in Table 3, depending on the content analysis conducted, the factors influencing student engagement were gathered under three dimensions as campus-related factors class-related and technology-related factors. Among the factors classified within the scope of these main themes, the important ones are defined in detail below.

Campus Engagement

It was seen that the factors influencing campus engagement were related to the campus itself and to the faculty. However, it was found out that these factors also had influence both on student engagement and on students’ sense of belonging to the campus as well as on their valuing the university. Among the most important factors influencing campus engagement was the physical area in the campus. Most of the students interviewed stated that such factors as the beauty of the campus area, green lands in the campus, a vehicle for transportation within the campus, cafes and places to sit were important for their campus engagement. Regarding these factors, some of the students reported their views as follows:

“I think the campus area is quite a well-cared place, which makes me engaged with the university.” (I2)

“Lack of a vehicle for transportation in the campus is the biggest problem I have experienced so far.” (I14)

“Existence of places in the campus where I can spend my free time increases my engagement with the school.” (I18)

It was seen that organizing the physical area in the campus in a way to make students pleased to have them feel themselves in peace is quite important for their campus engagement. In addition, some of the students, stating that the classroom where they took their courses were not the only thing that constituted their whole campus life and that the campus area influenced them to a great extent, reported their views as follows:

“If the campus were made up of just a building, then this would have negative influence on the time I spend in the campus as well as on my engagement.” (I19)

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“My university has a green campus land, and I really enjoy this scene on the road to my school. Even though I don’t spend much time in the campus area, I am quite happy to pass through such an area while going to my school.” (I17)

Besides the physical area in the campus, another important factor was related to the campus activities. These activities were regarded as one of the important dimensions of campus engagement which influence such psychological states as sense of belonging to the campus and valuing the campus/university. It was revealed that the campus activities were considered to be an important factor as they allowed the students to spend time in the campus especially except for the time they spent in class. Some of the students emphasized the importance of campus activities saying “I3: I got sad when I couldn’t join the school activities for such reasons as time limitation”, while some other students stated that the activities, organized in a limited time only in the Spring Term, constituted an important factor that engaged them to the campus the whole year.

“School activities, if spread throughout the whole year, will increase our engagement.” (I8) “There is no activity carried out in the campus in winter.” (I14)

One student, emphasizing the importance of involving student groups in activities to be conducted not only as traditional Spring festivals but also in relation to theatre, cinema and photography, stated “I10: Activities related to theatre and cinema have positive influence on my engagement.” It was also seen that besides the campus activities, such groups and communities as the university football team and student clubs increased the sense of belonging and influenced student engagement. Some of the male students mentioned this situation saying:

“I play in the university football team, and this increased my engagement.” (I4)

“Playing in the university football team has much positive influence on me, and it is very nice to do something good for the school.” (I12)

The students reported that they wanted to see the campus environment as a safe and peaceful place and that the factors threatening the campus security had negative influence on their campus engagement. In addition, the fact that the campus area was a safe and peaceful place allowed the students to participate in campus activities, to spend time in the campus and to focus more on their investments in their own learning. Moreover, the fact that the campus was a safe place influenced the sense of belonging to the campus. Some of the students stated reported their views as follows:

“Too many dogs found in the campus scare me.” (I11)

“The large number of cars of foreigners (non-students) in the campus disturbs me.” (I12)

Although the students did not spend much time in the campus, they wanted to feel they were in a big campus even only when they were going to their classes. It was seen that this situation was an important factor which played an important role not only in motivating the students to go to their classes but also in helping them develop the sense

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of belonging to the campus. Also, it was seen that the physical area of the campus had so much influence on the students that their failure to reach their faculties in the campus easily and comfortably had negative influence on them. Regarding this point, one student stated:

“I know that some of our friends have to go up the hill in the campus while going to their classes and that there is no vehicle for transportation in the campus; so for all such reasons, they don’t fancy the campus at all.” (I13)

One of the factors that allow experiencing the sense of belonging to the campus was found to be the fact that the students accommodated in the dormitory located in the campus. The students’ accommodation in the campus not only helped them mingle with the campus but also allowed them to attach themselves to the campus in psychological terms. Regarding this point, one student stated:

“As I accommodate in the dormitory in the campus, I have easily internalized the school and view it as my home.” (I13)

It was seen that the faculty area, where the students spent most of their time during the breaks between lessons, was another important factor that increased their campus engagement. In addition, it was seen that the campus area was as important for the students as the faculty environment. It was also observed that the students contacted with their faculties for a number of issues and that the faculty had a fairly important role in the learning processes of the students. In addition it was revealed that not only the campus-related factors but also those related to the faculty were important for developing the sense of belonging to the campus as well as giving value to the campus. In this respect, the fact that the faculty gave value to the student and made the necessary arrangements to please the students allowed them to feel the sense of belonging to the campus and to give value to the faculty. It was also found out that the faculty environment where the students spent time with their friends and which helped them relax psychologically and physically during the lesson breaks was quite important. The following statements revealed that the students had lots of expectations regarding the physical area of the faculty and that they gave importance to this situation by comparing their faculty with the other faculties in the campus:

“In my first year at university, the bad physical infrastructure of the faculty disengaged me from the school.” (I6)

“Another faculty in the campus is much more well-cared and a lot better than our faculty, and when I go there, I feel myself special.” (I2)

The interviews revealed that the students considered the campus environment to be different from class environment and that these two environments had different effects on their engagement. Therefore, the dimensions of campus engagement and class engagement were examined under separate themes. For this reason, the campus-related and faculty-related themes were formed within the scope of campus engagement, while the class-related factors were examined in a different dimension within the scope of class engagement.

Class Engagement

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It was seen that the factors influencing class engagement were more in number when compared to the number of those influencing campus engagement and that the former factors were the primary ones influencing student engagement. In other words, it was found out that class engagement was the main component that formed student engagement. It was revealed that the faculty member’s interaction with the students and the benefits of the course to the student were among the basic factors substantially influencing class engagement. The reason is that even though the factors related to the campus or to the faculty considerably influenced campus engagement, the factors related to the faculty member or to the class had influence not only on class engagement but also on campus engagement and thus directly on student engagement. Some of the students, pointing out how important class-related factors were in student engagement, reported their views as follows:

“Due to certain classes and related problems, I don’t want to come to the school on certain days, and sometimes, I even want to drop out school.” (I1)

“My engagement with the school was related to the classes.” (I24)

It was also found out that the most important factor specifically for class engagement and generally for student engagement was the faculty member himself/herself. Although it was seen that a number of class-related factors influenced class engagement, the faculty member was found out to have a close relationship with several class-related factors. In this respect, the students stated that a number of factors were based on the faculty member and that many things could change if they liked the faculty member. The influence of the factors related to the faculty member on student engagement was found so prominent that the students thought the increase in their engagement was directly related to their liking the faculty member. Regarding this point, some of the students reported their views as follows:

“The most important reason for class engagement is the lecturer teaching the course. No matter how challenging the course is, if you like the lecturer teaching that course, you study harder and become successful.” (I3)

“What influences my engagement with the class is just the faculty member.” (I7)

In this respect, it was found out that though other factors related to the faculty member influenced the students’ liking the faculty member, some of the students focused on the interaction established by the faculty member with them. However, according to most of the students, the most important factors that influenced their liking the faculty member covered the value the faculty member gave to the students, his or her friendly and positive attitudes towards the students, his or her care for the their problems, his or her listening to the students as individuals and his or her respect for them. It was seen that failure of the faculty member to establish interaction with the students influenced them in many respects and decreased their engagement. Regarding the importance of the interaction between the students and the faculty member, some of the students reported their views as follows:

“There is a gap between the students and the lecturers; thus, I feel disengaged from the school.” (I10)

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“Lecturers should teach in an entertaining manner; they should demonstrate friendly attitudes towards students; they should give importance to us; and they should accept us as individuals.” (I22)

Liking the faculty member had influence on a number of in-class and out-of-class cases such as attending classes, fulfilling their responsibilities regarding the course and making efforts to do their homework. Some of the students reported their related views as follows:

“If I like the lecturer much, I try to do the homework assigned by that lecturer and fulfill any responsibility he or she has asked me to do so.” (I23)

“I fulfill the responsibilities and do the homework negligently if assigned by a lecturer whom I don’t have a good relationship with, and I do not give the necessary importance to the homework or to my related responsibilities.” (I19)

Although the field competency of the faculty member and the instructional methods and techniques the faculty member used had influence on some of the students’ liking the faculty member, some other students focused only on field competency and on the methods and techniques used. In other words, regardless of whether the student liked the faculty member or not, field competency of the faculty member and the methods and techniques used by the faculty member in class were found to be an important factor for the students’ class engagement. In addition, it was revealed that the students favored such applications as relating both the homework assigned and the course content to real life, giving weight to practice more than to theory, providing students with guidance and giving more priority to product-based tasks. Some of the students reported their related views as follows:

“If the lecturer is not competent, then this will have negative influence on our engagement with the class.” (I3)

“The methods and techniques applied by the lecturers influence my engagement with class.” (I8)

It was also seen that such factors as the faculty member’s teaching the course in an entertaining manner and his or her caring for students by allocating extra time for this had considerable influence on the students’ class engagement. It was revealed that the students were in need of a faculty member who would involve them in the learning process and thus who would make them active in class. Some of the students reported their related views as follows:

“I am increasingly engaged with a course whose lecturer is a role-model for me.” (I17)

“In some cases, the only one who speaks all the time in class is the teacher himself or herself, and sometimes, even if they allow you to speak, they don’t respect your views.” (I20)

Besides the faculty member, another factor important for student engagement was the students’ belief in the potential contributions and benefits of the course. The faculty member and the contributions of the course were so much important for student engagement that these two factors were found to be the basic ones influencing student

