Xword Grammar Exercises for Students of ESL …xwordgrammar.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/107186061/Xword...Jessica loves ice cream, but she hates cake. Subject Vs info , but (for contrast)

Xword Grammar Exercises for Students of ESL ©Lydon&Gex

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Lesson 14

The main word of the subject

In Lesson 5, we learned how to find the subject of a sentence. Do you remember?

Write the rule here: Everything in between the ___________ of the sentence and the

_____________ is the subject.

Now it is time to look more closely at the subject. Specifically, we want to know what we

can find when we look inside the subject box. When we look inside the subject box, there

are lots of things we can find, but the most important thing is the main word of the

subject. We will often find lots of words in the subject box, but every subject must have

at least one main word. Of course, there are times when the subject will contain only one

word.

The main word of the subject is the word that the

subject is actually about. We identify the main word of

the subject by placing an asterisk (*) over it.

It is possible to have more than one main word in the

subject box, but if we do, we must have the word and to

connect them.

The main word of the

subject is the word that

the subject is actually

about.

Here are some examples:

* X

The dog who is barking at the door is my Chihuahua, Arnold.

* VnoS

I have a very large cat named Xena, too.

* * VnoS

Arnold and Xena protect me from intruders.

Lesson 14 Exercise 1

Directions: Identify the subject in each of the sentences below by drawing a box around

it. Then, identify the main word in each subject by placing the main word symbol (*) over

it.

1. The people in the living room are my relatives from Boston.

2. I have not finished my composition.

3. A computer can be a very useful tool for a student.

4. LaGuardia and Hostos are popular community colleges in the CUNY system.

5. The two cars in the garage are for sale.


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Lesson 14 (cont.)

6. Drunk drivers should be arrested and placed in jail for at least one year.

7. I don’t like the cold weather in the northeastern United States.

8. The beautiful old house on the corner burned to the ground in less than three

hours.

9. This class is very easy for me.

10. Tom, Ken, and Ralph are my three best friends.

Note: A subject is always a noun. Sometimes we also use nouns as adjectives.

Don’t be confused. The subject will come last.

Example: noun noun *

The program is on television. The television program was interesting.

Television describes the type of program. Program is the main word.


Directions: Identify the subject in each of the sentences below by drawing a box around

it. Then, identify the main word in each subject by placing the main word symbol (*) over

it.

1. English class is easy for me.

2. The subway train was late.

3. Your water bottle is under your desk.

4. The nearest movie theater is 8 blocks from here.

5. This soup spoon isn’t clean.


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Lesson 15

Equal words

In Lesson 14 we learned that some subject boxes have more than one main word. We also

learned that two main words are connected by the word and.

* * X d-t-n

Coffee and tea were served at the luncheon.

And is called an equal word. There are a few equal words in English. The most common are

the following:

and nor

but so

or yet

Some people call these words “joiners.” Others call them “conjunctions.”

I like to call them equal words.

In mathematics, the equal sign ( = ) indicates that two values are the

same or that everything on the left of the equal sign in an equation is

the same value as everything on the right side.

2 + 2 = 4

10 – 5 x 10 = 45 + 5

In grammar, equal words tell us that the words on the left of the equal

word are the same grammatically as the words on the right.

Equal words are

also called

joiners or

conjunctions.

Rule: equal words tell us that the words on the left of the equal word

are the same grammatically as the words on the right.


* = *

Her sister and her brother have both moved to Montana. main word = main word

Vp = Vp

The happy partygoers sang and danced all night long. Verb (past) = Verb (past)


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More about equal words…

Equal words are often used to combine two sentences. Here again are the most common

equal words and what they express.

and --

nor --negative choice

but --contrast

or --choice

yet --contrast

so --result

Remember: The equal word shows that the two sentences are the same

grammatically, not the same in meaning.

Look at this sentence, for example.

Jessica loves ice cream, but she hates cake.

Subject Vs info , but (for contrast) subject Vs info.


Directions: Which equal word would you use? Circle the equal word that makes sense.

1. He ate too much last night, (but, so) he had a stomachache this morning.

2. She isn’t pretty, (yet, or) she has many admirers.

3. He made me angry, (or, so) I left the room.

4. Did she call, (but, or) did she write a letter?

5. I can’t come on Tuesday, (but, or) I can come on Wednesday.


Directions: Try to combine these sentences.

1. It rained hard. The picnic was cancelled.

2. She wanted to eat cake. She wanted to lose weight.

3. She woke up late. She had to hurry.

4. We could take a test. We could relax and have a party.

5. She was tired. She wanted to go to bed.


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Lesson 16

Describers and Numbers

What else is in the subject box?

In Lesson 15 we saw that there is at least one main word in every sentence. In some of the

sentences, we saw that there was only a main word in the subject and nothing more. In

other sentences, we saw that a subject can have many words in addition to the main word.

What are these other words? We will explore the answer to this question in the next 3

lessons.

In addition to main words, we can also find

describers,

numbers,

determiners, and

prepositional phrases.

Describers

Describers are words that describe or give more information

about main words. Another word for describer is adjective. I use

the abbreviation Ds to identify describers.

Note:

describers are also

called adjectives.

Look at the following examples:

Ds Example 1: The cold weather has made him ill.

Ds Ds Example 2: The large old chair in the living room is my favorite.

Ds Example 3: The swimming pool is closed because it is too cold to swim.


Directions: In the following sentences, find the xwords and mark the verbs. Place a box

around the subject of each sentence. Next, identify the main word of the subject by

placing a * over it. Finally, every subject has one or more describers. Write Ds over each

describer.

Ds * X d-t-n

1. The young children have already gone to bed.

2. His beautiful new car was stolen last night.


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Lesson 16, cont.

