Responses to Critiques on Machine Learning of Criminality Perceptions(Addendum of arXiv:1611.04135)

Xiaolin WuMcMaster University

Shanghai Jiao Tong Universityxwu510@gmail.com

Xi ZhangShanghai Jiao Tong Universityzhangxi 19930818@sjtu.edu.cn

In November 2016 we submitted to arXiv our paper “Au-tomated Inference on Criminality Using Face Images”. Itgenerated a great deal of discussions in the Internet andsome media outlets. Our work is only intended for pure aca-demic discussions; how it has become a media consumptionis a total surprise to us.

Although in agreement with our critics on the need andimportance of policing AI research for the general good ofthe society, we are deeply baffled by the ways some of themmispresented our work, in particular the motive and objec-tive of our research.

1. Name callingIt should be abundantly clear, for anyone who reads our

paper with a neutral mind setting, that our only motive is toknow if machine learning has the potential of acquiring hu-manlike social perceptions of faces, despite the complexityand subtlety of such perceptions that are functions of boththe observed and the observer. Our inquiry is to push theenvelope and extend the research on automated face recog-nition from the biometric dimension (e.g., determining therace, gender, age, facial expression, etc.) to the sociopsy-chological dimension. We are merely interested in the dis-tinct possibility of teaching machines to pass the Turing teston the task of duplicating humans in their first impressions(e.g., personality traits, mannerism, demeanor, etc.) of astranger. The face perception of criminality was expedi-ently (unfortunately to us in hindsight) chosen as an easytest case, at least in our intuition as explained in our paper:

“For validating the hypothesis on the correla-tions between the innate traits and social behav-iors of a person and the physical characteristicsof that persons face, it would be hard pushed tofind a more convincing experiment than examin-ing the success rates of discriminating betweencriminals and non-criminals with modern auto-matic classifiers. These two populations shouldbe among the easiest to differentiate, if social

attributes and facial features are correlated, be-cause being a criminal requires a host of abnor-mal (outlier) personal traits. If the classifica-tion rate turns out low, then the validity of face-induced social inference can be safely negated.”

By a magical stretch of imagination, few of our criticsintertwine the above passage into some of our honest ob-servations and morph them into the following deduction of,they insist, ours:

“Those with more curved upper lips and eyescloser together are of a lower social order, proneto (as Wu and Zhang put it) “a host of abnormal(outlier) personal traits” ultimately leading to alegal diagnosis of “criminality” with high proba-bility.”

We agree that the pungent word criminality should beput in quotation marks; a caveat about the possible biasesin the input data should be issued. Taking a court convic-tion at its face value, i.e., as the “ground truth” for machinelearning, was indeed a serious oversight on our part. How-ever, throughout our paper we maintain a sober neutralityon whatever we might find; in the introduction, we declare

“In this paper we intend not to nor are we qual-ified to discuss or debate on societal stereotypes,rather we want to satisfy our curiosity in the accu-racy of fully automated inference on criminality.At the onset of this study our gut feeling is thatmodern tools of machine learning and computervision will refute the validity of physiognomy, al-though the outcomes turn out otherwise.”

Nowhere in our paper advocated the use of our method asa tool of law enforcement, nor did our discussions advancefrom correlation to causality. But still we got interpretedcopiously by some with an insinuation of racism. This isnot the way of academic exchanges we are used to.

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Now we came to regret our choice of the terminology“physiognomy”, the closest English translation for the Chi-nese folklore term “Mian Xiang Xue”. We were not sen-sitive enough to the inherent dirty connotation of the wordin the English speaking academia; merely using the termdeserves the label of “scientific racism”?

2. Base Rate FallacyWhile some of our critics proclaimed “writing for a wide

audience: not only for researchers · · · ”, they convenientlydid not address the clear symptom of “base rate fallacy” ex-hibited by non-technical types in internet blogs and somemedia coverage. Many reports and comments on our re-search overemphasize on high success rates (granted, stillin need of more rigorous validation) of our classifiers; theyleap from these numbers to the “grave” danger of AI. Sorry,we have to bore technical readers by pointing out a trap ofinvalid reasoning called the base rate fallacy: the mind tendsto lock on a high specific probability (the 89% true positiverate of our CNN classifier) and ignore the very low under-lying background probability (0.36% crime rate in China).

If Wu is tested positive by our “criminality” classifier,how high a chance will he break the law? Nine of ten oddsas cried out by a journalist? By Bayesian statistical infer-ence (a rudimentary knowledge to research communities)Wu’s chance of committing a crime is

P (C|+) =P (+|C)P (C)

P (+|C)P (C) + P (+|N)(1− P (C))(1)

where P (+|C) = 0.89 is the probability that a convictedChinese adult male is tested positive by our CNN face clas-sifier, P (C) = 0.0036 is the crime rate of China, andP (+|N) = 0.07 is the probability that a non-criminal Chi-nese adult male is tested positive. Plugging all these num-bers into the Bayes formula, Wu is found to have a proba-bility of only 4.39% to break the law, despite being testedpositive by a method of unbelievably high accuracy. Hope-fully, this mathematical journey from 89% to 4.39% willput many of our critics at ease. Having done the above ex-ercise we want to stress again our strong opposition againstany practical uses of our methods, not only because theiraccuracies fall far below any minimum standard.