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engagement. In other words, it was revealed that the students gave more importance to the course they found beneficial; that their engagement with that course thus increased more; and that the opposite case had negative influence on their engagement. This situation was also reflected upon the views of the students who reported their views as follows: “I17: My engagement was sometimes influenced badly due to such courses which I thought would not contribute to me in any way.”, “I6: I have to repeat some courses in the following academic year, especially those which I think will not be beneficial for me.”. It was found out that the potential benefits of the course were regarded as a factor important for the students in a number of cases such as fulfilling the course requirements, participating in class activities and making an effort to learn. Regarding this point, some of the students stated:

“The courses for which I made the biggest effort to do the homework assigned were those I believed to be beneficial.” (I6)

“I don’t force myself much to the homework that I believe will not be much beneficial for me.” (I15)

Some students reported that the potential benefits of a course were more important than the faculty member teaching that course:

“If the lecturer fails to draw your attention to the course, I think his or her good communication with students will not be of much importance. What is primarily important is whether the course is beneficial for me or not.” (I15)

“Courses out of my field do not arouse my attention in any way. Even if I like the lecturer teaching that course, I don’t want to go into that class.” (I11)

Nevertheless, many students stated that both liking the faculty member teaching a course and positive attitudes towards the faculty member were primarily more important than the potential benefits of that course and that the students had high levels of class engagement just because of the faculty member teaching that course even if the students were not much interested in that course. Some of the students reported their related views as follows:

“However much I dislike the course and however much indifferent to the course I am, the most important factor for my engagement with the course is the lecturer’s respect to the class and to students.” (I2)

“Although I like the course, I look forward to its end if I don’t like the lecturer teaching that course.” (I17)

The students put so much emphasis on the potential benefits of the course and on the faculty member teaching that course that in some cases, they compared the order of importance of these two factors and even provided related percentages:

“Attending the class willingly depends %30 on the course content and 60% on the lecturer teaching that course.” (I4)

“My engagement with the class primarily depends on the lecturer and secondly to my interest in the course.” (I1)

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Besides all these factors mentioned above regarding class engagement, another factor to be taken into consideration is technology. When the campus-related and class-related factors were examined, it was found out that these factors were also the components constituting student engagement while technology was not a component forming student engagement but an important way of increasing student engagement. For this reason and in line with research purposes of the present study, the factor of technology was examined in detail as a separate dimension. It was seen that the factor of technology had a relationship with a number of factors such as the faculty member, the infrastructure of classrooms, faculty administration and individual characteristics of students. Considering all these relationships, the dimension of technology was classified as separate themes.

Engagement with Technology

Even though the dimension of technology could have been investigated within the scope of campus engagement and class engagement, it was examined as a separate dimension in line with the research purposes of the present study. However, as can be understood from the results obtained via the interviews, it was found out that the technology factor had substantial influence both on campus engagement and class engagement, that is, on student engagement. A great majority of the students reported that technology will increase engagement if technology is effectively integrated into class and that ineffective use of technology decreases engagement and causes students to get disengaged from the class. It was seen that the students’ motivation decreased because of such cases as the incompetent faculty member’s insistence on technology use and his or her failure in effective integration of technology into class and that these situations resulted in waste of time, distraction of attention and lack of confidence in the faculty member. In addition, the students, reporting that the faculty members used only such technologies as PowerPoint, stated “I2: It seems wrong to me to teach the course using only PowerPoint.” In addition, the students pointed out that the faculty members failed to use the PowerPoint technology more effectively and that their failure in effective use of such technologies had negative influence on their engagement.

“The lecturer’s technology skills have influence on my interest in that course… Technologies used in class are limited to PowerPoint documents.” (I24)

“Most of the lecturers are not competent in terms of technology skills.” (I21)

“Sometimes, I say to myself “Today, I don’t need to go to class because the lecturer can not do his job well; he just reads from the PowerPoint presentation.” (I13)

A number of students participating in the study stated that different from the presentation tools, social network groups established in social networks like Facebook were frequently used especially as an out-of-class activity and as a supportive tool for the course. In addition, most of the students pointed out that these social network groups used as a support to the course increased their engagement. Regarding this point, some of the students reported their views as follows:

“When I contact with the lecturers via such environments as Facebook and Twitter and receive instant answers to my questions, both my motivation and my engagement with the class increase.” (I2)

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“In one of our lessons, we used Wiki. Such environments are beneficial for us in many respects because all students spend most of their free time on the Internet.” (I5)

Although the students emphasized effective integration of technology and the importance of use of different technologies, most of them pointed out that technology use in classes was absolutely necessary and positively influential on their engagement. Some of the students reported their related views as follows:

“The lecturer’s use of new technologies increases students’ interest in classes.” (I8)

“Courses which do not involve technology use do not increase our engagement.” (I21)

On the other hand, some of the students stated that the primary factor was the faculty member. Some students pointed out that if the faculty member could teach the course well without using technology, if he or she was competent in the field and if he or she could apply the necessary methods and techniques, then it would not be compulsory to use technology in class. Some of the students reported their related views as follows:

“Lecturers who are not competent in the field should use technology in class.” (I24) “If the lecturer is knowledgeable and competent in the field, there is not much need for technology.” (I20)

In this respect, it was seen that technology was influential on increasing student engagement and that this was based on the faculty member’s competency in technology as well as on effective integration of technology. Some of the students, mentioning the role and influence of the factor of technology on student engagement, reported their related views as follows:

“Technology is beneficial only when it is used appropriately.” (I2)

“If technology is being used, then it should be used appropriately.” (I7) “It would be better not to use technology if bad-quality slides were prepared and projected.” (I17)

It was also found important that the technological infrastructure was established for the faculty member’s competency and for effective integration of technology. In this respect, it was seen that not only the faculty members but also the students could have been influenced by the lack of technological infrastructure. It was reported that providing classrooms, faculties and the campus with the necessary technological infrastructure would have positive contributions to student engagement. Even though efficient technological infrastructure does not guarantee effective use of technology, it was seen that it was quite important not only for facilitating the students’ responsibilities but also for their attitudes towards the university and faculty. In addition, it was revealed that providing the technological infrastructure as well as technical support was one of the priorities of effective integration of technology.

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It was seen that technology, if used effectively, had positive contributions to student engagement and that it was not a must for most of the students. One of the students, stating that they could not be regarded as digital natives and that the following generation would need technology more, stated that: “Not to speak of my age group, I think technology will be more effective in terms of the following generation’s engagement with classes” (I11). In other words, though not compulsory for student engagement, technology was one important way of increasing student engagement.

Consequently, it was found out that a number of factors ranging from the physical area of the campus to the faculty member were influential on student engagement however high their motivation in learning was before they started their university education. In other saying, it was seen that regardless of whether the students had the necessary skills and equipment regarding learning, it was possible to change their engagement positively or negatively due to a number of factors they were exposed to in the campus area. This result also provided important findings to prevent many of the obstacles to student learning with the use of these factors for the benefit of students.

In addition, it was found out that the factors determined in the present study were, specifically speaking, in relationship with the campus or with the class and, in general terms, with student engagement. For instance, while the campus activities were regarded as a factor underlying campus engagement and as well as student engagement. It was seen that campus engagement changed to a great extent in line with class engagement and that class engagement could change at the least with campus engagement. However, the interviews held with the students revealed that the major engagement was class engagement. It was seen that class engagement was basically influenced by the factors related to the faculty member, the class and the student. In other words, student engagement was formed to a great extent with class engagement and that the campus-related factors were those influential on the development of the sense of belonging to the campus/university and on giving value to the campus/university. Therefore, the factors influencing campus engagement and class engagement were examined under separate dimensions. In line with these findings, the important factors influencing student engagement and the relationships between them were explained within a framework as can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Factors Influencing Student Engagement and the Role of Technology in Student Engagement

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Figure 1 demonstrates that the major engagement was class engagement which formed student engagement and which was influenced by a number of factors. In addition, it was seen that psychological states related to the sense of belonging to the campus/university and giving value to the campus/university were affected by a number of factors that influenced campus engagement. It was also found out that campus engagement was influenced most by the activities and facilities provided in the faculty as well as in the campus. In addition, it was revealed that the dimension influencing student engagement to a great extent was class engagement because the most important thing for the students was to attend classes and to invest on their own learning, In this respect, the faculty member and the benefits of the course were the two prominent factors influencing class engagement and, in general terms, student engagement. It was concluded that technology is not essential to provide or increase student engagement and that it is a way of increasing student engagement considerably if a good infrastructure is maintained and if effective technology integration is achieved.

Findings Related to the Composition Data

The students were asked to write a composition regarding the role and influence of technologies used in their classes on student engagement. It was seen that the themes determined as a result of the analyses were related to class engagement. In this respect, three main themes were obtained from the data collected via the written compositions (see Table 4).

Table 4Findings Related to the Role and Influence of Technology on Class Engagement

Main theme Sub-theme

Concept f

DIRECT EXPRESSION OF THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY

Influence of technology on class engagement

Technology is influential on class engagement. 4Not the technology, but the lecturer and the benefit of the course are important for class engagement.

3

Groups in environments such as Facebook help increase class engagement

1

Influence of technology on attendance in classes

I attend classes more which involve effective use of technology (effective presentation)

1

I don’t attend classes willingly which involve ineffective and inappropriate use of technology

1

There is more absenteeism in classes in which technology is not used.

1

INDIRECT EXPRESSION OF THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY

Influence of technology on the course requirements

Doing my homework/responsibilities with the help of technology facilitates/makes attractive my job.

7

I willingly do the homework given in courses which involve technology use.

2

Technology increases engagement with responsibilities.

1

I study enthusiastically for the exams in courses which involve technology use.

1

I receive higher grades in courses which involve technology use.

1

Technology and visual richness increase my motivation, attention and interest.

12

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Main theme Sub-theme

Concept f

Influence of technology on teaching (effective technology integration)

Classes which involve technology use are more entertaining

10

Technology and visuals used make the classes more productive (make learning permanent)

8

Lack of technology use or ineffective use of technology leads to waste of time and a decrease in motivation in classes

6

Students are more active in classes which involve effective use of technology.

5

Use of technological materials helps follow the lessons.

3

Technology allows individual learning. 2Technology facilities teaching. 1Technology contributes to students’ participation in class.