3. The Spanish-speaking students in this class are mainly from the Dominican Republic.

4. My electronic calculator needs a new battery.

5. Our new 19” color television is not working properly.

6. The recent rent increase has made it impossible for me to continue living here.

Numbers

Numbers are words that tell us how many of

something there is (one, ten, forty-two, 115,

etc.) I use the sign # to identify numbers in

a subject.

Look at these examples:

Rule:

Numbers are the words we use to count

things (one, two three…)

Words like first, second, third, 149th, etc.

are not numbers. They are describers.

# Example 1: The two books on the table are Sonia’s. #

Example 2: Her four children were all born in the Bronx. # Example 3: Over 2,000 people were killed in the earthquake.


Directions: In each of the sentences below, mark the xword, verb, subject, main word,

describers, and numbers.

1. My three brothers are all older than I am.

2. Those six men are my uncles.

3. The first three lessons were easy.

4. The three classrooms on the fifth floor are closed for renovation.

5. The three yellow taxis went right by us.

Remember, English is a word order language. Look at sentence 5. What is the order of

the words in the subject box? (*, Ds, #)

The _________ ___________ __________ went right by us.


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Lesson 17

Determiners

One way to define determiners is to say that determiners are everything in the subject

that is not a number, a describer, or a main word. This definition is pretty close, but not

completely true. Actually determiners are words that tell us that a main word is coming.

They may signal whether the main word is familiar to us. They may demonstrate which

one, tell us about “possession” , or tell us in general about the quantity.

Look at these examples: I have marked each determiner Dt.

What do the determiners signal?

How many? Are we familiar? Whose? (possession) Which one?

_____________________

Dt Dt

A man ran out of the store. The man wore a red jacket.

_____________________

Dt Dt

This coffee is good. That coffee is terrible.

_____________________

Dt

His brother is a teacher.

_____________________

Dt

Some students always come to class on time.

Here is a list of common determiners and what they are called in many grammar classes.

Common Determiners Articles Demonstrative

pronouns

Possessives Quantity words.

a

an

the

this

that

these

those

my

your

his

her

its

our

their

Maria’s

many

some

each

every

a few

all

a lot of

lots of

Note: you will see that determiners, like describers and numbers, appear in places other

than the subject box. However, I am only going to identify determiners in the subject box

in this lesson.


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Directions: In the sentences below, identify the xwords and verbs and everything in the

subject box. Dt # Ds * Vp

1. The five best teachers received huge raises.

2. Our party was a great success.

3. Maria’s three children are all sick.

4. A good education is a very valuable asset.

5. The cat and the dog were fighting.

6. He smokes three packs of cigarettes a day.

7. John’s oldest brother was injured in a car accident.

8. I have a headache.

9. Sally’s three favorite desserts are chocolate cake, vanilla ice cream, and

strawberry shortcake.

10. The IRT local subway train was stuck in the tunnel for three hours.

Word order – again.

Have you noticed that determiners usually come first in the subject box?

Circle the correct answer below.

The correct order of words in the subject box is usually….

a. # * Ds Dt

b. Dt # Ds *

c. Dt * Ds #


Directions: Scrambled subjects. You’ve heard of scrambled eggs. Here are some

scrambled subjects. Write these sentence again, putting the words in the subject box in

the correct order.

1. movie that terrible should not have cost $10.50!

2. the students new six must work very hard.

3. best his subjects two are music and biology.

4. glasses the wine smashed onto the floor.

5. flowers spring some make me sneeze.


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Lesson 18

Prepositional phrases

There is one more thing in the subject box, the prepositional phrase.

describers,

numbers,

determiners, and

prepositional phrases.

First, let’s review. We have seen that every subject must have a ______________.

In addition, a subject box may have a ________________, a _______________, and/or

one or more _________________________.

Do you remember the correct word order in a subject box? Write these abbreviations in

order.

( * # Ds Dt )

_____ _____ _____ _____


Directions: Let’s review by writing some subjects of our own. For each subject, I have

given you one or two words. Complete the subjects. Write nothing in the darkened spaces.

Determiner Number Describer Main word

1. The

2. Those

3. pretty

4. Maria’s older

5. mother

6. My

7. two

Prepositional phrases

A prepositional phrase, just like a subject, must have a main word.

In addition, a prepositional phrase may have a determiner, a

number, and/or one or more describers. And, of course, a

prepositional phrase must begin with a preposition! Here is an

example.

Dt # * Pr Dt Ds * X

The three girls <in | the red dresses > are triplets.

Rule: a

prepositional phrase

is a group of words

that begins with a

preposition and ends

with a main word.


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Lesson 18, cont.

I use the following signs to identify prepositional phrases: < | >

The brackets ( < > ) identify the phrase itself, and the straight line ( | )

separates the preposition from the main word and any other words in the phrase.

Here are some more examples:

<on | the table> < until |September> <in front of | the main building> <with | my three good friends>

Did you notice that the word order is the same as in the subject box?

Let’s look at another example:

The books on the table in the kitchen are his.

The subject of the sentence is The books on the table in the kitchen

We know this because it is everything in front of the xword.

Now we look at the subject more carefully. The first step is to identify any

prepositional phrases. We see that there are two: Pr Dt * Pr Dt *

The books <on | the table> <in | the kitchen>

And finally, we can show the complete subject of the sentence: Dt * Pr Dt * Pr Dt * X

The books <on | the table> <in | the kitchen> are his.

Remember: It is the main word of the subject that is the important main word of any

sentence. Therefore, you must first identify the prepositional phrases and get them out

of the way. The main word that remains will be the main word of the subject.


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Lesson 18, cont.

What is a preposition?

A preposition is a word followed by a noun or a pronoun to show place, time, direction, etc.

Below is a list of common prepositions.

at

about

above

across from

after

among

away

before

behind

below

beneath

beside

between

by

down

during

for

from

in

in front of

into

near

next to

of

off

on

out of

over

to (a place)

towards

under

until

up

with

Note: some of these words can also be used as adverbs or equal words.