Base rate fallacy is an old trick used by irresponsible me-dia to sensationalize or exaggerate either the virtue or viceof new (unfamiliar/mysterious to general public) technolog-ical and scientific advances. It can be easily manipulated toinstill irrational fears or hopes into ordinary folks about theAI research.

3. Garbage inAs much irked by the intellectually chauvinistic tone of

few of our critics, we do not dispute their progressive social

values. There is really no need to parade infamous racistsin chronic order with us inserted at the terminal node. Butthe objectivity does exist, at least in theory, independent ofwhatever prevailing social norms.

With a Ph.D in computer science, we know all too well“garbage in and garbage out”. However, some of our crit-ics seemed to suggest that machine learning tools cannot beused in social computing simply because no one can pre-vent the garbage of human biases from creeping in. We donot share their pessimism. Like most technologies, machinelearning is neutral. If it can be used to reinforce human bi-ases in social computing problems as some argued, then itcan also be used to detect and correct human biases (preju-dice). They worry about the feedback loop but convenientlydo not see that the feedback can be either positive or nega-tive. Granted, the criminality is a highly delicate and com-plex matter; however, well-trained human experts can striveto ensure the objectivity of the training data, i.e., render-ing correct legal decisions independent of facial appearanceof the accused. If the labeling of training face images, orany other type of data for that matter, is free of human bi-ases, then the advantages of automated inference over hu-man judgment in objectivity cannot be denied.

Even in the presence of label noises, regardless they arerandom or systematic, scientific methods do exist to laun-der and restore/enhance credence to the results of statisticalinferences. Should we forego scientific knowledge for anyshade of populism?

4. Risk of OverfittingOur critics are quick to point out the relatively small

sample set used in our experiments and the risk of data over-fitting. We are sorely aware of this weakness but cannotget more ID images of convicted Chinese males for obviousreasons (the sort of ongoing publicity might have dashed allour hopes to enrich our data set). However, we did makeour best efforts to validate our findings in Section 3.3 of ourpaper, which opened as follows but completely ignored byour critics.

“Given the high social sensitivities and repercus-sions of our topic and skeptics on physiognomy[19], we try to excise maximum caution beforepublishing our results. In playing devil’s advo-cate, we design and conduct the following exper-iments to challenge the validity of the tested clas-sifiers · · · ”

We randomly label the faces of our training set as neg-ative and positive instances with equal probability, and runall four classifiers to test if any of them can separate therandomly labeled face images with a chance better than flip-ping a coin. All face classifiers fail the above test and other

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similar, more challenging tests (refer to our paper for de-tails). These empirical findings suggest that the good clas-sification performances reported in our paper are not dueto data overfitting; otherwise, given the same size and typeof sample set, the classifiers would also be able to separaterandomly labeled data.

Although our sample set of 2000 face images is far frombeing large, it is already one order of magnitude larger thanthe one used in a similar study carried out by a team ofCornell researchers. More importantly, the adequacy of thesample set size is a function of the variability of the data onhand. In our case, all face images are of the same race, gen-der, and the head pose; all facial landmark points are alignedvia an affine transform. All these factors greatly reduce thedata variability and thus the risk of data overfitting.

5. White CollarRegarding to the question of our critics on the wearing

of white-collared shirts by some men but not by others inthe ID portraits used in our experiments, we did segmentthe face portion out of all ID images. The face-only imagesare used in training and testing. The complete ID portraitsare presented in our paper only for illustration purposes. Wedid not spell out this data preparation detail because it is astandard practice of the field.

Nevertheless, the cue of white collar exposes an impor-tant detail that we owe the readers an apology. That is, wecould not control for socioeconomic status of the gentlemenwhose ID photos were used in our experiments. Not be-cause we did not want to, but we did not have access to themetadata due to confidentiality issues. Now reflecting onthis nuance, we speculate that the performance of our faceclassifiers would drop if the image data were controlled forsocioeconomic status. Immediately a corollary of social in-justice might follow, we suppose. In fact, this is preciselywhy we thought that our results could have significance tosocial sciences.

6. SmileyIn our experiments, we did control facial expressions

(e.g., smile and sad) but not faint micro-expressions (e.g.,relaxed vs. strained). We intend to exert much tighter con-trol on facial micro-expressions in the future as soon as areliable algorithm reaches the sophistication to do so.

The critique that our methods can be reduced to a sim-ple discriminator of smiling versus not-smiling has given usa new angle of scrutiny. Some Westerns think, by staringat the representative faces (“subtypes”) found by our clus-tering analysis (reproduced as Figure 1) of the two popula-tions, that the faces in the bottom row have hints of smilewhereas those in the top row do not. But our Chinese stu-dents and colleagues, even after being prompted to consider

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g)

Figure 1. (a), (b), (c) and (d) are the four face subtypes correspond-ing to four cluster centroids on the manifold of Sc; (e), (f) and (g)are the three subtypes of non-criminal faces corresponding to threecluster centroids on the manifold of Sn.

the cue of smile, fail to detect the same. Instead, they onlyfind the faces in the bottom row appearing somewhat morerelaxed than those in the top row. Perhaps, the different per-ceptions here are due to cultural differences.