1

SUGGESTIONS TO INCREASE ENGAGEMENT

Suggestions regarding the faculty member’s competency in technology

It would be better for the lecturer to avoid technology use if he or she fails to use it effectively.

5

Lecturers are not competent in using technology/preparing presentations, and they

should be trained on technology use

3

Technology should be used in a way to encourage student participation.

1

The lecturer should use technology for the benefit of the students.

1

It should be remembered that technology makes lecturers lazy and prevents them from

developing themselves (in their own field of expertise).

1

Suggestions regarding the technological infrastructure

Technology used in classrooms has become ordinary / lecturers should use different technologies to crease students’ interest.

3

Lecturers should follow and use the technological renovations.

3

Lecturers should not teach courses only by relying on technology.

2

As can be seen in Table 4, when the main themes, themes and concepts determined were examined, it was seen that some of the students made statements which directly defined the influence of technology on student engagement while some of the students made statements which indirectly defined the influence of technology on student engagement. The third main theme, according to the composition data (students suggested), was made up of “suggestions regarding technology to increase engagement”. The students directly expressed the influence of technology on engagement. It was seen that the number of the students who believed technology increased class engagement was higher

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than that of the students who believed technology did not have much influence on engagement. However, considering the fact that, according to the composition data, there were more students who implied that technology increased engagement, it could be stated that most of the students thought technology made important contributions to the increase in engagement. A prominent point regarding these concepts was that some of the students thought the benefits of the course and the faculty member teaching that course were more important than everything. In addition, some of the students who were not against technology use yet who still favored the idea that technology was not indispensable reported their views as follows:

“Attending classes willingly and in pleasure depends on the course itself and on the lecturer giving that course…I don’t think technology is essential for engagement.” (C12)

“Technology is an important factor in most classes, but I don’t think it has much positive influence on our interest in courses or on our willingness to attend classes.” (C16)

It was also found out that the students directly expressed the influence of technology on their engagement and that the contributions of technology increased their engagement. In this respect, it was reported that technology had positive contributions to the course requirements and to the teaching of courses. It was seen that the students did their homework and fulfilled their responsibilities by using technology while meeting the course requirements and that technology facilitated their job. In addition, the students stated that attending classes preparedly and meeting the course requirements increased their class engagement. Some of the students reported their related views as follows:

“I enthusiastically did the homework assigned in classes which involved technology use. Also, I even make a big effort to do my homework using technology more. This actually shows that technology has made me enjoy the class.” (C1)

“Doing our homework with the help of technology makes us more enthusiastic for classes.” (C17)

The students not only mentioned the contributions and influence of effective use of technology on their engagement but also put forward related suggestions. The students’ suggestions included clues regarding the increase in their engagement thanks to the concepts mentioned, and they drew attention to the current deficiencies involved in effective technology integration. Regarding this point, the students’ views were predominantly found to be about the faculty member’s technology use. Some of the students expressed their related restlessness as follows:

“Lecturers who do not know how to make use of technology fail either to turn on technological devices or to use them even if they turn on such devices. This not only leads to a decrease in our motivation but also results in waste of time, and I don’t attend such classes willingly. That is, if technology is to be used, it should be used appropriately.” (C1)

“If technology will be used in a way to serve its purpose, then I think it will be effective.” (C4)

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To conclude, when the themes and the main themes were examined, it was seen that the students directly expressed the role of technology in student engagement; the role and influence of technology on course requirements and on the teaching of that course were elaborated; and lastly, suggestions regarding technology integration were put forward. Although some of the students put more emphasis on the importance of the faculty member and the benefits of the course in student engagement than on the influence of technology, it was seen that generally speaking, technology had an important role and influence on student engagement. As a result of the findings obtained, a pyramid was used to explain the role and influence of technology - specifically speaking - on class engagement and – generally speaking – on student engagement (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Role and Influence of Technology on Class Engagement (Technology-Engagement Pyramid or Technology on Engagement Pyramid)

The findings obtained revealed that in-class and out-of-class use of technology brought about a number of benefits to the students. As a result of all these benefits, it was seen that class engagement increased. However, as can be seen in Figure 2, certain factors should be taken into consideration to maintain the potential contributions of technology to class engagement. Technological infrastructure is found at the bottom (the first layer) of the pyramid. It is necessary to provide the technological infrastructure of both classrooms and of the faculty. The reason is that this layer constitutes the basis of all the other layers above. The second layer of the pyramid includes the faculty member’s technological use. The faculty member is supposed to make use of technology both in class and out of class. In addition, the faculty member is also expected to avoid making the class environment ordinary by teaching the course in a way not only to use such presentation tools as PowerPoint but also to follow the technological innovations, to integrate these innovations into class, to use these innovations at appropriate times and to use different technologies appropriate to class environment. An ordinary uninteresting course is one of the most important factors that cause students to get bored and disengaged in class. Even though the faculty member’s technology use is a prior condition, it is not sufficient for an effective integration of technology. Effective technology integration, the third layer of the pyramid, is the main layer that engages students with the class. The first and second layers are prerequisite for the third layer, yet the former two layers contribute far less to class engagement. In other words, even though the lower layers (the first two layers) of the pyramid were prerequisite for class engagement, it could be stated that the upper layers involve factors that increase class engagement. Lastly, it was seen that the students used technology to meet such course

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requirements as homework and that technology use not only facilitated their job but also increased their engagement as the class became more entertaining.

Figure 3. Campus-Class-Technology Theory (CCT Theory)

Following the evaluation of qualitative findings, CCT Theory presented in Figure 3 was developed. According to the theory, for successful student outcomes, the relationships between student engagement and technology were theoretically explained. In this respect, the value given by the students to university life and university education was among the important factors which helped the students have the sense of belonging to university, which allowed them to spend time in the campus and which resulted in increase in class engagement. Another factor influential on class engagement was technology. Effective integration of technology in class is important for increasing students’ class engagement. An increase in class engagement not only increases students’ level of academic achievement but also leads to positive outcomes. CCT Theory continues in the form of a cycle. In other words, academic achievement and positive outcomes have influence on the value students give to learning and to university as well as on the sense of belonging to university.  

Discussion and Conclusions

The findings obtained via the written compositions and interviews held with different sample groups were evaluated within the context of the dimension of technology. The factors determined to be effective on student engagement based on the findings obtained via the interviews were examined under the dimensions of campus, class and technology. It was seen that the components constituting and influencing student engagement were found to be campus engagement and class engagement. While the dimension of technology could have been examined within the scope of campus engagement and class engagement, it was classified as a separate dimension in line with

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Teknoloji

Sense of Belonging(Psychological engagement II)

Valuing(Psychological engagement I)

BehavioralEngagement

Emotional Engagement

Cognitive Engagement

Successful Student Outcomes

OUTCOMESCLASS ENGAGEMENT

CAMPUS ENGAGEMENT

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the research purposes of the present study. As the scope of the compositions covered only the role and influence of technology on class engagement, detailed findings were obtained regarding this.

When the views of the students interviewed were examined, it was seen that some of them had low levels of engagement; that some had moderate levels of engagement; and that only a few of them had high levels of engagement. The students had low levels of engagement due to some of the factors mentioned above. As for those who had high levels of engagement, they were engaged with learning either due to their individual characteristics or due to their exposure to the negative effects of all these factors. The interviews revealed that most of the students felt they belonged to the campus and that they held high levels of belief in campus/university values. However, the students reported that they, though temporarily, lost such feelings as the sense of belonging to campus/university and giving value to campus/university owing to some of the factors mentioned above. In other words, it could be stated that if these factors are not taken into consideration, students can fully develop the sense of belonging to the campus/university and give more value to the campus/university. Willms (2003) defines engagement as students’ acceptance of school values, their sense of belonging to the school and their active participation in school activities. Voelkl (1996) considers school engagement within the scope of such themes as the sense of belonging to the school and giving value to the school. It could be stated that some of the factors, except for the class-related factors, considerably influenced such feelings of the students as the sense of belonging to the campus/university and giving value to the campus/university. In addition, it was obvious that class engagement had influence on such feelings as the sense of belonging to the campus/university and giving value to the campus/university. Also, the results obtained via the interviews held with the students helped determine what to do to increase their engagement even though there were factors reported by the students to decrease their engagement and to disengage them from the campus and from classes. Therefore, it could be stated that all the concepts and themes were the positive and negative factors influencing student engagement and that these concepts and themes provided clues regarding the components constituting the concept of student engagement. Besides campus engagement, the factors influencing class engagement were classified under three dimensions such as those related to the faculty member, those related to the class and those related to the student. Accordingly, liking the faculty member and the benefits of the course for the student were found to be the most important factors in student engagement, and a great majority of the students interviewed essentially mentioned these factors. It was concluded that although most of the interviews revealed that these two factors were in correlation and that they were the factors to be considered together to increase student engagement, the factors related to the faculty member were of primary importance. Even though other studies also determined the role of the faculty member or of the lecturer in student engagement (Bryson and Hand, 2007; Saeed and Zyngier, 2012; Steele and Fullagar, 2009; Zyngier, 2007), these studies did not provide as explicit results regarding this role as the present study did.

When the related literature is examined, it is seen that there are a number of factors associated with student engagement and effective on increasing student engagement. These factors include such variables as spending time in the campus (Nauffal, 2011), maintaining intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Hufton, Elliott and Illushin, 2002; Saeed and Zyngier, 2012), achieving project-based and problem-based learning (Ahlfeldt, Mehta and Sellnow, 2005; Schlechty, 2001), sports clubs, tournaments and sports and gymnasium classes (Angus Busby, 2011), curiosity, interest, student-centered teaching,

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cooperative and interactive learning (Ang and Wang, 2006; Bouta et al. 2012; Chickering and Gamson, 1987; Neal, 2010), faculty-student interaction (Neal, 2010), lecturer-student relationship, group works, interesting learning activities, making learning important and valuable (Steele and Fullagar, 2009; Zyngier, 2007) and the teacher’s effort to teach (Saeed and Zyngier, 2012). Beer, Clark and Jones (2010) determined the factors influencing student engagement as teacher participation, course design, class size, students’ gender and students’ age. For the purpose of increasing student engagement, Zepke and Leach (2010) suggested 10 activities which did not involve any technology-related factor. These activities included enhancing students’ self-belief, providing students with the opportunity to study on their own, recognizing that teaching and teachers are central to engagement, maintaining active and cooperative learning, providing students with opportunities for learning experiences, ensuring institutional cultures, investing on various supportive services, adapting to the changing expectations of students, providing students with the opportunity to become active citizens and providing them with the opportunity to have their own social and cultural gains. However, in related literature, the role of the faculty member and the benefits of the course were not found in other studies as prominent as it was in the present study. The reason for this situation could be said to be the factors of Turkish culture and the education system in the country. Another reason could be the fact that a number of cases related to the campus as well as to classes were examined in detail in the present study.