It is probably easier to learn prepositions by their function. For example:

Place: above, across from, at, behind, in, next to, on, between, near Time: after, at, before, for, during, in, on, until Direction: at, from, to, towards Purpose: for


Directions: In the following sentences, identify the xwords, verbs, and everything in the

subject box.

1. The students in this class study English at home as well as in the classroom.

2. The three old men on the park bench are talking about old times.

3. The milk in the refrigerator has turned sour.

4. The old brown dresser in the master bedroom belonged to my grandmother.

5. The three girls with the funny hats are in a play tonight.


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Lesson 18, cont.

6. The flower vase on the table in the middle of the room is a nineteenth century

antique.

7. The man in the picture on my desk is my husband.

8. The best restaurant for Mexican food is Mama Mexico.

9. The woman next to James is Gloria.

10. The new student from Ecuador is very smart.


Directions: In the spaces below, write the main word of the subject of each of the 10

sentences in Exercise 2.

1 _________ 3 _________ 5 _________ 7 _________ 9 _________

2 _________ 4 _________ 6 _________ 8 _________ 10 __________


Directions: Write ten sentences. Be sure that each sentence begins with a determiner and

that each subject contains at least one prepositional phrase. After you have written the

sentences, identify the subject of each sentence and identify everything inside of the

subject box.

1. _______________________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________________________

4. _______________________________________________________________

5. _______________________________________________________________

6. _______________________________________________________________

7. _______________________________________________________________

8. _______________________________________________________________

9. _______________________________________________________________

10. _______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 19:

Gerunds: Introduction/Gerunds as Subjects

In the next 4 lessons we will learn about gerunds and infinitives.

Introduction to gerunds and infinitives

An infinitive (Vinf) is the “to Vb” form

A gerund (ger) is an –ing word that does not have an xword (am is are was were)

Examples:

Infinitive

Vinf I want to be a movie star.

Ving

X Ving

He is smoking a cigarette.

Gerund

ger He should stop smoking.

Gerund

ger

Smoking can kill you.

What is a gerund?

If you remember from lesson 3, we learned about the special relationships that

exist between xwords and verb forms. In that lesson, we saw that Ving always

appears with an xword from the be family (am, is, are, was, were).

But you have probably seen in your reading and elsewhere that sometimes the Ving

appears alone.

Form: A Gerund is the Ving without an xword. Use: Gerunds can be used any way that main words (nouns) are used. A

gerund can be a subject, a describer, or the main word in a preposition. They

can also be used after some verbs. Feel: Gerunds have a verb-like quality. They look and “feel” like verbs, but

they are not.

Here are four examples of gerunds along with their use in the sentence: Subject 1. Jogging is good exercise.

After a preposition 2. He grew stronger by lifting weights every day. After a verb 3. We enjoy relaxing on the weekends.

As a describer 4. We spent the hot afternoon in the swimming pool.


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Gerund phrases In English, a gerund may be alone or it may accompany a word or a group of words to

form a gerund phrase.

Example:

Gerund: Studying takes up most of my time.

Gerund phrase: Eating good food is a great pleasure of mine.

Don’t confuse a gerund phrase with a gerund + prepositional phrase:

Gerund + prepositional phrase: Traveling by train is a good way to tour.

We’ll learn more about these in the next lesson.

Exercise:

Directions: fill in the blank spaces below with a gerund or gerund phrase to

correctly complete the idea of the sentence.

1. _____________ is against the law.

2. _____________ too much alcohol can kill you.

3. _____________ in the presidential election is every citizen’s responsibility.

4. _____________ a new language takes a lot of patience.

5. ______________ annoys me.

6. ______________ is embarrassing.

7. ______________ takes a lot of money.

Gerunds as the main word of the subject.

Both gerunds and gerund phrases may be the main word of the subject of a

sentence.

Examples of gerunds as subjects:

1. Smoking is bad for your health.

2. Cheating on exams may be punished by expulsion from college.

When a gerund phrase appears in the subject, the entire gerund phrase is

considered the main word.

Examples of gerund phrases as subjects:

3. Riding horses is her favorite hobby.

4. Studying English is a lot of fun!

Exercise: Write two sentences using a gerund or gerund phrase as the subject.

1. ___________________________________________________________

2. ___________________________________________________________


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Lesson 20:

Gerunds in prepositional phrases

In the last lesson we were introduced to gerunds, and we learned that a gerund can be

the main word in the subject of a sentence. In this lesson we’ll see that gerunds can also

be the main word in a prepositional phrase.

Do you remember the definition of a prepositional phrase? A

prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a

preposition and ends with a main word. Gerunds are often

used as the main word of a prepositional phrase.

Gerunds are often used

as the main word of a

prepositional phrase.

Look at the gerunds (fighting and going) in these examples:

Pr *

I am tired <of|fighting> with her.

Pr *

We are thinking <about | going> to Atlantic City.

NEVER use an

infinitive after a

preposition.


Directions: In each of the sentences below, change the word in parentheses into its

gerund form and place it in the main word position of the prepositional phrase.

1. You should wait an hour <before |__________ > the hospital <after| _______> blood.

(leave) (give)

2. Please turn off the lights <after| _______> the room.

leave

3. She asked for information <about| ___________> for the next semester.

(register)

4. The boy’s mother tried to prevent him <from| _________> himself.

(hurt)

5. The priest talked the man <into| ___________> his crime to the police.

(confess)

6. I would like to thank you <for| _________> me.

(help)

7. He is in danger <of| _________>the course.

(fail)

8. We were planning <on| _________> home tonight.

(stay)

9. His illness prevented us <from| _________> on vacation.

(go)

10. I would like to apologize <for| _________> late.

(arrive)


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Try to fill in the blanks with gerunds on your own.