All criminal ID photos are government issued, but notmug shots. To our best knowledge, they are normal gov-ernment issued ID portraits like those for driver’s license inUSA. In contrast, most of the noncriminal ID style photosare taken officially by some organizations (such as real es-tate companies, law firms, etc.) for their websites. We stressthat they are not selfies.

In our paper, we have also taken steps to prevent the ma-chine learning methods, CNN in particular, from picking upsuperficial differences between images, such as compres-sion noises and different cameras (Section 3.3).

In conclusion, we appreciate all questions and discus-sions surrounding our paper, but categorically reject thedistortions of our intentions, which are not helpful for theprogress and health of the AI research.

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Automated Inference on Criminality using Face Images

Xiaolin WuMcMaster University

Shanghai Jiao Tong Universityxwu510@gmail.com

Xi ZhangShanghai Jiao Tong Universityzhangxi 19930818@sjtu.edu.cn

Abstract

We study, for the first time, automated inference on crim-inality based solely on still face images, which is free ofany biases of subjective judgments of human observers.Via supervised machine learning, we build four classifiers(logistic regression, KNN, SVM, CNN) using facial im-ages of 1856 real persons controlled for race, gender, ageand facial expressions, nearly half of whom were convictedcriminals, for discriminating between criminals and non-criminals. All four classifiers perform consistently well andempirically establish the validity of automated face-inducedinference on criminality, despite the historical controversysurrounding this line of enquiry. Also, some discriminat-ing structural features for predicting criminality have beenfound by machine learning. Above all, the most importantdiscovery of this research is that criminal and non-criminalface images populate two quite distinctive manifolds. Thevariation among criminal faces is significantly greater thanthat of the non-criminal faces. The two manifolds consist-ing of criminal and non-criminal faces appear to be con-centric, with the non-criminal manifold lying in the kernelwith a smaller span, exhibiting a law of ”normality” forfaces of non-criminals. In other words, the faces of gen-eral law-biding public have a greater degree of resemblancecompared with the faces of criminals, or criminals havea higher degree of dissimilarity in facial appearance thannon-criminals.

1. IntroductionMotivated by many commercial applications of artificial

intelligence and man-machine interfaces, the research com-munities of pattern recognition and computer vision havedevoted a great deal of efforts to the recognition and manip-ulation of human faces [11, 31, 40, 35], and achieved mea-sured successes. But very little research has been done onanalyzing and quantifying social perception and attributesof faces [33], although this subject is of great importanceto many academic disciplines, such as social psychology,

management science, criminology, etc.In all cultures and all periods of recorded human history,

people share the belief that the face alone suffices to re-veal innate traits of a person. Aristotle in his famous workPrior Analytics asserted, ”It is possible to infer characterfrom features, if it is granted that the body and the soul arechanged together by the natural affections”. Psychologistshave known, for as long as a millennium, the human ten-dency of inferring innate traits and social attributes (e.g., thetrustworthiness, dominance) of a person from his/her facialappearance, and a robust consensus of individuals’ infer-ences . These are the facts found through numerous studies[3, 39, 5, 6, 10, 26, 27, 34, 32].

Independent of the validity of pedestrian belief in the(pseudo)science of physiognomy, a tantalizing question nat-urally arises: what facial features influence average Joes’impulsive and yet consensual judgments on social attributesof a non-acquaintance member of their own specie? At-tempting to answer the question, Todorov and Oosterhofproposed a data-driven statistical modeling method to findvisual determinants of social attributes by asking humansubjects to score four percepts: dominance, attractiveness,trustworthiness, and extroversion, based on first impressionof static face images [33]. This method can synthesize arepresentative (average) face image for a set of input faceimages scored closely on any of the four aforementionedsocial percepts. The ranking of these synthesized face im-ages by subjective scores (e.g., from least to most trustwor-thy looking) apparently agrees with the intuition of mostpeople.

Following the consensus in social perception from fa-cial appearance, arrives the next even bigger speculation:is there any diagnostic merit of the face-induced inferenceson an individual’s social attributes? In this paper we in-tend not to nor are we qualified to discuss or debate onsocietal stereotypes, rather we want to satisfy our curios-ity in the accuracy of fully automated inference on crim-inality. At the onset of this study our gut feeling is thatmodern tools of machine learning and computer vision willrefute the validity of physiognomy, although the outcomes

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turn out otherwise. Adopting an approach of supervisedmachine learning, we build four classifiers (logistic regres-sion [17], K-nearest neighbor (KNN) [2], Support VectorMachine (SVM) [14], and Convolutional Neural Networks(CNN) [21]) using facial images of 1856 real persons, halfof whom were convicted criminals, and evaluate the perfor-mances of these learnt classifiers. The work presented bythis paper is the first of its kind to our best knowledge.

As modern machine learning algorithms can match andeven exceed human’s performance in face recognition [24],it becomes irresistible to pursue automated inference oncriminality. Just like in face recognition, first impressionsfrom faces are raw, spontaneous assessments that are a re-sult of perceiving rather than reasoning. Even 3-to-4-year-olds reach a degree of agreement with adults in faced-induced judgment of social attributes [13]. Therefore, webelieve that social perception of faces should be a wor-thy and challenging topic for computer vision and machinelearning.