The findings obtained via the written compositions revealed that technology use in the teaching process contributed to the increase in student engagement. However, in order for technology use in class and in relation to the course to contribute substantially to the increase in student engagement, the technological infrastructure should be established, and effective integration of technology should be achieved; otherwise, as it was found in the present study, student engagement is influenced negatively. When the findings obtained via the interviews and the written compositions were taken into consideration together, it was seen that use of technology in instructional activities constituted an important factor for student engagement. It was found out that for most of the participating students, use of technology in class was not an indispensable factor for student engagement. In addition, most of the students reported that effective use of technology at appropriate times would not only contribute much to student engagement but also constitute an important way of increasing student engagement. In other saying, although technology was not a component that led to the major engagement for students, it was found to be a factor increasing engagement to a great extent (Reynard, 2007). On the other hand, it was revealed that failure to integrate technology effectively into educational environments was likely to cause students to get disengaged from the class. A great majority of the students stated “if not used effectively, it would be better to avoid using technology.” This statement was also found to be the one summarizing the role and influence of technology on student engagement. In other words, if technology is used effectively, it affects student engagement positively; and if not, it has negative effects on student engagement. This situation was found to have a relationship with the faculty member’s technology use as well as with the technological infrastructure. When the related literature is examined, it is seen that there is not much detailed research on the role and influence of technology on student engagement. However, it is reported in related literature that effective integration of technology into such in-class and out-of-class situations such as campus activities (Ericson, 2011), online discussions (Reynard, 2007; Veira et al. 2014), 3D virtual environments (Bouta et al. 2012), web-based learning (Chen, Lambert and Guidry, 2010), interactive whiteboard (Berque, 2004; Morgan, 2008) and providing feedback (Hepplestone, Holden, Irwin, Parkin and Thorpe, 2011; Xu, 2010) contributes to student engagement. In addition, Nelson Laird and Kuh (2005) found a

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strong positive relationship between student engagement and use of information technologies for educational purposes.

In the present study, it was found out that technology contributes to student engagement via such digital environments as Facebook, Twitter and Wiki. It was seen that students do sharings with the help of social groups formed especially in these environments and that student engagement increases thanks to active participation of the faculty member. Also, as reported in related literature, similar findings revealed that use of social networks as part of classes contributes to student engagement (Cole, 2009; Junco, 2012; Junco, Heiberger and Loken, 2011; Heiberger and Harper, 2008; Veira et al. 2014). However, it should be remembered that all these results require effective integration of technology, thanks to which student engagement will considerably increase (Hancock and Betts, 2002; Hede, 2002; Mcgrath, 1998).

While findings related to the factors influencing student engagement were obtained, it is also seen that there were components constituting student engagement as well. In other words, it could be stated that student engagement can be increased considering not only the factor of technology but also other factors both constituting student engagement and influencing campus and class engagement. On the other hand, it is difficult to claim that campus-related and technology-related factors could substantially increase student engagement without considering the class-related factors. The reason is that the primary one of the components forming student engagement is class engagement. Finally, future studies could examine both the factors obtained in the present study and the framework covering the relationship between these factors and student engagement (Figure 1) with the help of a statistical technique such as path analysis.

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Hufton, N. R., Elliott, J. G., & Illushin, L. (2002). Educational motivation and engagement: Qualitative accounts from three countries. British Educational Research Journal, 28(2), 265-289.

Junco, R. (2012). The relationship between frequency of Facebook use, participation in Facebook activities, and student engagement. Computers & Education, 58, 162-171.

Junco, R., Heiberger, G., & Loken, E. (2011). The effect of Twitter on college student engagement and grades. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 27, 119-132.

Kahu, E. R. (2013). Framing Student Engagement in Higher Education. Studies in Higher Education, 38(5), 758-773.

Kolikant, Y.B.D. (2010). Digital natives, better learners? Students’ beliefs about how the Internet influenced their ability to learn. Computers in Human Behavior, 26,1384-1391.

Kolikant, Y.B.D. (2009). Digital Students in a Book-Oriented School: Students’ Perceptions of School and the Usability of Digital Technology in Schools. Educational Technology & Society, 12(2), 131–143.

Krause, K., & Coates, H. (2008). Students’ Engagement in First-Year University. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 33(5), 493-505.

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GENİŞLETİLMİŞ ÖZ

Öğrenci bağlılığı Gunuc ve Kuzu (2014) tarafından: Öğrencinin başarılı öğrenme çıktılarına ulaşmak için öğrenme sürecine, sınıf içi/dışındaki akademik ve sosyal etkinliklere psikolojik, bilişsel, duyuşsal, davranışsal boyuttaki tepkilerinin ve katılma enerjilerinin niteliği ve niceliği olarak tanımlanmıştır. Eğitimciler son yıllarda düşük düzeyde öğrenci bağlılığı, erken yaşta okulu terk etme, zayıf öğrenci davranışı ve düşük akademik başarı düzeyi sorunlarına dikkat çekmiştir (Harris, 2008). Bu bağlamda öğrenci bağlılığı eğitimin ve eğitim sisteminin önemli konularından biridir. Öğrencilerin kampüse ve derse

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bağlılıklarını artırmak için birçok faktörden söz edilebilir. Öğrencilerin istekle, hevesle, eğlenerek öğrenmeleri ve buna ilişkin ortamların düzenlenmesi önem taşımaktadır. Bu noktada dijital yerlilerin diğer nesillerden farklılaşan yönü olarak teknolojinin göz önünde bulundurulması önem taşımaktadır. Teknolojinin günümüz öğrencilerinin yaşamlarında önemli bir yeri olması ve her girdikleri ortamda teknoloji ile iç içe olmak istemeleri, okul ortamlarında da etkili teknoloji entegrasyonlarının gerçekleştirilmesini gerekli kıldığı düşünülmektedir. Bu araştırmanın genel amacı öğrenci bağlılığını etkileyen faktörleri ve teknolojinin öğrenci bağlılığındaki rolü ve etkisini belirlemektir.

Çalışma, nitel araştırma yaklaşımlarından biri olan gömülü kuram ile desenlenmiştir. Gömülü kuram, anlamlı bir konu hakkında bir etkileşim, bir eylem, bir süreç ya da kapsamlı bir kavramın açıklandığı bir kuram üretmek için kullanılan nitel bir yaklaşımdır (Creswell, 2008). Araştırmanın katılımcıları 2012-2013 öğretm yılı bahar döneminde Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi’nin 3. ve 4. sınıflarında öğrenim gören ve araştırmaya katılmaya gönüllü olan öğretmen adayları arasından rastgele seçilmiştir. Katılımcıların 3. ve 4. sınıflardan seçilmesinin nedeni; araştırmanın amaçları doğrultusunda öğrencilerin kampüse ve derslere yönelik deneyimlerinin olmasının daha detaylı veriler elde etmede önemli görülmesi nedeniyledir. Araştırmanın katıılımcılarını, yüz yüze görüşmeler için 25 öğretmen adayı ve komposizyonlar için 20 öğretmen adayı olmak üzere toplamda 45 birbirinden farklı öğretmen adayı oluşturmuştur. Katılımcıların kimlikleri saklı tutulmuş ve verilerin araştırmada kullanılacağı konusunda katılımcılardan yazılı ve sözlü izinler alınmıştır.

Nitel verilerin analizinde görüşmelerden ve kompozisyonlardan elde edilen veriler içerik analizi tekniği ile kodlanmıştır. Bu kodlama sonucunda ana temalar, alt temalar ve kavramlar oluşturulmuş ve buna ilişkin bulgular tanımlanarak yorumlanmıştır. İçerik analizinde; verilerin kodlanması, temaların oluşturulması, kodların ve temaların düzenlenmesi, bulguların tanımlanması ve yorumlanması aşamaları izlenmiştir (Corbin ve Strauss, 2007). İçerik analizi süreci iki alan uzmanı tarafından yapılmış ve temalarda görüş birliği sağlanıncaya kadar değerlendirme devam etmiştir. İçerik analizi bittikten sonra temalara ilişkin katılımcı ifadeleri doğrudan alıntılarla raporlaştırılmıştır.

Görüşme bulgularında ortaya çıkan öğrenci bağlılığı etkileyen faktörler kampüs, ders ve teknoloji boyutları altında incelenmiştir. Öğrenci bağlılığını oluşturan öğelerin kampüs ve derse bağlılık olduğu belirlenmiştir. Teknoloji boyutu kampüs ve derse bağlılık kapsamında ele alınabilecekken bu çalışmanın amaçları doğrultusunda ayrı bir boyut olarak sınıflandırılmıştır. Kompozisyonların sadece teknolojinin derse bağlılıktaki rolü ve etkisi üzerine yapılmış olması nedeniyle bu bağlamda detaylı bulgulara ulaşılmıştır. Kompozisyon bulgularının değerlendirilmesi sonucunda teknolojinin ders işlenişinde ve ders yükümlülüklerinin yerine getirilmesinde öğrenci bağlılığının artırılmasına katkı sağladığı anlaşılmıştır. Ancak teknolojinin derste ve derse ilişkin kullanılmasının öğrenci bağlılığının artırılmasına yüksek düzeyde katkı sağlaması için teknoloji alt yapısının sağlanması ve etkili bir teknoloji entegrasyonunun şart olduğu aksi taktirde öğrenci bağlılığının bu durumdan olumsuz etkilendiği belirlenmiştir.