1. You should wash your hands <before| _________________>.

2. I am trying to decide <between| _________________> or

_________________ to the party.

3. They were exhausted <after| _________________> all night.

4. As a child, I was afraid <of| _________________> in a totally dark room.

5. He reminded me of the law <about| _________________> in elevators.


Directions: Decide how the –ing word is used in these sentences: as a verb (Ving), as the

main word of the subject, or as the main word of the prepositional phrase.

Circle the correct choice.

1. Ving Gerund-

subject

Gerund-

preposition She was trying to get his attention.

2. Ving Gerund-

subject Gerund-

preposition Studying a language takes a lot of time.

3. Ving Gerund-

subject Gerund-

preposition After 6 miles, John was tired of walking.

4. Ving Gerund-

subject Gerund-

preposition He is hoping to leave work early today.

5. Ving Gerund-

subject Gerund-

preposition Seeing movies is one of my favorite pastimes.


Write three sentences as indicated.

1. (Use a gerund as main word in subject)

______________________________________________________________

2. (Use a gerund as main word in a prepositional phrase)

______________________________________________________________

3. (Use a Ving)

______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 21

Using gerunds after verbs

After some verbs in English we can place an infinitive or a gerund when we want a “verb-

like-act-word.” Most of these verbs are about emotions, feelings, or communication.

Some of these verbs take a gerund, some take an infinitive, and some take either a gerund

or infinitive.


Verb Gerund or infinitive? Examples:

like

either

Vs ger She likes eating chocolate. Vs Vinf__ She likes to eat chocolate.

quit gerund Vp ger He quit talking when the boss came into the room.

want infinitive Vs Vinf Paul wants to get a better job.

Note:

Any verb can be used as a gerund, it is the choice of verbs before the gerund that

is limited.

The form of the verb (VnoS, Vs, X+Vb, etc. ) does not matter.

Verbs that take gerunds:

admit

appreciate

avoid

can’t help

complete

consider

defer

delay

deny

dread

endure

enjoy

escape

favor

fear

finish

imagine

keep

mind

miss

postpone

practice

put off

quit

recall

recommend

regret

resent

resist

risk

suggest


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Directions: These sentences with the verb “like” are followed by infinitives. Write the

sentences again, changing the infinitive to a gerund.

1. Dogs like to chase squirrels. ________________________________________

2. Squirrels like to eat nuts. ________________________________________

Now change the gerunds in these sentences to infinitives.

1. Cats like chasing mice. ________________________________________

2. Mice like eating cheese. ________________________________________


Directions: Write answers to the following questions using gerunds or gerund phrases.

1. What do you enjoy doing on weekends?

______________________________________________________________

2. What do you avoid?

______________________________________________________________

3. What do you suggest doing on a nice day?

______________________________________________________________

4. What do you fear?

______________________________________________________________

5. What do you dislike most about school.

______________________________________________________________

6. What can’t you help doing when you are studying?

______________________________________________________________


Write four sentences with gerunds using verbs from the list.

1. ______________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________

4. ______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 22

Infinitives

In the last three lessons we looked at gerunds. In this lesson we will learn about infinitives

Gerund Review We have seen that gerunds can go anywhere that a noun goes in a sentence. Do you

remember their uses?

Subject Jogging is good exercise.

After a preposition He grew stronger by lifting weights every day. After a verb We enjoy relaxing on the weekends.

As a describer We spent the hot afternoon in the swimming pool.

What is an infinitive?

An infinitive (Vinf) is the to Vb form. Every verb has an infinitive form: to eat, to

drink, to type, to sit, to have, to make, to be, etc.

Form: to Vb

Use: You may see an infinitive as a subject in writing or

poetry, but an infinitive usually comes after certain

verbs.

Feel: Like gerunds, infinitives have a verb-like quality. They

look and “feel” like verbs, but they are not. Infinitives also

have a “future” feeling.

The infinitive never

changes form. The

verb before the

infinitive changes.

Subject To be or not to be…That is the question….. Shakespeare

After a verb She wants to be a movie star.

I have always wanted to be a movie star, too.

Verbs that can be followed by infinitives:

agree

appear

attempt

begin

can’t afford

care

decide

deserve

endeavor

expect

fail

forget

happen

hesitate

hope

intend

know how

learn

manage

need

offer

plan

prepare

pretend

promise

refuse

seem

want

would like

Examples:

Do you know how to fix the TV?

We decided to postpone our vacation until next year.

She needs to see a doctor right away.


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Infinitives , continued…

Remember: all verbs have an infinitive form,

but only certain verbs can be followed by an infinitive.


Directions: Write five sentences using verbs from the above list followed by an infinitive.

Use a variety of xwords and verb forms.

1. ______________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________

4. ______________________________________________________________

5. ______________________________________________________________

Verbs that are followed by a main word then an infinitive

There is another group of verbs that are followed by a main word and then by the

infinitive. The main word answers the question “Who?”

Example: The teacher warned us to study for the exam.

Who did the teacher warn? _____________________

Example: We invited Thomas to come to the party.

Who did we invite? ________________

Verbs followed by a main word then an infinitive. advise

allow

ask

cause

command

convince

encourage

force

get

hire

instruct

invite

oblige

order

permit

persuade

remind

teach

tell

urge

warn


Directions: Write five sentences using verbs from the above list followed by main word

then an infinitive. Use a variety of xwords and verb forms.

1. ______________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________

4. ______________________________________________________________

5. ______________________________________________________________


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Verbs that can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive. You already know one of

these:

She likes eating chocolate. She likes to eat chocolate.

Verbs that can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive begin

can’t stand

continue

forget*

hate

intend

like

love

prefer

quit*

regret*

remember*

start

stop*

try* * You can use either a gerund or an infinitive after these verbs, but the meaning changes.