For validating the hypothesis on the correlations betweenthe innate traits and social behaviors of a person and thephysical characteristics of that person’s face, it would behard pushed to find a more convincing experiment than ex-amining the success rates of discriminating between crim-inals and non-criminals with modern automatic classifiers.These two populations should be among the easiest to dif-ferentiate, if social attributes and facial features are corre-lated, because being a criminal requires a host of abnormal(outlier) personal traits. If the classification rate turns outlow, then the validity of face-induced social inference canbe safely negated.

In contrast to a large body of research literature on theprevalence and consequences of appearance-induced infer-ence on personal traits in the field of psychology, relativelylittle study has been done on the accuracy of character infer-ence based solely on still face images [37]. This is probablydue to, aside from the historical controversies surroundingthe inquiry and stigmas associated with social Darwinism,the difficulty to neutralize all possible prejudice and pre-conditioning of human experimenters and subjects when as-sessing the accuracy of face-induced inference on sociallycharged matters such as criminality. In this work, we adoptthe approach of data-driven machine learning to fully au-tomate the assessment process, and purposefully take anysubtle human factors out of the assessment process.

Unlike a human examiner/judge, a computer vision al-gorithm or classifier has absolutely no subjective baggages,having no emotions, no biases whatsoever due to past expe-rience, race, religion, political doctrine, gender, age, etc.,no mental fatigue, no preconditioning of a bad sleep ormeal. The automated inference on criminality eliminatesthe variable of meta-accuracy (the competence of the hu-man judge/examiner) all together. Besides the advantage

of objectivity, sophisticated algorithms based on machinelearning may discover very delicate and elusive nuances infacial characteristics and structures that correlate to innatepersonal traits and yet hide below the cognitive threshold ofmost untrained nonexperts. This is at least a distinct theo-retical possibility.

Although being the first to study automatic face-inducedinference on criminality, our findings are significant in thatthey are derived not only by more advanced data analysis al-gorithms but also from more realistic, higher quality data setthan in previous similar studies carried out by psychologistswho use traditional methods. Our data for the training of theclassifiers are standard ID photographs of real persons con-trolled for race, gender, age, and facial expression. In con-trast, other studies used sample face images that were syn-thetic and generated by either 2D or 3D face models basedon eigenfaces [35, 8, 9]. However, it is not clear that thesynthetic faces, generated by random perturbing parametersof a mathematical face model as done in [35, 8], truly andfairly represent the population. Only in Valla et al.’s studyon face-induced inference on criminality, real face imagesof male Caucasians were used [37]. But in this study hu-mans not computers performed the classification task.

This paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, we de-tail the preparations of experiment data and the control ofvariables to set the subsequent data-driven machine learn-ing methods for inferring criminality on solid ground. InSection 3, we represent our methods for assessing the ac-curacy of automated face-induced inference on criminalityand report our findings, which offer strong evidences point-ing to high success rate of automatic classification betweencriminals and non-criminals based on ID photos. The pos-itive results are cross-validated vigorously. In Section 4,we explore discriminating facial features that contribute tothe success of automated face-induced inference on crim-inality. In Section 5, we try to gain some insight in theunderlying mechanism for the separability of criminal andnon-criminal faces via cluster analysis on manifolds. It isfound that criminal face images and non-criminal face im-ages populate two quite distinctive manifolds. The varia-tion among criminal faces is significantly greater than thatof the non-criminal faces. The two manifolds formed re-spectively by the two data sets of criminal and non-criminalfaces are concentric, with the manifold for the non-criminalface images lying in the kernel with a smaller span. Thisnewly discovered knowledge suggests a law of normalityfor faces of non-criminals: Given the race, gender and age,the faces of general law-biding public have a greater degreeof resemblance compared with the faces of criminals. Inother words, criminals have a significantly higher degree ofdissimilarity in facial appearance than normal population.Section 6 concludes the paper.

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(a) Three samples in criminal ID photo set Sc.

(b) Three samples in non-criminal ID photo set Sn

Figure 1. Sample ID photos in our data set.

2. Data preparationIn order to conduct our experiments and draw conclu-

sions with strict control of variables, we collected 1856 IDphotos that satisfy the following criteria: Chinese, male,between ages of 18 and 55, no facial hair, no facial scarsor other markings, and denote this data set by S. Set S isdivided into two subsets Sn and Sc for non-criminals andcriminals, respectively. Subset Sn contains ID photos of1126 non-criminals that are acquired from Internet using theweb spider tool; they are from a wide gamut of professionsand social status, including waiters, construction workers,taxi and truck drivers, real estate agents, doctors, lawyersand professors; roughly half of the individuals in subset Sn

have university degrees.Subset Sc contains ID photos of 730 criminals, of which

330 are published as wanted suspects by the ministry ofpublic security of China and by the departments of publicsecurity for the provinces of Guangdong, Jiangsu, Liaoning,etc.; the others are provided by a city police department inChina under a confidentiality agreement. We stress that thecriminal face images in Sc are normal ID photos not policemugshots. Out of the 730 criminals 235 committed violentcrimes including murder, rape, assault, kidnap and robbery;the remaining 536 are convicted of non-violent crimes, suchas theft, fraud, abuse of trust (corruption), forgery and rack-eteering. Some sample ID photos in Sc and Sn are dis-played in Figure 1. The individuals in Sc and Sn are resi-dents of a very large geographical areas, stretching from thenortheast all the way to the far south of China and includingpoor and very rich provinces of the country.