Görüşme ve kompozisyon bulguları birlikte değerlendirildiğinde teknolojinin eğitim ve öğretim etkinliklerinde kullanılmasının da öğrenci bağlılığında önemli bir faktör olduğu görülmüştür. Çoğu öğrenci için derste teknoloji kullanımının öğrenci bağlılığı için olmazsa olmaz bir faktör olmadığı anlaşılmıştır. Bunun yanında teknoloji kullanımının gerekli yerlerde ve etkili şekillerde kullanımının öğrenci bağlılığına çok katkı sağlayacağı ve öğrenci bağlılığını artırmanın önemli yollarından biri olacağı birçok öğrenci tarafından ifade edilmiştir. Yani birçok öğrenci için teknoloji esas bağlılığı oluşturan bir öğe olmasa da bağlılığı önemli ölçüde artıracak bir etken olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Buna karşın,

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teknolojinin etkili bir şekilde eğitim ortamlarına entegre edilememesinin öğrencinin dersten kopmasına neden olabileceği sonucuna da varılmıştır. Öğrencilerin çoğu, “teknoloji etkili kullanılmayacaksa hiç kullanılmamasının daha iyi olacağı” yönünde görüş bildirmiştir. Bu sonuç aynı zamanda teknolojinin öğrenci bağlılığındaki rolü ve etkisini özetleyen bir ifade olarak belirlenmiştir. Yani teknoloji etkili kullanıldığında öğrenci bağlılığını olumlu, etkili kullanılmadığında ise öğrenci bağlılığını olumsuz olarak etkilemektedir. Bu durumun yine öğretim elemanının teknoloji yeterliği ve teknoloji alt yapısı ile ilişkili olduğu da belirlenmiştir.

Bu çalışmada teknolojinin öğrenci bağlılığında Facebook, Twitter, Wiki gibi dijital ortamlarla katkı sağladığı da belirlenmiştir. Özellikle bu ortamlarda kurulan gruplar aracılığı ile paylaşımların yapıldığı ve özellikle öğretim elemanının da aktif katılım şartıyla öğrenci bağlılığının arttığı görülmüştür. Her ne kadar öğrenci bağlılığını etkileyen faktörler doğrultusunda bulgular elde edilse de aynı zamanda öğrenci bağlılığını oluşturan öğelerin de ortaya çıktığı görülmektedir. Yani sadece teknoloji faktörü ile değil öğrenci bağlılığını oluşturan kampüse ve derse bağlılığı etkileyen faktörlerin de dikkate alınmasıyla öğrenci bağlılığının artırılabileceği söylenebilir. Ancak bu noktada derse ilişkin faktörler göz önünde bulundurulmadan kampüs ve teknolojiye ilişkin faktörler ile öğrenci bağlılığının önemli ölçüde artırılabileceğini söylemek güçtür, çünkü öğrenci bağlılığını oluşturan öğelerden öncelikli ve esas olanı derse bağlılıktır.

Şekil 1. Kampüs-Ders-Teknoloji Kuramı

Şekil 1’de görüldüğü gibi öğrenci bağlılığını anlamak ve açıklamak için Kampüs-Ders-Teknoloji Kuramı geliştirilmiştir. Bu kuram ile öğrenci bağlılığının bileşenleri ve boyutlarının yanında, bunların teknoloji ve öğrenci başarısı ile ilişkisi de açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Bu anlamda kampüse bağlılık kapsamında yer alan öğrencinin üniversite yaşamına ve üniversite eğitimine değer vermesi, kendini üniversiteye ait hissetmesi ve kampüste zaman geçirmesi, derse bağlılığın artırılmasında ve devamında önemli faktörlerdir. Derse bağlılığa etki eden diğer bir faktör de teknolojidir. Teknolojinin derse etkili entegrasyonu öğrencinin derse bağlılığının artırılmasında oldukça önemlidir.

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Teknoloji

Aidiyet (Psikolojik Bağlılık II)

Değer Verme (Psikolojik Bağlılık I)

Davranışsal Bağlılık

Duyuşsal Bağlılık

Bilişsel Bağlılık

Başarılı Öğrenci Çıktıları

ÇIKTILARDERSE BAĞLILIK

KAMPÜSE BAĞLILIK

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Kuşkusuz teknolojinin yanında başka artırıcı ve kolaylaştırıcı faktörler de sürece aynı paralelde dahil edilebilir. Kampüs, teknoloji ya da derse ilişkin faktörlerin katkıları ile derse bağlılığın artması, öğrencinin akademik başarısının artmasına ve süreçte olumlu çıktıların alınmasına katkı sağlayabilmektedir. Kampüs-Ders-Teknoloji Kuram’ının bir döngü şeklinde devam ettiği söylenebilir. Bir başka deyişle, başarılı akademik çıktılar, öğrencinin öğrenmeye ve üniversiteye verdiği değeri, aidiyet duygusunu ve derslere daha çok bağlanmasını artırabilmektedir. Kampüse ve derse ilişkin olumsuz faktörlerin, öğrenci bağlılığındaki olumsuz etkisi öğrencinin akademik başarısına olumsuz olarak etki etmekte ve öğrenci-üniversite arasındaki ilişkinin bozulmasına neden olabilmektedir. Bunun sonucunda kampüs ve ders haricindeki başka dış faktörlerin de katkısı ile öğrencide kopma, terk etme ya da okuldan uzaklaşma yaşanabilmektedir. Sonuç olarak geliştirilen kuram, genel anlamda değerlendirildiğinde öğrencinin derse bağlılığı, başarılı çıktıların alınmasında ana faktördür. Kampüse ilişkin faktörlerin ise öğrencinin psikolojik durumunu iyileştirmede ve öğrenci bağlılığını artırmada önemli bir destekçidir. Diğer bir destekçi de derste teknoloji kullanımıdır. Teknoloji ile öğrencilerin öğrenme sürecinde daha az sıkılması sağlanabilmekte ve sürecin daha eğlenceli geçmesi sağlanarak daha etkin öğrenmeler gerçekleştirilebilmektedir.

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Designing Learning Materials within the Framework of the

ALIS-T Project: Story Telling Activities for Hearing Impaired Individuals*

ALİS-T Projesi Kapsamında Öğrenme Materyalleri Tasarımı: İşitme Engelli Bireyler için Hikâye Etkinlikleri

Yasemin KaralMinistry of National Education, Turkey

[email protected]

Hasan KaralKaradeniz Technical University, Turkey

[email protected]

A. Mevhibe CoşarKaradeniz Technical University, [email protected]

Taner AltunKaradeniz Technical University, [email protected]

Lokman ŞılbırKaradeniz Technical University, Turkey

[email protected]

Ekrem BahçekapılıKaradeniz Technical University, Turkeyekrem_bahcekapili @hotmail.com

Murat AtasoyKaradeniz Technical University,

Turkeymatasoy @gmail.com

Mehmet PalancıKaradeniz Technical University,

[email protected]

** This study was funded by Turkish Scientific and Technological Research Council (TÜBİTAK) with within the ALİS-T Project No:110K257.

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AbstractThe present study aims to examine the usefulness of 47 stories which were developed as learning materials within the scope of the ALIS-T (Alternative Communication System – Design) Project. This project aims to develop a graphical symbolic system which is relevant to Turkish social and cultural systems of understanding. In the study, stories were developed (generated) by a Turkish Language and Literature academic taking the objectives of primary 1st year life science, Turkish, and mathematics curricula into account. Stories, which consist of a setting, characters, and plot were developed. The stories were presented to 5 teachers who teach to hearing impaired students in order to check the appropriateness of each. Those teachers’ views were taken into account about the positive/negative effects of stories in the learning and teaching activities. On the other hand, all stories were elaborated by teachers in terms of whether they met the objectives of curriculum and were useful in developing the literacy skills of hearing impaired pupils. Teachers were asked to do any alterations or corrections needed to make stories compatible with curriculum objectives. Obtained data were analyzed descriptively. All participants stated that each of the stories were beneficial and usable for teaching and learning activities. They emphasized that sentences should be short, clear, and comprehendible and found that stories which were too long should be corrected. On the basis of teachers’ feed-back, 39 stories were re-designed and corrected. 8 stories which were found to be unsuitable were excluded from the study.

Keywords: Story activities; hearing impairment; graphic symbols

ÖzSunulan çalışma, ALİS-T (Alternatif İletişim Sistemi-Tasarımı) projesi kapsamında öğrenme materyalleri olarak geliştirilen 47 hikâyenin kullanılabilirliğini irdelemek amacıyla yürütülmüştür. 1 Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı öğretim üyesi tarafından İlköğretim 1.sınıf Hayat Bilgisi, Türkçe ve Matematik öğretim programlarından seçilen kazanımlar referans alınarak geliştirilen hikâyeler, yer, zaman, karakterler, olay, plan, girişim, girişimin sonucu ve sonuç bölümlerini içerecek şekilde tasarlanmıştır. Hikâyeler, işitme engelli öğrenciler için uygunluğunun irdelenmesi amacıyla 5 İşitme Engelliler Öğretmeninin görüşüne sunulmuştur. Öğretmenlerin hikâyelerin öğrenme öğretme etkinliklerinde kullanılmasının olumlu/olumsuz etkileri üzerine görüşleri alınmıştır. Diğer taraftan tüm hikâyeler kazanımları ile birlikte öğretmenlere sunulmuş, hikâyelerin kazanımları karşılayacak düzeyde olup olmadıkları, işitme engelli bireylerin okuma yazma becerilerini geliştirmeye yönelik kullanılabilirlikleri hakkındaki görüşleri sorulmuş ve hikayelerin işitme engelli bireyler için uygun hâle getirilmesine yönelik önerilerini düzeltme yaparak ifade etmeleri beklenmiştir. Elde edilen veriler betimsel olarak analiz edilmiştir. Katılımcıların tümü hikâyeleri öğrenme öğretme sürecinde kullanılabilecek faydalı materyaller olarak nitelendirmişlerdir. Cümlelerin kısa, açık ve anlaşılır olması gerektiğine vurgu yapan öğretmenler kendilerine sunulan hikâyelerin cümlelerinin uzun olduğunu ve bu yönde düzeltme yapılması yoluna gittiklerini ifade etmişlerdir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Hikâye etkinliği; işitme engeli; grafik semboller

Introduction

Language is defined as a natural instrument which helps people to understand each other. Humans communicate via listening, comprehension, and speaking skills and through such skills they achieve their social, psychological, and academic developments. Information is received through the senses and made comprehendible—which establishes a strong base for new learning. If one or more senses in any way loses its functioning, crucial barriers in learning occur and individual development derails from normal progress (Özateş & Susüzer, 2006; MEB, 2008).