Example: I stopped to smoke. (I stopped my activity and smoked a cigarette.)

I stopped smoking. (I quit. I don’t smoke cigarettes anymore.)


Directions: Complete these sentences with the verbs or forms given.

1. She has never (like) ________________ (Ger) ____________________________.

2. Would you (continue) __________________ (Vinf) _________________________.

3. I am (begin) _________________ (Vinf)______________________________.

4. Did you (start) ________________________ (Ger) ____________________ yet?

One more thing…

Infinitives (Vinf) are different from the base form (Vb).

Never use an infinitive after an xword. Never use an infinitive after a preposition.


Directions: All of these sentences have “infinitive mistakes”. Write each one correctly.

1. Can you to go on the trip?

2. I go to class for to speak English.

3. They want buy a new house.

4. Are you learning speak English?

5. She should to attend college.


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Lesson 23

Predicates and Middle Words

In previous lessons we have been looking at the subject of the sentence. Now it is time to

look at the second half of the sentence, the predicate. In this lesson we will look at:

What is a predicate?

Verbs and xwords in Predicates

Middle words

Completers

What is a predicate?

The predicate is everything that is not the subject. This includes

the verb and/or xword and any information that follows.

A predicate is

everything that is

not the subject.

Here are two examples: -----------predicate------------------ Dt Ds Ds * Vp

The heavy snow storm forced the city to close the airport.

-------predicate-----

Dt * pr * X

The people <of| New York> are always in a hurry.


In the following sentences, identify all of the items of the subject and place a box

around it. Then place an arrow over the predicate.

1. Very young people should not watch adult-rated films.

2. The work in this class is too difficult for me.

3. Several of the people at work are sick with the flu.

4. A thirty-minute helicopter trip around the island of Manhattan costs about $40.

5. Thirty students in one ESL class is too many.


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Verbs and xwords in predicates

So far, we have learned that the predicate is everything that is not the subject. We

will now look more carefully and closely at the predicate to see what kinds of things

appear under the predicate arrow.

The first thing I want you to know about the predicate is

that it must always contain a verb, or an xword, or both a

verb and an xword. You already know this, right?

A predicate must

have a verb, an xword,

or both a verb and an

xword.


Directions: Write three sentences.

1. Write a sentence with a verb, but no xword.

______________________________________________________________

2. Write a sentence with an xword, but no verb.

______________________________________________________________

3. Write a sentence with both an xword and a verb.

______________________________________________________________

Middle Words

So far, we know that a predicate is ______________that is not the

________________ and that a predicate must have a _________, an

_________, or both.

Now we will look at “M-words.” An m-word is a word that goes in the middle of an

xword and a verb. Because it goes in the middle, we call it an M-word. “M” in this

case means middle. Look at these examples. In each case the M-word is in italics. -------------predicate-------------- * X M d-t-n Example 1: I have always wanted to visit Spain. -------------predicate---------------- * X M Ving Example 2: She is probably studying in the library. -------------predicate-------------------------------- * X M Vb Example 3: We must sometimes wait for 15 minutes for a train.


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Lesson 23 (Cont.)

Here is a list of common M-words. This list is not complete, of

course, but it does give some of the more common ones. You should

remember, however, that it is better to know the rule than it is to

try to memorize a list of words. And the rule is this: if a word

comes between an x and a Verb, call it an M-word. You should also

remember that these words may appear in other places in a

sentence in English. They are only M-words when they follow this

rule.

If a word

comes

between an

x and a

verb, call it

an M-word.

Some words commonly used as M-words

not

never

always

usually

often

sometimes

seldom

really

completely

also

just

only

probably

still

hardly

almost


Write the sentence on the line

provided.

Put the word in parenthesis in the M

position of the predicate.

Then identify everything in the subject

box, the xword, M-word, and verb of

each sentence.

Note: the order is Xword/M-word/Verb

X M

She is always nice. M Vs

He always walks. X M d-t-n

We have always liked grammar.

1. (always) The little old lady has done things for herself. -------------predicate---------------- Dt Ds Ds * X M d-t-n

The little old lady has always done things for herself.

2. (often) I have thought about him.

__________________________________________________________________

3. (probably) The angry factory workers will go on strike at midnight.

__________________________________________________________________

4. (completely) The three teenage vandals destroyed the interior of the church.

__________________________________________________________________

5. (not) Many New Yorkers have been to the Statue of Liberty.

______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 23 Exercise 3 (cont.)

The completer

Now we will learn about the last position of the predicate, the completer. I call the

position the completer because it completes the predicate. I label the completer

with the letter c. You will see that almost anything can be in the completer except

an xword, middle word or verb. You will also see that some sentences do not require

a completer at all.

Look at these examples and answer the questions that follow. --------predicate----- Dt * X d-t-n ---C---- Example 1: Tony’s bicycle was stolen last night. ----------predicate---------------------

---C---------------------------------- * X Dt Ds * Pr Dt * Example 2: Central Park is a beautiful place <in | the spring.> -predicate-- * Vs Example 3: He smokes.

Look at Example 1. What is the completer? _________________ In the predicate, is

there an xword, a verb, or both? _________

Look at Example 2. What is the completer? __________________________________

In the predicate, is there an xword, a verb, or both? ________________ What is the

main word of the predicate? _______________. What is the prepositional phrase?

__________________

Did you notice that a completer looks a lot like a subject?

Finally, look at Example 3. Is there an xword, a verb, or both? ______________

Is there a completer? ____________


Mark everything in the following sentences.

1. Joe’s football team was playing in the park on Sunday.

2. Gloria and Steven always cook dinner and watch TV on weeknights.

3. The little lake sparkled with sunlight on the bright summer day.


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Lesson 24

Introduction to clauses

In this lesson we will learn about

trunks

combining sentences with equal words

clause words

Is it a trunk or a clause?