In all selected ID photos, only the region of the face andupper neck is extracted and the background is removed. Allthe extracted faces are normalized in size and aligned intoan 80 × 80 image. Although all test face images are IDphotos acquired with uniform frontal lighting, we still take

extra measures to neutralize any possible effects of variedillumination conditions. Only the luminance component ofall color face images is used to factor out the spectrum ofthe lighting and the skin color. Moreover, all resulting greyscale images are normalized to have the same intensity dis-tribution or the same overall tone production. This is doneby matching the histogram of every input image to the aver-age histogram for the entire data set of 1856 grey scale faceimages.

All ID photos in S are JPEG compressed with QP factorof 90 or higher. Still we applied JPEG soft decoding tech-niques [23, 28] to remove small (perceptually transparent)compression noises; in the process any device-dependent,signal-level signatures are destroyed as well.

3. Validity of Face Classifiers on Criminality

As argued in the introduction, one way of assessing theaccuracy of the automated inference on criminality basedsolely on still face images is to build and test classifiers withmodern machine learning techniques. This section presentsthe design and results of the classification experiments.

3.1. Methods

In order to prove or disprove the hypothesis that still faceimages suffice to distinguish criminals and non-criminals,we try to make our investigations as thorough as possible.We run four different classification methods, logistic regres-sion, KNN, SVM and CNN, on the image data set S pre-pared as above.

As the first three classification methods work on imagefeatures, we run them and evaluate their performances on awide range of features, including 1. Facial landmark pointslike eye corners, mouth corners and tip of the nose, etc.;2. Facial feature vector generated by modular PCA [18]; 3.Facial feature vector based on Local Binary Pattern (LBP)histograms [1]; 4. The concatenation of the above three fea-ture vectors. We stress that the landmark points are definedof strategic positions on a face, hence they are features thatare beyond signal level and invariant to source cameras.

Our convolutional neural network is constructed by re-training the parameters of every layer in AlexNet [21] whileretaining its architecture.

Define the criminal subset Sc as the positive class andthe non-criminal subset Sn as the negative class. We per-form 10-fold cross validation for all possible combinationsof the three feature-driven classifiers and the four types offeature vectors, plus data-driven CNN without explicit fea-ture vector; altogether thirteen cases (3 classifiers × 4 fea-ture vectors plus CNN) of 10-fold cross validation type. Inthe interest of statistic significance we repeated the crossvalidation for each of the thirteen cases ten times with dif-ferent random seeds. In each of these (13 cases × 10 runs)

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0.74

0.76

0.78

0.8

0.82

0.84

0.86

0.88

0.9landmark pointsmodular PCALBPCombined feature

KNN LR SVM CNN

Figure 2. Accuracy of all four classifiers in all thirteen cases.

Classifiers CNN SVM KNN LRAUC 0.9540 0.9303 0.8838 0.8666

Table 1. The AUC results for the four tested face classifiers oncriminality.

130 experiments, we examine the rate of correctly classify-ing a member of S into Sn or Sc, and then average the ratesof each case over ten runs.

3.2. Results

In Figure 2, we plot the accuracies of all four classifiersin the above thirteen cases. As expected, the state-of-the-artCNN classifier performs the best, achieving 89.51% accu-racy. The relatively high accuracy of CNN is also paralleledby all other three classifiers which are only few percentagepoints behind in the success rate of classification. Thesehighly consistent results are evidences for the validity of au-tomated face-induced inference on criminality, despite thehistorical controversy surrounding the topic. We also plotthe missing rate and false alarm rate for the four tested clas-sifiers in Figure 3 and Figure 4.

To measure the sensitivities of the automatic, data-driven, binary face classifiers for criminality in relation totheir false alarm rates, we plot the ROC curves for the fourtested classifiers (see Figure 5), and report the correspond-ing AUC results in Table 1 as well. By these classificationperformance metrics, the prediction power of the proposedapproach of automated face-induced inference on criminal-ity is established.

3.3. Validation

Given the high social sensitivities and repercussions ofour topic and skeptics on physiognomy [19], we try to ex-cise maximum caution before publishing our results. Inplaying devil’s advocate, we design and conduct the fol-lowing experiments to challenge the validity of the tested

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Figure 3. Missing rate of all four classifiers in all thirteen cases.

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Figure 4. False alarm rate of all four classifiers in all thirteen cases.

False positive rate0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

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Figure 5. The ROC curves of the four tested binary face classifierson criminality.

classifiers for the task of discriminating between criminalsand non-criminals. We randomly label the faces in the verysame sample set S as negative and positive instances withequal probability, and redo all the above experiments of bi-nary classification. The outcomes show that the randomly

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(a)

(b)

Figure 6. Noisy versions (σ = 0.03) of sample ID photos in Figure1.

generated negative and positive instances cannot be distin-guished at all; the average classification accuracy is found tobe only 48%, false negative rate about 51% and false posi-tive rate about 50%. Similar fifty-fifty observations are alsomade by randomly and equal-probably labeling the mem-bers of subset Sc (or Sn) as positive and negative instances,and checking the performances of the four binary classi-fiers, after they are built upon and applied to the randomlyshuffled classes.

