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Orbis Litterarum 57: 317–342, 2002 C 2002 Blackwell Munksgaard Printed in Denmark . All rights reserved ISSN 0105-7510 ’Yonder lies the grave-island, the silent island; yonder, too, are the graves of my youth’: A Commentary on Zarathustra’s Grave-Song Paul Bishop, University of Glasgow This article places Nietzsche’s central work, Also sprach Zarathus- tra, in the context of his insistence on the importance of interpre- tation. In the form of a short commentary, the author attempts to explore the significance of the chapter entitled ‘Das Grablied’ (The Grave-Song), in order to show how our understanding of Nietz- sche’s work can benefit from closer textual analysis. Situating the chapter within the rest of Zarathustra, the commentary examines the language, cultural references, and imagery of ‘Das Grablied’, arguing that the technique of repetition and slight variation of phrases creates a continuity across the text and a density of feeling. Zarathustra’s logic, we learn, does not proceed in logical stages, but rather emerges from his pronouncements across the text. Thus an argument which, at first sight, appears jumbled and incoher- ent, is revealed, by close reading, to possess an intellectual logic amid an increaslingly ecstatic intensity of expression. Read in de- tail and in context, ‘Das Grablied’ is shown to represent a major step in the argument of Zarathustra, for it sings of how we, too, can learn to love the earth and obey the injunction: bleibt der Erde treu! In Ecce Homo , Nietzsche described Also sprach Zarathustra as not just the most important work he had written, but the greatest book of all time: Innerhalb meiner Schriften steht für sich mein Z a r a t h u s t r a. Ich habe mit ihm der Menschheit das grösste Geschenk gemacht, das ihr bisher gemacht worden ist. Dies Buch, mit einer Stimme über Jahrtausende hinweg, ist nicht nur das höchste Buch, das es giebt, das eigentliche Höhenluft-Buch – die ganze Thatsache Mensch liegt in ungeheurer Ferne u n t e r ihm –, es ist auch das t i e f s t e, das aus dem innersten Reichthum der Wahrheit heraus geborene, ein unerschöpflicher Brunnen, in den kein Eimer hinabsteigt, ohne mit Gold und Güte gefüllt heraufzukommen. (KSA, VI, 259) 1

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Page 1: ’Yonder lies the grave-island, the silent island; yonder, too, are the graves of my youth’: A Commentary on Zarathustra's Grave-Song

Orbis Litterarum 57: 317–342, 2002 C 2002 Blackwell MunksgaardPrinted in Denmark . All rights reserved

ISSN 0105-7510

’Yonder lies the grave-island, the silent island;yonder, too, are the graves of my youth’:A Commentary on Zarathustra’s Grave-SongPaul Bishop, University of Glasgow

This article places Nietzsche’s central work, Also sprach Zarathus-tra, in the context of his insistence on the importance of interpre-tation. In the form of a short commentary, the author attempts toexplore the significance of the chapter entitled ‘Das Grablied’ (TheGrave-Song), in order to show how our understanding of Nietz-sche’s work can benefit from closer textual analysis. Situating thechapter within the rest of Zarathustra, the commentary examinesthe language, cultural references, and imagery of ‘Das Grablied’,arguing that the technique of repetition and slight variation ofphrases creates a continuity across the text and a density of feeling.Zarathustra’s logic, we learn, does not proceed in logical stages,but rather emerges from his pronouncements across the text. Thusan argument which, at first sight, appears jumbled and incoher-ent, is revealed, by close reading, to possess an intellectual logicamid an increaslingly ecstatic intensity of expression. Read in de-tail and in context, ‘Das Grablied’ is shown to represent a majorstep in the argument of Zarathustra, for it sings of how we, too,can learn to love the earth and obey the injunction: bleibt der Erdetreu!

In Ecce Homo, Nietzsche described Also sprach Zarathustra as not just themost important work he had written, but the greatest book of all time:

Innerhalb meiner Schriften steht für sich mein Z a r a t h u s t r a. Ich habe mitihm der Menschheit das grösste Geschenk gemacht, das ihr bisher gemachtworden ist. Dies Buch, mit einer Stimme über Jahrtausende hinweg, ist nichtnur das höchste Buch, das es giebt, das eigentliche Höhenluft-Buch – die ganzeThatsache Mensch liegt in ungeheurer Ferne u n t e r ihm –, es ist auch dast i e f s t e, das aus dem innersten Reichthum der Wahrheit heraus geborene, einunerschöpflicher Brunnen, in den kein Eimer hinabsteigt, ohne mit Gold undGüte gefüllt heraufzukommen.