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Individuals who differ from their peers in terms of individuality, development characteristics, and educational competencies are regarded as individuals who need special education. Those individuals who need special education and support due to difficulties they have in the use of language and learning oral communication likewise need special attention. The education of individuals who have language and speaking difficulties aims to help these individuals be self-competent and integrate within the community in which they live. In order to achieve this goal, providing appropriate learning environments which take individual differences and competencies into account needs to be determined and presented those people (MEB, 2006).

There are various alternative communication systems in order to support communication opportunities for individuals who have language, speaking, and learning disorders (Johnson, Lovel, Somers & Mohamed, 2004; Murphy, 2004). Millions of people who have serious speaking and motor problems are dependent upon these systems in order to express their needs and desires. Physical objects, graphic symbols, sign language, alphabet boards, harmonized keyboards, word and idiomatic interfaces, and many other techniques which facilitate the easy use of expressive language are characterized as communication support systems. Those systems are addressed to users who have different age, sensory motor, cognitive, and linguistic abilities (Patel, Pilato & Roy, 2004).

Images and symbols carry easily guessed meanings and therefore the cognitive load necessary in learning is reduced (MacDonald, 1998). It is for this reason that, particularly in recent years, the use of images and symbols in the field with the support of technology is increasing. When international literature on the issue is examined, it can be seen that a lot of sets/systems such as Blissymbols, Makaton, Picture Communication Symbols (PCS), and Widgit Literacy Symbols (WLS) are in use in many countries around the world like the United Kingdom and the United States of America (Millar & Scott, 1998; Johnson, Lovel, Somers, & Mohamed, 2004; Goldberg, Zhu, Dyer, Eldawy & Heng, 2008). Those sets/systems take graphic symbols as the base, which are thought to be as alternative communication tools for individuals who are not able to use speaking as a form of communication.

Graphic symbols are important for users and communication partners in terms of the ease of comprehending and learning and the symbols that affected by many factors like language, culture, time, experience, ability, and the characteristics of a symbol. Makaton is defined as a communication system which aims to improve communication skills of people who have language, speaking, and/or learning difficulties. Walker (1987), the designer of Makaton, pointed out that the “changes which reflect differences in roles of family members, nutrition styles, habits, climate, environment, and religious beliefs are necessary for the acceptability of the system inter-culturally.”

ALIS-T Project

ALIS-T is a project which aims to design a graphical symbol system as an alternative communication system in Turkish. It is aimed to develop a graphic symbol system which is compatible with the Turkish agglutinative language structure and Turkish social, cultural, and mental systems. The first aim of the project was to generate a dictionary from words/concepts that are determined to be components of the content. The vocabulary of existent graphical symbol systems and normal language development phases are examined first and occurs in tandem with a presentation of the views and recommendations of pre-school and lower primary school teachers who were involved in design process. Coordinated studies with teachers who work in schools/centers where

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individuals with hearing impairment, autism, and trainable mental handicaps are educated from teachers who lived in different cultures and have different subject specialism contributed to the generational processing of the content (Karal, Aydın & Günal, 2010). Actions, people, adjectives, social interaction, time/status, pronouns, attachments, school, home goods, fruits/vegetables, food/drinks, math, jobs, nature, clothes, animals, health, technology, traffic/vehicles, body, colors, and others under different headings composed the approximately 750 words determined for the dictionary. In order to determine the characteristics of the graphical symbols of words, descriptions, and drawings from 106 participants—which included teachers and students who have different backgrounds such as subject specialism, experience, location they live and work, and different education levels were taken as a primary reference. Graphical symbols were designed on the basis of commonalities and general characteristics of each word, which were drawn/described by the participants. Drawings which use minimum line and brushstroke and provide most the concrete meaning for the object are important for the system. During the graphic designation process, this notion was observed carefully. Designed graphics were presented to participants who have a different age, culture, and education through the logic of multiple-choice test which is published at www.alis-t.com. In this way, visual representations of selected words were standardized. Standardized graphics constitute the language of an alternative communication system. After that, in order to make use of graphic symbols in learning environments, the process of generating scenarios was started. The aim of this process was to improve concepts of learning; especially the reading, writing, communication, and socializing skills of individuals who have language, speaking, and learning difficulties (Aydın et al., 2012).Story Activities

Story time takes an important place in activities which aim to develop the language skills of special education needs (Richter & Test, 2011; Hudson & Test, 2011). In the related literature, it is emphasized that within the scope of Turkish lessons, in order to improve reading and writing skills of children at the lower primary level, regular activities such as reading and telling stories to whole class, listening to student-told stories, examining information in the related text, viewing ordered pictures, generating a story, and letter-sound and grammar should be practiced (Girgin, Karasu, 2007; Girgin, Karasu & Uzuner, 2012). In addition, the related literature also emphasizes that visual materials are the most appropriate materials for special education needs when students have difficulty in comprehension since images and drawings are being used very often in educational settings (MacDonald, 1998; Millar & Scott, 1998; Fuller & Lloyd, 1991; Cross, 1994; Girgin, 2005). In the current study, this notion was taken as the starting point for stories that were generated in order to be used as learning materials within the scope of the ALIS-T Project.

Aim of Study

47 stories were generated by an academic whose specialism is Turkish Language and Literature. During this process, student attainment targets were selected from primary 1st

grade life sciences, Turkish, and mathematics curricula and dictionary (which was developed within the frame of ALIS-T project) were taken into consideration. An examination of the usability of those generated stories which constitute a location, time, characters, plot, and conclusion for hearing impaired individuals is the aim of study.

Method

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The current study adopted a qualitative research approach. In the study, the usability of stories which were developed as learning materials for hearing impaired individuals within the scope of ALIS-T project were examined on the basis of 5 classroom teachers of hearing impaired students. Obtained data were analyzed in a descriptive approach. Data collection tools for the study as follows:

Story Design Scale

First of all, the attainment targets and activities of primary 1st grade Turkish, life sciences and mathematics curricula were examined. An appropriate 57 attainment targets (learning outcomes) were identified for the generation of stories and scenarios within the scope of ALIS-T project. Activities presented in the curriculum for determined learning outcomes were examined. And those were classified under the headings of “Target” and “Expectation.” Expectation here refers to a student who is expected to carry out some activities in order to reach to learning outcomes. Words which were determined within the scope of project were added to these headings and a story design scale was prepared. This was presented to the Turkish Language and Literature expert with a cover letter involving the scope and aim of the study and its development. At this point some time was given to the process of story generation.

Meeting Reports

The ALIS-T Project team consists of academics from the Departments of Primary Teacher Education, Turkish Language and Literature, Computer and Instructional Technologies, and Special Needs/Education of the Mentally Handicapped. The team included 4 four postgraduate students who continued their Master’s and Doctorate degrees in the Computer and Instructional Technologies department. Meetings about identifying the scope and content of stories were held and decisions were recorded as documents.

Story Evaluation (Rating) Scale

An evaluation scale was designed in order to examine the appropriateness of generated stories with attainment targets and expectations. The scale has two parts. First, part one consists of open ended questions which involve the demographic information of participants (department, education status, subject specialism, degree, teaching experience) and aimed to determine the positive/negative effects of the use of stories in teaching/learning activities. The second part consists of the presentation of stories. Each story was presented in a table with the headings of “Attainment Target”, “Expectations,” and “Your Comments.” It asked participants to provide their views about whether stories met the attainment targets or not, the appropriateness of stories with hearing impaired individuals’ reading and writing skills, and for participants to write down their suggestions for improving the stories in the spaces provided under the heading of “Your Comments” or to make corrections in the story text itself. An example story with Learning Outcome, Expectation, Story and Your Comments headings is presented in Table 1.

Table 1A Story Presented in the Scale

Learning Outcome

Student will be able to realize that adding is bringing things together, aggregating, supplementing, and increasing numbers

Expectation Adding is realized through activities such as taking same colored pencils out of the pencil case and bringing them together; increasing class size due to newly transferred student from another school; the quantity of

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toys increased due to constant buying.Story Aliş and Grandfather are Fishing

Aliş went fishing with his grandfather. Grandfather cast the fishing rod into sea and waited. Aliş watched him. He caught 5 fish the first time. Ali was very happy. Ali put the fish into the bucket and then carried on fishing. Grandfather threw the cast rod into the sea again they waited. This time they caught 10 fish. Ali put them into the bucket and said “there are more fish” to his grandfather. “How many fish have we caught Ali?” asked the grandfather. Ali counted the fish and said “we have 15 fish!” Aliş and grandfather returned home to fry the fish.

Your Comments

Do you think that the story titled “Aliş and Grandfather are Fishing” is adequate for achieving the learning outcome provided above? If not, what are your suggestions to make the story compatible with the learning outcome?

Participants

Story Evaluation (Rating) Scale was applied to 5 Hearing Impaired classroom teachers. They were coded as T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5. The demographic information about participant teachers is presented in Table 2.