In fact, we go much further along the self-critical path,and carry out the same experiments of random labeling ondifferent sample sets of the same size (1500) and with thesame variable control. Only this time the selection criteriaare: case 1. standard ID photos of Chinese, female, youngor middle age, no facial scars or other markings; case 2.standard ID photos of Caucasian, male, young or middleage, no facial markings; case 3. standard ID photos of Cau-casian, female, young or middle age, no facial markings.In none of the three cases, any of the four classifiers man-ages to achieve a true positive rate higher than 53 percenton randomly labeled positive and negative instances.

The above experiments rule out that the good accuraciesof the four evaluated classifiers in face-induced inference oncriminality are due to data overfitting; otherwise, given thesame sample size, they would also be able to distinguish be-tween the randomly labeled positive and negative instanceswith significantly better chances than guessing at random.The big jump of the true positive rate from random labelingto truth labeling of the same set S of sample face images canonly be explained by intrinsic separability of Sc and Sn.

As different source cameras generated the ID photos inset S, they might leave their signatures that, although belowperception threshold in signal strength, could mislead ma-chine learning. This issue was already dealt with at the endof Section 2 and in Section 3.1 (the use of landmark points

noise σ 0 0.01 0.03

Accuracy SVM 88.98% 81.03% 73.11%CNN 89.51% 82.65% 76.88%

Table 2. The accuracies of the CNN and SVM (using combinedfeatures) face classifiers for different noise levels.

False positive rate0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

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Figure 7. The ROC curves of the CNN face classifier for differentnoise levels.

noise σ 0 0.01 0.03

AccuracyKNN 79.16% 78.03% 76.81%LR 83.71% 80.19% 77.45%

SVM 82.99% 81.52% 79.31%

False alarmKNN 14.79% 15.91% 13.97%LR 10.65% 14.01% 13.39%

SVM 11.57% 14.21% 12.51%

MissingKNN 31.48% 31.52% 38.53%LR 26.20% 30.20% 37.41%

SVM 26.58% 28.47% 34.29%

Table 3. The accuracy, false alarm and missing rates of the KNN,LR and SVM classifiers when they use landmark points as featuresand operate on noisy face images.

as features). To make our case even tighter we take extrasteps to make the face classifiers completely immune fromany potential biases of source cameras. We redo the exper-iments in Section 3.1 after adding Gaussian random noisesof zero mean and variance σ2 to the ID photos in S. Theadded noises will overpower any camera-dependent signa-tures. The performances of the classifiers on noisy inputface images are reported in Tables 2 and 3, and Figure 7.

Table 2 shows that the accuracies of the CNN and SVM(using combined features) face classifiers decrease as noiselevel σ increases, but they are still above 73% for SVMand 76% for CNN even when the noises become visible(σ = 0.03, see Figure 6). The ROC curves of the CNN faceclassifier for different σ are plotted in Figure 7. As shown,the CNN classifier can withstand severe noise corruption

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and still discriminate between criminals and non-criminalswith high true positive rate and relatively low false positiverate.

As argued in Section 3.1, landmark points are featuresthat are invariant to source cameras. Table 3 tabulates theaccuracy, false alarm and missing rates of the KNN, LR andSVM classifiers when they use landmark points as featuresand operate on noisy face images. As we expected, thereare no material changes in all performance numbers overdifferent noise levels.

Also, we have tested whether the classification resultsare robust against slight variations in lighting environmentand face orientation. We recruit 10 male Chinese studentsand casually take four face photographs for each of themin different environments and feed these photos to the fourclassifiers built on Sc and Sn. The classification results turnout to be consistent with a probability higher than 83 percent.

4. Discriminating Features

Having obtained the above strong empirical evidencesfor the validity of automated face-induced inference oncriminality, one cannot resist the following intriguing ques-tion: what features of a human face betray its owner’spropensity for crimes? In fact, the same question has capti-vated professionals (e.g., psychologists, sociologists, crim-inologists) and amateurs alike, cross all cultures, and for aslong as there are notions of law and crime. Intuitive specu-lations are abundant both in writing [16, 12] and folklore. Inthis section, we try to answer the question in the most me-chanical and scientific way allowed by the available toolsand data. The approach is to let a machine learning methodexplore the data and reveal the most discriminating facialfeatures that tell apart criminals and non-criminals. We ap-ply the Feature Generating Machine (FGM) of Tan et al.[29] to the task; it identifies the red-marked regions in Fig-ure 8 (a) as the most critical parts for the separation of crim-inals and non-criminals. Guided by FGM, we discover thatthe following three structural measurements in the criticalareas around eye corners, mouth and philtrum that have sig-nificantly different distributions for the two populations inSc and Sn: the curvature of upper lip denoted by ρ; thedistance between two eye inner corners denoted by d; andthe angle enclosed by rays from the nose tip to the two cor-ners of the mouth denoted by θ. The three discriminatingstructural features ρ, d and θ are shown in Figure 8 (b). Westress that the upper lip curvature ρ is measured on standardID photos taken with the person in neutral facial expression.

Let random variables xc and xn be any of the above threemeasurements for criminals and non-criminals. We exam-ine the two histograms P (xc) and P (xn) and find they haverather large Hellinger distance [7]. The Hellinger distance

(a)

θ

d

ρ

(b)

Figure 8. (a) FGM results; (b) Three discriminative features ρ, dand θ.