(KSA, VI, 259)1

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The encomium needs, however, to be seen in the context of Nietzsche’s insist-ence, elsewhere, on the importance of interpretation. In formal respects, Zara-thustra can be regarded as a sequence of aphorisms, which is why Nietzschechose a passage from Zarathustra as a text in terms of which the third essayof Zur Genealogie der Moral should, he suggested, be read as a commentary:‘Ein Aphorismus, rechtschaffen geprägt und ausgegossen, ist damit, dass erabgelesen ist, noch nicht ‘‘entziffert’’; vielmehr hat nun erst dessen A u s l e -g u n g zu beginnen, zu der es einer Kunst der Auslegung bedarf ’ (KSA, V,255). In his 1959 seminar on Zarathustra, political philosopher and Nietzschescholar Leo Strauss commented: ‘The interpretation depends on the creativeact of the interpreter. But the interpretation that is given exists as much asthe mere text and therefore one cannot say the interpretation is not true, onlythe text is true. [...] From Nietzsche’s point of view, to know means not merelyto be cognizant of a thing but to interpret, to create, to be a poet’.2

Despite his emphasis on the need to interpret, the circumstance that Nietz-sche foresaw in Ecce Homo – the establishment of university chairs for theinterpretation of Zarathustra (KSA, VI, 298) – has not come to pass, anddespite the immense influence of Zarathustra on twentieth-century literatureand philosophy, there have been relatively few commentaries on this, arguablythe key text of modernity. One of the earliest commentaries, Hans Weichelt’sZarathustra-Kommentar (1910, 21922), offers little more than a summary ofeach chapter;3 C. G. Jung’s seminars on Zarathustra take for granted thetenets of analytical psychology;4 Martin Heidegger’s lectures from 1936 to1940, together with his essays from 1940 to 1946, develop his own individualreading of Nietzsche on the basis of the Nachlass, hardly mentioning Zara-thustra at all;5 Leo Strauss’s 1959 seminar remains unpublished;6 and Anne-Marie Pieper’s commentary restricts itself to Part I of Zarathustra.7 Thatsaid, there have been some helpful discussions in learned journals on particu-lar chapters of Zarathustra,8 and several commentaries on the whole of Zara-thustra have been published over the last two decades: Laurence Lampert’smagisterial Nietzsche’s Teaching (1986); Stanley Rosen’s idiosyncratic TheMask of Enlightenment (1995); and, most recently of all, the collection ofpapers edited by Volker Gerhardt.9 Following a recent attempt to offer afresh approach to the reading of Zarathustra,10 this article will attempt, in theform of a short commentary, to explore the significance of ‘Das Grablied’, inorder to show how our understanding of Nietzsche’s work can benefit fromcloser textual analysis.

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319Zarathustra’s Grave-Song

‘Das Grablied’ is the third of three songs performed by Zarathustra inPart II. Following Zarathustra’s descent from his mountain, his journey tothe market-place of the Bunte Kuh, and his acquisition of a group of disciplesfrom whom he finally takes his leave (Part I), Part II begins withZarathustra’s dream that his teaching is in danger, and his decision to travelto the Blissful Islands, where both his friends and his enemies are to be found(‘Das Kind mit dem Spiegel’). The Blissful Islands, the Fortunatae insulae,are a motif from classical literature, where they appear as the makaron nesoimentioned in Hesiod’s Works and Days (l.171) and as hieron nesoi at the endof his Theogony (l.1015). They appear, too, as ‘Blessed Isles’ of Pindar’s se-cond ‘Olympian Ode’ (ll.70ff), as the ‘Gardens of the Hesperides’ in popularGreek myth, and in Homer’s Odyssey both in Elysium and the game-celebrat-ing Phaeacians’ island of Scheria. A place of peace and plenty, they embodythe values of the ‘golden age’, the reign of Cronus, as related by the Strangerin Plato’s The Statesman (271d–272b).12 As a symbol of utopianism, the bliss-ful islands recur as a motif in the eighteenth-century German tradition inWilhelm Heinse’s Ardinghello, und die gluckseligen Inseln (1787),13 a novel inpraise of many of the virtues of the Italian Renaissance that Nietszsche soadmired.14