Trunks

In all of the past lessons, we have been learning about the

different parts of subjects and predicates. When we put a

subject and a predicate together, we get a trunk. If you are

having problems writing in English, you should try writing more

trunks. If you make your sentences simpler, you will make

fewer errors

A trunk is a group of

words that has a subject

and a predicate. A trunk

is the simplest, most

basic sentence you can

write in English.

.

Writing Tip: When you write a sentence, try to make it a yes/no question. If you

can make a yes/no question, you have a good trunk.

Of course, if you only use trunks in your writing, your writing will sound boring.

That’s because interesting writing requires variety.

In this lesson, we are going to study about the different ways we can make trunks

more interesting. There are many ways to do this. One way is to combine sentences

with an equal word.

Combining sentences with Equal words

Do you remember the equal words from Lesson 15? Write them here.

1. ______ 4. ______

2. ______ 5. ______

3. ______ 6. ______

What is the rule for equal words? Write the rule here.

Rule: equal words tell us that the words on the _________of the equal word are

the same _______________as the words on the __________. * = * VnoS = VnoS Here is an example: Mary and Joanna sing and dance together.


Rev: bh2006 Page 68

Lesson 24 (cont.)

Remember that just as we can join two main words or two verbs with equal words,

we can also join two trunks.

Example: * ---predicate----- = Dt * ---predicate---

Steve attends LaGuardia, but his sister goes to Hostos.

When we join two trunks (T) with an equal word (=) , I label the sentence T,=T.

Notice the comma before the equal word and the period at the end.


Combining trunks with equal words

Directions: T,=T. is a very common sentence pattern in English. In the exercise

below there are five pairs of trunks. Combine each pair of trunks into a T,=T. Use

the equal word provided.

1 I prepared the dinner.

My sister made the dessert.

(and) __________________________________________________________

2 We invited them to the party.

They never showed up.

(but) __________________________________________________________

3 My wife had a bad cold.

We decided not to go to the party.

(so) __________________________________________________________

4 Put the ice cream in the freezer right away.

It will melt.

(or) __________________________________________________________

5 Please speak English in class.

You won’t make any progress.

(or) __________________________________________________________


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Lesson 24 (cont.)

Clauses

What is a clause?

Definition: A clause is a group of words that has a

subject and a predicate, but which also has a

clause word. In this example, When is the clause

word.

A clause looks like a

sentence (trunk) but it has a

clause word (CW) at the

front.

Example: When I was a young girl, I went dancing every Saturday night.

What is the purpose of a clause?

The purpose of a clause is to add more information to a trunk. It can give additional

information in three different ways.

1. Shifter clauses give more information about the entire trunk.

Example: When I was a young girl, I went dancing every Saturday night.

2. Describer clauses give information about one word in the trunk.

Example: The woman who is talking to my mother is a doctor.

3. Completer clauses complete the idea of the trunk.

Example: I hope that you’re feeling better soon.

Clause words

Definition: A clause word is a word that introduces a clause. There are many clause

words. Here is a list of common clause words. Notice that some are used especially

for shifter clauses. Others are used especially for completer clauses and describer

clauses.

Clause words used with Shifter Clauses

TIME CONDITION REASON OPPOSITE OF

EXPECTATON

when

while

whenever

before

after

since

if

unless

because

since

even though

although

Clause words used with Describer Clauses

PEOPLE LOCATION THINGS POSSESSION

who

whom

that

where which

that

whose

Clause words used with Completer Clauses

that if why what where


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Lesson 24 (cont.)

We will study each type of clause in the next three

lessons. You will find that you already know how to

use most of them. But first, let’s do a little practice

to make sure that you understand the difference

between a trunk and a clause.

Remember: a clause looks just

like a sentence (a trunk) but it

starts with a clause word.

Trunk I was a young girl.

Clause When I was a young girl,


Is it a trunk or a clause?

Some of these are clauses and some are trunks. The clauses begin with a clause word (CW).

Part 1: For each group of words, place a box around subject and an arrow over

the predicate, and identify every item of both the subject and the predicate.

Then write CW over the clause word if there is one.

Part 2: If the group of words is a trunk, try to add a clause of some kind. If the

group of words is a clause, try to add a trunk so that the new sentence makes

sense. I have done the first one for you.

---predicate------

1 CW * X Dt Ds * When I was a young girl.

When I was a young girl, I had lots of boyfriends.

2

We bought a new car.

______________________________________________________________

3

Although he saved his money for many years.

______________________________________________________________

4

If you give me the money.

______________________________________________________________

5

Their books are on the desk.

______________________________________________________________

7

Unless you leave immediately.

______________________________________________________________

8

Before I take a shower.

______________________________________________________________

9

Whose baby was born last weekend.

______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 25

Shifter Clauses

In the next three lessons we are going to study three types of clauses: Shifter Clauses,

Describer Clauses, and Completer Clauses. Do you remember what a clause is? Definition:

A clause is a group of words that has a _____________ and a _______________, but

which also has a ___________ word.

What is a shifter clause?

One of the most common kinds of sentences in English is the kind with a shifter

clause at the front or at the end of the trunk. We call it a shifter clause because it

can shift or move from the front to the end without changing the meaning. In

English, the word “shift” means to move from one place to another.

Let’s look at some trunks and shifter clauses to see how they work.

CW S -predicate-- --predicate----- Example: When my family left Ecuador, I was only eleven. CW

In this example, the clause is: When my family left Equador, In this example, the trunk is: I was only eleven.

Notice that the two groups of words look similar. They both have

subjects and predicates. The only difference is that the clause also has a clause word, “when.”

Remember: A

clause must have a

subject.

When we put these sentences together, we get the sentence:

When my family left Ecuador, I was only eleven.

Now we will see why this type of clause is called a shifter clause. We can write the

sentences another way by placing the shifter clause at the end of the trunk.