Mean Variancecriminal non-criminal criminal non-criminal

ρ 0.5809 0.4855 0.0245 0.0187d 0.3887 0.4118 0.0202 0.0144θ 0.2955 0.3860 0.0185 0.0130

Table 4. The mean and variance for three normalized discrimina-tive features ρ, d and θ.

between two probability distributions is defined as

H(P (xc), P (xn)) =

√1−

∑

i

√P (xc(i)) · P (xn(i))

(1)Hellinger distance H(·, ·) ranges from 0 to 1, where 0means that two probability distributions are identical and1 means that probability distributions are different com-pletely. In our case, the Hellinger distances are quite sig-nificant, being 0.3208, 0.2971, 0.3855 for ρ, d and θ, re-spectively.

In Figure 9, we plot the histograms of ρ, d and θ afternormalizing every measurement to range [0, 1]. The meanand variance of ρ, d and θ for criminals and non-criminalsare tabulated in Table 4. One can see in Figure 9 and Table4 that the angle θ from nose tip to two mouth corners is onaverage 19.6% smaller for criminals than for non-criminalsand has a larger variance. Also, the upper lip curvatureρ is on average 23.4% larger for criminals than for non-criminals. On the other hand, the distance d between twoeye inner corners for criminals is slightly narrower (5.6%)than for non-criminals. Interestingly, in a study on per-ceived and measured intelligence by Chvatalova et al. [20],it was found that greater interpupillary distance is correlatedwith higher IQ for Caucasian men. But it is worth notingthat the distance between two eye inner corners is a morediscriminating feature than the interpupillary distance forthe classification of criminals.

6

0 0.5 10

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05criminal

0 0.5 10

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05non-criminal

(a) Histograms of ρ

0 0.5 10

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05criminal

0 0.5 10

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05non-criminal

(b) Histograms of d

0 0.5 10

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05criminal

0 0.5 10

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05non-criminal

(c) Histograms of θ

Figure 9. Histograms of the three discriminative features.

5. Face Clustering on Manifolds

Encouraged by the newly found success of machinelearning in face-induced inference on criminality and theknowledge of the underlying discriminative features, thenext question is logically, what are the typical (average)faces for criminals and non-criminals? Indeed, some re-searchers embarked on this type of enquiry and publishedon topics such as the characteristic face of female beauty[25], distinctive faces of certain races [22] and nationali-ties (e.g., Japanese vs. Koreans vs. Chinese) [38]. Previousauthors attempted to find a typical face (i.e., an average ofsome sort) for a category of people, such as Chinese, beau-tiful female, criminals, and the alike. But in this section,we argue against the practice of using a single representa-tive face for a social label such as beauty and criminal, evenwhen the labeling is highly consensual.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 10. (a) and (b) are ”average” faces for criminals and non-criminals generated by averaging of eigenface representations ; (c)and (d) are ”average” faces for criminals and non-criminals gener-ated by averaging of landmark points and image warping.

Although the antithesis of criminals and non-criminalsis very strong, conventionally-defined average faces of thetwo populations Sc and Sn appear hardly distinguishable asdemonstrated in Figure 10. The displayed average faces aregenerated either by averaging of landmark points and im-age warping [15], or by averaging eigenface representations[36] over the sample set. In order to understand and solvethe puzzle of failing to find an average face of criminalsthat is sufficiently distinctive from that of non-criminals, welook into the high-dimensional distributions of Sc and Sn,and the structural statistical relationships between the twopopulations in Sc and Sn.

The seeming paradox that Sc and Sn can be classified butthe average faces of Sc and Sn appear almost the same canbe explained, if the data distributions of Sc and Sn are heav-ily mingled and yet separable by a complex surface discrim-inant. This thought leads to the suspicion: perhaps, mani-folds are good representations for the data clouds of Sc andSn; in other words, faces of criminals and non-criminals areassumed to populate two quite distinctive manifolds. Ourmanifold hypothesis is also promoted by observing that thedifferences between faces can be modeled as the results ofcontinuous morphing.

To test this hypothesis, we compute the cross-class av-erage manifold distance D× between two subsets Sc andSn, and the in-class average manifold distances Dc and Dn

for Sc and Sn, and compare them. Let d(fi, fj) denotethe geodesic distance between two different faces fi andfj , which is defined as the length of shortest the path be-tween fi and fj in the sparse neighborhood graph [30]. The

7

aforementioned average manifold distances are defined as

D× =1

|Sc||Sn|∑

fi∈Sc,fj∈Sn

d(fi, fj)

Dc =2

|Sc||Sc − 1|∑

fi,fj∈Sc;i 6=j

d(fi, fj)

Dn =2

|Sn||Sn − 1|∑

fi,fj∈Sn;i6=j

d(fi, fj)

(2)

The sample sets of the criminal and non-criminal faceimages reveal that Dc > D× > Dn. These inequalitiesof manifold distances and the fact that Sc and Sn have al-most the same sample mean vectors suggest the possibilitythat the two manifolds of Sc and Sn are concentric, withthe non-criminal manifold lying in the kernel with a smallerspan and the criminal manifold forming an outer layer oflarge spread.