Table 2Demographic Information about Participants

Participants Subject Specialism Education Graduated Dept/ Program Teaching

Experience

T1 Classroom Teacher for Hearing Impaired

Bachelor’s

Special Education / Hearing Impaired Teaching

7 years

T2 Classroom Teacher for Hearing Impaired

Bachelor’s

Special Education / Hearing Impaired Teaching

2.5 years

T3 Classroom Teacher for Hearing Impaired

Bachelor’s

Special Education / Hearing Impaired Teaching

8 months

T4 Classroom Teacher for Hearing Impaired

Bachelor’s

Special Education / Hearing Impaired Teaching

6 years

T5 Classroom Teacher for Hearing Impaired

Bachelor’s

Special Education / Hearing Impaired Teaching

5 years

Findings and Results

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Interview records kept by the ALIS-T project team were studied and decisions regarding developing project stories were analyzed by 2 researchers. Decisions were made as follows: “would be better to make a story of a protagonist/character” in relation with expectation/expectations for each of the outputs identified and “within the scope of but not limited to the words selected for the project” in relation with content of the stories and scenarios to be developed.

In the light of the decisions made through the interviews, 47 stories were developed by the Turkish Language and Literature expert using a story design scale. After this, participant teachers were asked for their opinions about the stories by using the story evaluation scale. A descriptive analysis of collected data was done by 2 researchers. Analysis results separately obtained from researchers were also found consistent with each other.

Participant teachers answered an open-ended question in part one of the scale, reading: “What positive/negative effects can using of learning/teaching activity stories have on the learning process?” Analysis of responses for that question showed that all of the participants regarded stories as beneficial materials to be used in learning-teaching process. The participants mainly underlined positive effect of stories on ‘language’ and ‘vocabulary’ development. In addition, participant T5 pointed out that stories helped the development of students’ “imaginary world.” The opinions of all participant teachers on this issue are shown in Table 3.

Table 3Positive Effects of Stories on Learning/Teaching Process

Theme  T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

Language + + + +

Vocabulary + + + +

Imaginary World +Participants mainly emphasized the necessity of short, clear, and comprehendible sentences and listed features of an ideal story for hearing impaired individuals as “simple and comprehendible,” “suitable for daily life,” “short sentences” and “short stories.” In this vein, T3 pointed out: “It could be better to use short sentences and make the stories appropriate to real life.” Related to this, T2 commented that “Long stories could be difficult to be comprehended by hearing impaired individual.” Opinions of all participant teachers on this issue are shown in Table 4.

Table 4Features of an Ideal Story for Hearing Impaired Individuals

Theme T1 T2 T3 T4 T5Simple and Comprehendible + +

Suitable for Daily Life + + +

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Short Sentences + +

Short Stories +

Participant T1 explained that story activities have a negative effect on hearing impaired individuals due to suffixes and emphasized the necessity to teach hearing impaired individuals to use suffixes first hand. In addition, the participant stated that “Simple stories should be given gradually with the support of visual parts. Participants should be asked to answer questions regarding the story in writing, and narrate ‘what they understood’ in pictures.”

In applying the story evaluation scale, participant teachers pointed out in part two that the sentences in the stories were too long, so they should be revised. The participants mostly preferred rewriting the stories without changing the plot. They simplified the sentences and chose expressing events in the past tense. They made suggestions for revising the plot for some of the stories. Suggestions of 2 participants were collected for each story. The teachers’ assessments for the stories are given in Table 5.

Table 5Assessment of the Stories

Story

Assessment 1 Assessment 2

Rewriting Rewriting

Rewriting Plot Change

Rewriting Sentence Simplification

Rewriting Suitable

Participant teachers preferred rewriting the story as they found it necessary to simplify most of the sentences in that story. Rewriting includes stages such as shortening the sentences and simplifying word suffixes. In cases where there are not many sentences or words to be simplified in a story, some of the sentences were revised and they were expressed as a simplification. The teachers thought the events taking place consecutively in some of the stories are too complicated for pupils so they suggested to revise them accordingly. Some participants preferred rewriting some of the stories whereas others found them suitable for the hearing impaired. Examples from participant teachers’ assessing the stories are displayed in figures from 1 to 4.

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Figure 1. A Story Example Proposed for Rewriting

Figure 2. A Story Example Indicated for Plot Change

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Figure 3. A Story Example Indicated for Sentence Simplification

Figure 4. A Story Example Found Suitable

For each story, 2 different assessment comments were obtained from the participants. The ultimate result was found by examining the results of 2 researchers together. 39 stories were rearranged in reference to the teachers’ suggestions. As a result, 8 stories were omitted from the study as they were found unsuitable by participants—usually, according to the teachers for “complexity of the plot or fiction.” As a result, the distribution of the 39 stories by curricula is provided in Table 6.

Table 6Distribution of Stories according to Curricula

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Turkish 15

Life Science 13

Mathematics 11

ALIS-T Stories

The stories generated were made readable by means of visual materials by taking into account the graphic symbols and suffixes made under the ALIS-T project. When the cursor is on a specific word in the web-based stories, a graphical representation of that word with suffix(es) can be seen, if any. The interface designed for the story ‘Aliş and Grandfather are Fishing’ can be seen in Figure 5, which displays the learning outcome of “Realizing such meanings of adding as aggregating, supplementing and increasing” in mathematics curriculum under the ALIS-T project. The cursor is kept on the word “counted.” A graphical representation of that word is displayed on the figure with suffix structure.

Figure 5. Interface of the Story “Aliş and Grandfather Are Fishing” within the Scope of the

ALIS-T Project

Discussion and Recommendations

In this study, story activities were developed as learning materials under the ALIS-T project and their usefulness was investigated. Literature reviews indicate story activities as learning materials with an effectiveness and widespread use in the area of special education. Similarly, present study findings supported by literature review demonstrated

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that the agglutinating structure of Turkish language impedes reading and writing skills of hearing impaired individuals. Relevant studies that attempt to solve such problems for the hearing impaired are scrutinized.

Çiftçi (2009) developed didactic software for improving deaf students’ writing skills. The material, which is designed specifically to help those individuals make sentences and use the appropriate tenses in sentences, was beneficial as students learned to use the correct tenses. The material was tested by means of a case study conducted with 17 students in the 9th grade in the Deaf Girls’ Vocational High School in Turkey and designed as an interface for making sentences and choosing the past, present continuous and future tense correctly for each sentence by means of a button. The participants first watched a cartoon movie and then were told to express the movie in writing. After examining the collected data, it showed that the participants had difficulties in making sentences, using the correct tenses in sentences, making up meaningful sentences, choosing the correct words, and with spelling. Then, some sample sentences were selected which could be used while narrating the cartoon. Subject, object, and verb groups were also formed to provide selected sentences for them. Subjects and objects were comprised of pictures and verbs of animated images, which were then placed on the material interface as buttons. The students were allowed to form meaningful sentences related with the cartoon movie they had seen by pressing the buttons as appropriate. On the level of subject, object, and verb combination, it is possible to check whether a meaningful sentence was made of selected parts for the story by clicking the control button. It was done to prevent participants from making up meaningless and ungrammatical sentences. After students had studied the software independently in a computer skills courses for 6 weeks, they were tested in terms of their ability to make sentences and use tenses in sentences correctly. As a result, this study illustrated that the material which takes images and animations as a starting point can contribute to writing skills like making sentences and using correct tenses.

Karal, Şılbır, and Küçüksüleyman (2009) developed computer aided material for developing hearing impaired people’s skills in reading and writing as well as using prepositions and tense suffixes in the Turkish language. The material is based on graphical symbols, is called GÖRYAP, and is comprised of graphical symbols and sentences corresponding to certain words and suffixes. In this scope, the sentences provided by GÖRYAP are converted into sound data by a didactic interface agent and supported with a lip reading technique. 6 hearing impaired students in total including 4 hearing impaired, 1 autistic and 1 deaf students participated in the study. It was found out that the material improved users’ skills of expressing in writing a sentence provided for them in visual terms (Şılbır, 2011).

The abovementioned studies were elaborated in the ALIS-T project. ALIS-T is a standard graphical representation system project for the Turkish language and standard graphic symbols were designed for approximately 750 words. In addition to prepositions and tense suffixes, graphics were also included for plural, possessive, negative, personal, relative, which/that and to be forms are added to the system. The design was further developed with story activities, which are indicated as beneficial for hearing impaired individuals. It is expected that the stories generated will contribute to hearing impaired students’ skills such as articulating and understanding words and suffixes accurately, narrating a reading passage, answering comprehension questions, expressing the subject of the reading passage, and writing. To this end, we suggest that carrying out further studies with hearing impaired students from various grades in order to investigate the effectiveness of these studies.

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References

Aydın, Y., Şılbır, L., Karal, H., Altun, T., Palancı, M., & Küçüksüleyman, N. (2012). Alternatif iletişim aracı olarak türkçe için bir grafik sembol sisteminin tasarımı: standart grafik sembollerin belirlenmesi, 6th International Computer & Instructional Technologies Symposium, Gaziantep.

Cross, R.T. (1994). Iconicity and associative meaning: what are we looking for? Proceedings from the 6th Biennial Conferences of ISAAC, 126-128.

Çiftçi, E. (2009). İşitme engelli öğrenciler için hazırlanan bilgisayar destekli yazılı anlatım becerisi geliştirme materyalinin tasarımı, uygulanması ve değerlendirilmesi. (Yüksek lisans tezi). KTÜ Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Trabzon.

Fuller, D.R., & Lloyd, L. L., 1991. Toward a Common Usage of Iconicity Terminology. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 7(3), 215 — 220.

Girgin, Ü. (2005). Okuma öğretiminde kullanılan iki okuma yaklaşımının işitme engelli çocuklar için kullanımı: yönlendirilmiş okuma etkinliği ve dil-deneyim yaklaşımı. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 6(2), 27-36.

Girgin, Ü., & Karasu, H.P. (2007). İşitsel/sözel yaklaşımla eğitim gören işitme engelli öğrencilerin yazılı anlatım becerilerinin değerlendirilmesi. H. U. Journal of Education, 33, 146-156.

Girgin, Ü., Karasu, H.P., & Uzuner, Yıldız (2012). İşitme engelli öğrenciler ve işiten öğrencilerin okuma becerilerinin formel olmayan okuma envanteri ile değerlendirilmesi. Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, 2(1). 65-88.