I was only eleven when my family left Equador.

Punctuation note: The front shifter is not a part of the subject. To show this, we

put a comma between the shifter and the first word of the subject. An end shifter

requires no special punctuation.


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What does a shifter clause do?

The purpose of a shifter clause is to give more information about

the trunk. It gives information about time, reason, condition, and

expectation. I will repeat the shifter clause words here for your

convenience

Note: Some grammar

books call shifter

clauses adverb clauses.

.

Clause words used with Shifter Clauses

TIME CONDITION REASON OPPOSITE OF

EXPECTATON

when

while

whenever

before

after

since

if

unless

because

since

even though

although

Here are some examples.

Time shifter clauses:

After the President left the city, the traffic returned to normal.

We left the bar before they arrived.

I waited for him until he arrived.

Shifter clauses that state a condition:

I’ll get the book for you if you give me the money.

My son won’t go to sleep unless I read him a story.

If I won the lottery, I would quit my job and travel.

Shifter clauses that give reasons:

I left the party early because I wasn’t having a good time.

Since I couldn’t find a job in my country, I came to the United States.

Shifter clauses that state the opposition of expectation:

Although I studied hard for the exam, I failed it.

We were always a happy family even though we were very poor.


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A trunk is a complete sentence with a subject and a predicate (verb + information)

A clause is a clause word (CW) followed by a subject and a predicate . Although a clause

contains a trunk, a clause is incomplete.

We moved to New York. (This is a Trunk)

When we moved to New York, (This is a Clause—The clause leaves the reader

asking “What happened when you moved to New York?”)

In this exercise,

put a box around each subject. Write CW over the clause word, and circle any

commas.

On the line, write TS if the trunk comes first. Write S, T if the shifter comes

first.

1. ______ I studied Portuguese when I was in Brazil.

2. ______ If I knew her phone number, I would call her.

3. ______ Even though I worked two jobs, I could not earn enough.

4. ______ Whenever I think about my friends back home, I begin to cry.

5. ______ New York is a difficult place to live unless you have a lot of money.


Combine the trunks into one sentence that has a trunk and a shifter clause. Use the clause

word that I have provided.

1. We left Korea.

My youngest son was born.

(after) ______________________________________________________________

2. I had to quit my job.

My husband didn’t want me to work.

(because) ____________________________________________________________

3. They loved each other.

They couldn’t get married.

(even though) _________________________________________________________


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Write 8 sentences with shifters. Use time, reason, expectation, and opposite of

expectation clause words.

1. ______________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________

4. ______________________________________________________________

5. ______________________________________________________________

6. ______________________________________________________________

7. ______________________________________________________________

8. _____________________________________________________________

Other kinds of shifters.

You have learned how shifter clauses operate to add more information to trunks. In

addition to clauses, prepositional phrases, noun clusters, and even single words can

be shifters.

Example: Trunk with shifter clause.

Whenever I have to speak English, I get nervous.

I get nervous whenever I have to speak English.

Example: Trunk with prepositional phrase as shifter.

On weekdays, I get up at 9:30.

I get up at 9:30 on weekdays.

Example: Trunk with noun cluster as shifter.

Last Saturday, my cousin José came over.

My cousin José came over last Saturday.

Example: Trunk with one word as shifter.

Yesterday, I took my last final exam.

I took my last final exam yesterday.


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Write sentences using different kinds of shifters. I will write the type of shifter to

use. Write all of these sentences as FRONT shifters. Remember the comma after a

front shifter.

1. (Shifter clause)

______________________________________________________________

2. (Prepositional phrase)

______________________________________________________________

3. (Noun Cluster)

______________________________________________________________

4. (One word)

______________________________________________________________

Now write the same sentences with the shifters at the END. Remember--no comma.

5. (Shifter clause)

______________________________________________________________

6. (Prepositional phrase)

______________________________________________________________

7. (Noun Cluster)

______________________________________________________________

8. (One word)

______________________________________________________________


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BLANK


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Lesson 26:

Describer clauses As you recall from Lesson 24, there are three kinds of clauses: shifter clauses, describer

clauses, and completer clauses.

In the last lesson, we looked closely at shifter clauses. In this lesson, we will turn our

attention to the describer clause, and in Lesson 27 (our final lesson), we will study

completer clauses.

Here are the clause words which introduce describer clauses.

*Clause words used with Describer Clauses

PEOPLE LOCATION THINGS POSSESSION

who

whom

that

where which

that

whose

*These words may also be used in other ways. They are clause words only when they begin a clause.

Describers vs. Describer Clauses

We have been working with describers for a long time. Our describers have been

single words, and they come before the thing they describe.

Ds *

The terrible movie went on for hours.

A describer clause is a whole clause that describes a word in the trunk. Describer

clauses come right after the thing they describe.

For example, in this sentence old, red, and where I was born all tell us more about

the house.

Dt Ds Ds * CW X M Ving

Example: The old red house where I was born is still standing.

A describer clause always comes right after the word that it describes.


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Describer clauses

A describer clause can go inside the trunk or at the end of it. It often describes

the main word of the subject, or the main word of the predicate.

Let’s look first at describer clauses that go inside the trunk. Here are some

examples. --------------------------------------- X

Example: The woman who is sitting in the living room is my wife.

Where is the subject of this clause? The clause words who, that, and whose + noun sometimes act as subjects and clause words at the same time.

----------------------------- X Example: The movie that we saw last night was extremely good. ------------------------------------------------- Vp Example: The man whose car is parked by the fire hydrant got a ticket. Did you notice that the describer clause comes right after the word that it

describes? In these sentences we get more information about woman, movie, and

man. The trunk “opens up” to let the describer clause fit in.

Describer clauses can also go at the end of the trunk if the word they are

describing is in the predicate and not the subject. Look at these examples:

* X

Example: This is the girl that I met at the party last night.