On the Blissful Islands, Zarathustra expects to meet both his friends andhis enemies (KSA, IV, p. 107), and his speeches and songs up to ‘Das Grabli-ed’ are delivered and performed on the Blissfull Islands. (Zarathustra’s jour-ney to the Blissful Islands is not described at all, in contrast to his journeyback from them, via the Bunte Kuh and culminating in ‘Die Heimkehr’ [KSA,IV, 231-34], which constitutes the basic plot of part III). The second sectionof Part II, the powerful chapter ‘Auf den gluckseligen Inseln’, opens with apassage of almost unrivalled elegance and beauty, addressed to Zarathustra’sfriends:

Die Feigen fallen von den Bäumen, sie sind gut und süss; und indem sie fallen,reisst ihnen die rothe Haut. Ein Nordwind bin ich reifen Feigen.Also, gleich Feigen, fallen euch diese Lehren zu, meine Freunde: nun trinktihren Saft und ihr süsses Fleisch! Herbst ist es umher und reiner Himmel undNachmittag.Seht, welche Fülle ist um uns! Und aus dem Überflusse heraus ist es schönhinaus zu blicken auf ferne Meere.Einst sagte man Gott, wenn man auf ferne Meere blickte; nun aber lehrte icheuch sagen: Übermensch.

(KSA, IV, 109)

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In the previous section, Zarathustra had spoken of his own happiness andfreedom coming like a storm (KSA, IV, 107); here, Zarathustra himself ispictured as the wind, just as he had wished, in ‘Vom freien Tode’, for a windto come and shake all the rotten and worm-eaten fruit from the tree (KSA,IV, p. 94). And the afternoon of which Zarathustra speaks becomes the themeof a more elaborate discourse in Part III (‘Von der Seligkeit wider Willen’),during day 4 of Zarathustra’s boat journey back home, when he says: ‘Alleinbin ich wieder und will es sein, allein mit reinem Himmel und freiem Meere;und wieder ist Nachmittag um mich’ (KSA, IV, 203). Replacing ‘God’ withthe ‘Superman’ in this opening section, Zarathustra goes on to offer apsychological syllogism which disproves not so much God’s existence, as why,in Zarathustra’s view, humankind cannot believe in God any longer:‘[W] e n n es Gotter gabe, wie hielte ich’s aus, kein Gott zu sein! A l s o giebtes keine Gotter’ (KSA, IV, 110). At the end of this section, Zarathustra con-solidates yet further the shift of the location of the highest value (‘God’) fromsomething external to the individual to something internal:

Ach, ihr Menschen, im Steine schlaft mir ein Bild, das Bild meiner Bilder! Ach,dass es im hartesten, hasslichsten Steine schlafen muss!Nun wuthet mein Hammer grausam gegen sein Gefängniss. Vom Steine stäubenStücke: was schiert mich das?Vollenden will ich’s: denn ein Schatten kam zu mir – aller Dinge Stillstes undLeichtestes kam einst zu mir! –Des Übermenschen Schönheit kam zu mir als Schatten. Ach, meine Brüder!Was gehen mich noch – die Götter an! –

(KSA, IV, 111–12)

Thus when Zarathustra speaks later on about ‘the divine’, he means this inan immanent, not a transcendent, sense.15

After ‘Auf den glückseligen Inseln’, Zarathustra discourses on the subjectsof the piteous, the priests, the virtuous, the rabble, the tarantulas (an imagefor Zarathustra’s favourite target, the Christians), and famous wise men. Bythis time, night has fallen, and Zarathustra sings ‘Das Nachtlied’, a sectionwhich represents, by common consent (including Nietzsche’s! [cf. KSA, VI,345]), one of the most sustained lyrical passages of his entire writings:

Nacht ist es: nun reden lauter alle springenden Brunnen. Und auch meine Seeleist ein springender Brunnen.Nacht ist es: nun erst erwachen alle Lieder der Liebenden. Und auch meineSeele ist das Lied eines Liebenden.Ein Ungestilltes, Unstillbares ist in mir; das will laut werden. Eine Begierdenach Liebe ist in mir, die redet selber die Sprache der Liebe.