Goldberg, A.B., Zhu, X., Dyer, C.R., Eldawy, M., & Heng L. (2008). Easy as ABC? Facilitating pictorial communication via semantically enhanced layout. 12th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning’te Sunulan Bildiri, 119–126.

Hudson, M.E., & Test, D.W (2011). Evaluating the evidence base of shared story reading to promote literacy for students with extensive support needs. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 36 (1-2), 34-45.

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Karal, H., Şılbır, L., & Küçüksüleyman, N. (2009) İşitme engelli bireylerin Türkçe'de ek kullanabilme becerilerini geliştirmeye yönelik öğrenme ortamı tasarımı. Proceedings of 9th International Educational Technology Conference, 347-353.

MacDonald, A. (1998). Symbol systems, augmentative communication in practice: An introduction, (2nd Edition), CALL Centre, 19-26.

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MEB (2008). Mesleki Eğitim ve Öğretim Sisteminin Güçlendirilmesi Projesi. Çocuk Gelişimi ve Eğitimi, Özel Eğitimde Türkçe Dil Etkinlikleri, Ankara.

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GENİŞLETİLMİŞ ÖZ

Problem Durumu: Özel eğitime ihtiyaç duyan bireylerin dil becerilerini geliştirmeye yönelik etkinliklerde hikâyeler önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Dinleme, anlama, konuşma becerilerinin gelişimi için sınıfa hikâye okuma, sınıfa hikâye anlatma gibi çeşitli bireysel ve grup içi etkinlikler önerilmektedir. İlköğretim birinci kademe Türkçe dersi kapsamında okuma yazma becerilerinin gelişimini sağlamak amacıyla sınıfa hikâye okuma, sınıfa hikâye anlatma, öğrencilerin okudukları hikâyeleri dinleme, öykü ve bilgi verici metinler inceleme, kitap oluşturma, sıralı resimlere bakma, hikâye oluşturma, harf-ses çalışması ve dil bilgisi etkinliklerinin düzenli olarak uygulanması gerektiği ifade edilmektedir. Bununla birlikte özel eğitime ihtiyaç duyan bireylerin anlamakta güçlük çektikleri durumlarda kullanılacak en elverişli materyallerin görsel malzemeler olduğu ve bu doğrultuda resim veya çizimlerden sıklıkla faydalanıldığı alanyazında vurgulanmaktadır. Uluslararası alanyazın incelendiğinde, resim veya çizimleri temel alan Blissymbols, Makaton, Picture Communication Symbols (PCS) and Widgit Literacy Symbols (WLS) gibi birçok grafik sembol set/sistemine rastlanmıştır. İngiltere ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri başta olmak üzere dünyanın pek çok ülkesinde kullanılan bu sembol set/sistemlerinin kullanıcılar ve iletişim partnerleri açısından anlaşılabilir/öğrenilebilir olması önemlidir ve bu sembollerin anlaşılabilirliği/öğrenilebilirliği dil, kültür, zaman, deneyim, yetenek, sembol özellikleri gibi birçok faktörden etkilenmektedir.

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Bu gerekçeye dayanarak ortaya çıkarılan ALİS_T (Alternatif İletişim Sistemi-Tasarımı) Türkçe için alternatif iletişim sistemi olarak bir grafik sembol sisteminin tasarım projesidir. Türkçenin sondan eklemeli dil yapısına ve Türk sosyal, kültürel ve anlayış sistemine uygun bir grafik sembol sistemi geliştirmek amacıyla yürütülen proje kapsamında; eylemler, kişiler, sıfatlar, sosyal etkileşim, zaman/durum, zamirler, ekler, okul, ev/eşyalar, meyve/sebzeler, yiyecek /içecekler, matematik, meslekler, doğa, giysiler, hayvanlar, sağlık, teknoloji, trafik/araçlar, vücut, renkler ve diğer başlıkları altında yaklaşık 750 sözcük için standart grafik semboller tasarlanmıştır. Farklı yaş, eğitim ve kültür seviyelerinden bireylerin görüşleri paralelinde tasarlanan grafik semboller alternatif iletişim sisteminin dilini oluşturmaktadır. ALİS-T projesi kapsamında geliştirilen bu grafik sembollerin öğrenme ortamlarına nasıl dahil edilebileceği araştırılmış ve alanyazın araştırmaları hikaye etkinliklerinin özel eğitim alanında etkin ve yaygın kullanılan öğrenme mateyalleri olduğunu göstermiştir. Bu doğrultuda senaryo oluşturma yoluna gidilmiştir.

Araştırmanın Amacı: Sunulan çalışma, ALİS-T projesi kapsamında öğrenme materyalleri olarak geliştirilen 47 hikâyenin kullanılabilirliğini irdelemek amacıyla yürütülmüştür.

Araştırmanın Yöntemi :1 Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı öğretim üyesi tarafından İlköğretim 1.sınıf Hayat Bilgisi, Türkçe ve Matematik öğretim programlarından seçilen kazanımlar referans alınarak geliştirilen hikâyeler, yer, zaman, karakterler, olay, plan, girişim, girişimin sonucu ve sonuç bölümlerini içerecek şekilde tasarlanmıştır. Hikâyeler, işitme engelli öğrenciler için uygunluğunun irdelenmesi amacıyla 5 İşitme Engelliler Öğretmeninin görüşüne sunulmuştur. Öğretmenlerin hikâyelerin öğrenme öğretme etkinliklerinde kullanılmasının olumlu/olumsuz etkileri üzerine görüşleri alınmıştır. Diğer taraftan tüm hikâyeler kazanımları ile birlikte öğretmenlere sunulmuş, hikâyelerin kazanımları karşılayacak düzeyde olup olmadıkları, işitme engelli bireylerin okuma yazma becerilerini geliştirmeye yönelik kullanılabilirlikleri hakkındaki görüşleri sorulmuş ve hikayelerin işitme engelli bireyler için uygun hâle getirilmesine yönelik önerilerini düzeltme yaparak ifade etmeleri beklenmiştir. Elde edilen veriler, nitel yaklaşım çerçevesinde, betimsel olarak analiz edilmiştir.

Araştırmanın Bulguları: Deneyimleri 8 ay ile 7 yıl arasında değişen Özel Eğitim Bölümü, İşitme Engelliler Öğretmenliği mezunu katılımcıların tümü hikâyeleri öğrenme öğretme sürecinde kullanılabilecek faydalı materyaller olarak nitelendirmişlerdir. Cümlelerin kısa, açık ve anlaşılır olması gerektiğine vurgu yapan öğretmenler, kendilerine sunulan hikâyelerin cümlelerinin uzun olduğunu ve bu yönde düzeltme yapılması yoluna gittiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. Öğretmenler genel olarak olay örgüsünü değiştirmeden hikâyeleri yeniden yazma yoluna gitmişlerdir. Cümleleri sadeleştirmişler ve olayları geçmiş zaman ile ifade etmenin daha uygun olduğunu düşünmüşlerdir. Bazı hikâyelerin kurgusu üzerinde düzeltme yapılması gerektiğine yönelik öneriler vermişlerdir. Her bir hikâye için 2 farklı katılımcı öğretmenin değerlendirme sonuçları elde edilmiştir. Katılımcı öğretmenler, bir hikâyedeki cümlelerin büyük bir çoğunluğunu sadeleştirmek gerektiğini düşündüklerinde hikâyeyi yeniden yazma yoluna gitmişlerdir. Yeniden yazma, cümlelerin kısaltılması ve kelimelerdeki ek yapılarının sadeleştirilmesi aşamalarını içermektedir. Eğer, bir hikâyede çok fazla sadeleştirilmesi gereken cümle veya kelime yoksa bazı cümlelerde düzeltme yapıldığı belirlenmiştir. Öğretmenler, bazı hikâyelerde ardışık olarak gerçekleşen olayların karmaşıklık içerdiğini düşünmüşler ve bu doğrultuda öneride bulunmuşlardır. Bazı öğretmenler bazı hikâyeleri yeniden yazma yoluna giderken bazıları da aynı hikâyeyi işitme engelli bireyler için uygun bulmuştur. Öğretmenlerin hikâyeler üzerindeki düzeltmeleri referans alınarak 39 hikâye düzenlenmiştir. 8 Hikâye öğretmenler

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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, October 2014, 5(4)

tarafından uygun bulunmamış ve çalışmanın dışında bırakılmıştır. Öğretmenler bunun nedenini ‘olay örgüsü veya kurguda karmaşıklık’ şeklinde açıklamıştır. Bununla birlikte 1 katılımcı cümlelerdeki ek yapılarının hikâye etkinliklerini olumsuz etkilediğini ve işitme engelli öğrencilere öncelikle ek kullanmayı öğretmenin gerekli olduğunu ifade etmiştir. Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Geliştirilen hikâyeler, ALİS-T projesi kapsamında, grafik semboller ve ek yapıları göz önünde bulundurulacak şekilde görsellerle okunur hale getirilmiştir. Web ortamında hazırlanan hikâyelerdeki sözcüklerin üzerine imleç getirildiğinde, ilgili sözcüğü karşılayan grafik sembol varsa ek/ekleriyle birlikte görülebilmektedir. Zaman ve hal eklerinin yanı sıra çoğul, iyelik, olumsuzluk, şahıs, ilgi, -ki ve –dır eklerini karşılayacak grafikler sistem kapsamına dahildir. ALİS-T kapsamında geliştirilen hikâyelerin işitme engelli bireylerin sözcük ve eklerin doğru okunması ve anlaşılması, okuduğunu anlatma, metine ilişkin sorulara yanıt verme, metnin konusunu özetleme ve yazma becerileri üzerinde olumlu sonuçlar getireceği öngörülmektedir. Bu doğrultuda çeşitli eğitim seviyesinden işitme engelli bireylerle yürütülen çalışmalarla geliştirilen hikâyelerin etkililiğinin irdelenmesi önerilmektedir. ALİS-T projesi kapsamında söz konusu çalışmalar sürdürülmektedir.

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