* X

Example: Here is the hotel where we spent our honeymoon.

* Vp

Example: I returned the dress which you gave me for Christmas.


In the following sentences, mark the clause word with CW and highlight the clause with a

colored highlighter. Then mark the subjects and verbs of both the trunk and the clause.

Finally draw a little arrow from the CW to the word that the clause is describing. Dt * CW * Vp X

Example: The jacket that I bought last night is too small.

1. A man who speaks French will be visiting us next month.

2. The old building where the movie theater used to be is being destroyed.


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Lesson 26 cont.

3. The man whose son was killed in the car accident has never recovered from his loss.

4. Here is the CD that I bought last weekend.

5. Theresa is the woman that he will probably marry.

6. The thieves stole a painting which was worth thousands of dollars.

7. The woman whose son won the lottery won’t ever have to work again.


Write 10 sentences with describer clauses. Put some at the end and some next to a word in

the subject. Use a variety of clause words.

1. ________________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________

3. ________________________________________________________________

4. ________________________________________________________________

5. ________________________________________________________________

6. ________________________________________________________________

7. ________________________________________________________________

8. ________________________________________________________________

9. ________________________________________________________________

10. ______________________________________________________________


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About Whom:

The object pronoun whom is not usually used in spoken American English. It is used in

formal written English. If you want to use whom, you can test by rewriting the clause as a

sentence and replacing the who or whom with the pronoun that sounds correct.

Subject pronouns: he, she, it, who

Object pronouns: him, her, it, whom

Example: Dt * CW * Vp X

The man [who(m) she married] is rich. Rewritten clause

She married whom.

She married him.

Whom is the object

the clause

Dt * CW* Vp Obj X

The man [who(m) stole the car] is poor. Who stole the car?

He stole the car.

Who is the subject

of the clause.

BLANK


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Lesson 27:

The Completer Clause

Review:

A clause is a group of words that has a subject, a predicate, and a _________word.

A shifter clause (adverb clause) gives information about time, reason, condition, or the

opposite of ____________. Shifter clauses can go in _______ of the trunk, or at the

end of the trunk.

A describer clause (adjective clause) gives more information about one word in the

trunk. Describer clauses go right _________ the word that they are describing.

In this lesson, let’s look at a third kind of clause, the completer clause.

I call this kind of clause a completer clause because it always comes at

the end of the trunk, and its purpose is to complete the idea of the

trunk. That’s pretty easy to remember. A completer clause completes.

Let’s look at some of these completer clauses. Notice where they are

in the sentence and notice the job that they do.

Some

books call

completer

clauses

“noun

clauses.”

Example 1: I think that you should study harder.

Example 2: I believe that it is time to go.

Example 3: She asked me if I knew her friend.

Example 4: They told me where I could find you.

You can see that completer clauses are actually part of the predicate of the trunk,

because they help to complete the idea of the trunk.

Look at the verbs in the different examples above. Have you noticed that the completer

clauses usually come after verbs of the senses or thinking?

Examples of verbs of the senses or thinking: ask

believe

expect

feel

hope

imagine

pray

recommend

say

suggest

tell

think


Rev: bh2006 Page 82

Clause words used with Completer Clauses

that if why what where

You can see that there are several different clause words that

introduce completer clauses, but the most common one is that. In addition, the use of the word that is often optional. If you

wish to delete the clause word that, your sentence will still be

OK. Look at these examples:

That is the most

common clause word in

completer clauses.

That can be used for

both people and things.

CW

Example: He said that he was sorry.

He said he was sorry.

CW

Example: I think that I’ll stay home tonight.

I think I’ll stay home tonight.

All four sentences are correct. In the second sentence of each example, the word that

has been omitted. I suggest that you always use the word that when you are writing

completer clauses just for the practice. Please remember that when we omit the word

that, it looks like we have two trunks. But if we want two trunks together we must have an

equal word. This is not the case here. So we must remember that the clause word has

been omitted.

The clause word that can be omitted, but don’t omit that for now. It’s confusing.


For each of the verbs of the senses or thinking, write a sentence with a completer clause

at the end. Do not omit the clause word.

1. (ask)_____________________________________________________________

2. (believe)__________________________________________________________

3. (expect)__________________________________________________________

4. (feel)_____________________________________________________________

5. (hope)____________________________________________________________

6. (imagine)__________________________________________________________


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7. (pray)____________________________________________________________

8. (recommend)_______________________________________________________

9. (say)_____________________________________________________________

10. (suggest)__________________________________________________________

11. (tell) _____________________________________________________________

12. (think) ___________________________________________________________


Now go back to your 12 sentences. For both the trunk and the clause, put a box around the

subject and an arrow over the predicate. Then place a CW over the clause word of your

completer clause.


Completer clause or Describer clause?

You saw in Lesson 26 that Describer clauses sometimes come at the end of the trunk.

Completer clauses also come at the end of a trunk. Look at the following sentences. Each

trunk is followed by a clause.

Place a CW over the clause word.

Circle TDsC if the clause is a Describer Clause.

Circle TCc if it is a Completer Clause.

1. TDsC TCc I think that it is time to go.

2. TDsC TCc I like the kind of food that your mother prepares.

3. TDsC TCc The teacher told him that he passed the examination.

4. TDsC TCc We can’t remember which train we should take.

5. TDsC TCc I didn’t like any of the people who were at the party.

6. TDsC TCc He said that he was going to get a divorce.

7. TDsC TCc She asked if you were feeling alright.

8. TDsC TCc Who’s that woman that’s talking to Raymond?


Rev: bh2006 Page 84

BLANK

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Xword Grammar Exercises for Students of ESL …xwordgrammar.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/107186061/Xword...Jessica loves ice cream, but she hates cake. Subject Vs info , but (for contrast)