To verify our intuition, let us visualize the sample distri-butions of Sc and Sn after a dimensionality reduction pro-cessing. We adopt the nonlinear dimensionality reductionmethod called Isomap [30] to compute a quasi-isometric,low-dimensional embedding of our ultra-high-dimensionaldata sets. Isomap uses the geodesic distance d(a, b) be-tween two points a and b on a manifold, which is defined tobe the sum of edge weights along the shortest path connect-ing a and b in the sparse neighborhood graph. The largestn eigenvectors of the geodesic distance matrix represent thecoordinates in the new n-dimensional Euclidean space.

Figure 11 depicts the relationship of residual varianceand Isomap dimensionality; it indicates that the originalultra-high dimensional data set can be represented reason-ably well in a subspace of four to six dimensions. The dataclouds of criminals and non-criminals can be visualized inFigure 12, in which the first four most significant dimen-sions of the Isomap are represented by the x, y, z axis, andthe color temperature.

All above analyses and visualization indicate that a sub-jectively meaningful typical face of criminals, even aftercontrolled for race, gender, nationality and age, simply doesnot exist. Instead, there should be few mutually distinc-tive subtypes of criminal faces. In other words, the cor-rect answers lie in data clustering on manifolds. We use thegeodesic K-means clustering [4] to discover these represen-tative subtypes in sample sets Sc and Sn. In the geodesicK-means clustering of Sc, first K faces are randomly cho-sen as tentative centroids on the manifold of Sc, denotedby gk, 1 ≤ k ≤ K. Then each face fi ∈ Sc is assigned tocluster Cj whose centroid is the closest to fi in the geodesicdistance d,

j = argmin1≤k≤K

d(fi, gk). (3)

Next the cluster centroids are updated by the nearest neigh-

Isomap dimensionality

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Res

idua

l var

ianc

e

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

criminalnon-criminal

Figure 11. The relationship of residual variance and Isomap di-mensionality.

bor rule:gk = argmin

fi∈Ck

∑

fj∈Ck

d(fi, fj). (4)

The above steps iterate till the cluster centroids converge.For final cluster Ck, 1 ≤ k ≤ K, we compute the represen-tative face of subtype k of criminals, by warping all facesfi ∈ Ck so that the landmark points of fi are aligned withcorresponding ones of gk, and averaging all warped faces.

The same clustering and averaging processes are alsocarried out on Sn to produce subtype faces for non-criminals.

Figure 13 displays four subtypes of criminal faces inSc and three subtypes of non-criminal faces in Sn thatare synthesized by the above described processes. Thesecomputer-generated representative faces for criminals andnon-criminals appear to be in agreement with the intuitionof 50 Chinese students of both sexes who participated in ansubjective test. In this experiment, every participant has tomake a binary decision on each of these seven synthesizedsubtype faces (presented in random order) and assign score−1 for being more criminal like, or +1 otherwise. All par-ticipants do not know that these faces are synthesized norhow many of them are representatives of criminals. The av-erage scores for these synthesized faces corresponding clus-ter centroids are shown in Figure 13.

As the K-means clustering is unsupervised, we need tojustify why there are four subtypes of criminal faces in Sc

but only three subtypes of non-criminal faces in Sn. Figure14 depicts how the variation within a cluster decreases inthe number of clusters K for both Sc and Sn. The figureclearly illustrates that there are four well separable clusters(distinctive facial appearances) for criminal faces as the in-cluster variation drops quickly till K = 4, while the facesof non-criminals do not form as many separable clusters ingeodesic distance on the manifold of Sn.

8

(a)

(b)

(c)

-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20

(d)

Figure 12. Data clouds (”+” labels criminals and ”o” labels non-criminals) in the first four most significant dimensions of theIsomap, viewed in three different perspectives.

(a) -0.98 (b) -0.68 (c) -0.28 (d) -0.38

(e) 0.76 (f) 0.98 (g) 0.66

Figure 13. (a), (b), (c) and (d) are the four subtypes of criminalfaces corresponding to four cluster centroids on the manifold ofSc; (e), (f) and (g) are the three subtypes of non-criminal facescorresponding to three cluster centroids on the manifold of Sn.The number associated with each face is the average score of hu-man judges (-1 for criminals; 1 for non-criminals).

Number of clusters

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6

Var

iatio

n w

ithin

clu

ster

28

30

32

34

36

38

40

42

criminalnon criminal

Figure 14. The relationship of variation within a cluster and num-ber of clusters for criminal and non-criminal data set.

The above data analysis and visualization allow us tomake the following interesting and meaningful conclusion,which holds at least for the class of human subjects be-ing examined here, i.e., male Chinese of young or mid-dle age. Although criminals are a small minority in totalpopulation, they have appreciably greater variations in fa-cial appearance than general public. This coincides withthe fact that all law-biding citizens share many common so-cial attributes, whereas criminals tend to have very differentcharacteristics and circumstances, some of which are quiteunique of the individual’s own.

6. ConclusionsWe are the first to study automated face-induced infer-

ence on criminality free of any biases of subjective judg-ments of human observers. By extensive experiments andvigorous cross validations, we have demonstrated that via

9

supervised machine learning, data-driven face classifiers areable to make reliable inference on criminality. Furthermore,we have discovered that a law of normality for faces of non-criminals. After controlled for race, gender and age, thegeneral law-biding public have facial appearances that varyin a significantly lesser degree than criminals.

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