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Licht bin ich: ach, dass ich Nacht ware! Aber diess ist meine Einsamkeit, dassich von Licht umgurtet bin.

(KSA, IV, p.136)

This passage, like so much of Zarathustra, demonstrates an elaborate rhetori-cal structure. For example, there is anaphora (‘Nacht ist es [...] Nacht ist es[...]’), polyptoton (‘Ein Ungestilltes, Unstillbares’), anadiplosis (‘nun redenlauter alle springenden Brunnen. Und auch meine Seele ist ein springenderBrunnen’, ‘Lieder der Liebenden [...] Lied eines Liebenden’), alliteration(‘Lieder der Liebenden’), and assonance (‘Lied’, ‘Liebe’). The imagery ischiefly that of light against darkness –

Viel Sonnen kreisen im öden Raume: zu Allem, was dunkel ist, reden sie mitihrem Lichte, – mir schweigen sie.Oh diess ist die Feindschaft des Lichts gegen Leuchtendes, erbarmungslos wan-delt es seine Bahnen.Unbillig gegen Leuchtendes im tiefsten Herzen: kalt gegen Sonnen, – also wan-delt jede Sonne.

(KSA, IV, 137)

– although the light takes on an almost viscous quality in such lines as ‘Wiewollte ich an den Brüsten des Lichts saugen!’ and ‘Oh, ihr erst trinkt euchMilch und Labsal aus des Lichtes Eutern!’. These lines anticipate Zarathu-stra’s later observations about the goodness of the earth (e.g., ‘Und mancher-lei so gut Erfundenes giebt es da, dass es ist wie des Weibes Busen: nützlichzugleich und angenehm’ [KSA, IV, 259]) and hark back to Goethe’s Faust(‘Wo fass ich dich, unendliche Natur?/Euch Brüste, wo? Ihr Quellen allesLebens, / An denen Himmel und Erde hängt, / Dahin die welke Brust sichdrängt – / Ihr quellt, ihr tränkt, und schmacht ich so vergebens?’ [ll.455–59]),behind which stands a tradition of imagery of Nature as mater and nutrixthat extends, via Jakob Boehme and Friedrich Christoph Oetinger, as far asthe cult of the magna mater represented by the multi-breasted goddess Dianaat Ephesus.16 Further on, the image of the hand and the eye – ‘Mein Augequillt nicht mehr über vor der Scham der Bittenden; meine Hand wurde zuhart für das Zittern gefüllter Hände’ (KSA, IV, 137) – recalls a topos ofGerman classical thought, the coordination of eye and hand celebrated inGoethe’s seventh Römische Elegie: ‘Dann versteh’ ich den Marmor erst recht:ich denk’ und vergleiche, / Sehe mit fühlendem Aug’, fühle mit sehenderHand’.17 At the conclusion of ‘Das Nachtlied’, we return to the opening lines:

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like the solitude of the lonely lover as which Zarathustra depicts himself, thesong is perfectly self-contained, almost solipsistic.

If, in ‘Das Nachtlied’, Zarathustra sings to the night and, above all, tohimself, ‘Das Tanzlied’ has another addressee, Life itself. The occasion forthis song is another evening, when Zarathustra goes through the wood withhis disciples, and comes across a group of girls dancing in a meadow. SeeingZarathustra, the girls immediately stop dancing, but Zarathustra encouragesthem to continue, asking rhetorically: ‘Wie sollte ich, ihr Leichten, göttlichenTänzen feind sein? Oder Mädchen-Füssen mit schönen Knöcheln?’ (KSA,IV, 139). In Zarathustra, dancing has extremely positive connotations, beingassociated with lightness and cheerfulness. In his Prologue, for example, Zar-athustra tells the crowd: ‘[M]an muss noch Chaos in sich haben, um einentanzenden Stern gebären zu können’ (KSA, IV, 19). ‘Ich würde nur an einenGott glauben’, says Zarathustra in ‘Vom Lesen und Schreiben’, ‘der zu tanzenverstünde’ (KSA, IV, 49), and that chapter ends on an ecstatic note: ‘Jetztbin ich leicht, jetzt fliege ich, jetzt sehe ich mich unter mir, jetzt tanzt einGott durch mich’ (KSA, IV, 50). In Ecce Homo, Nietzsche remarked: ‘Zara-thustra ist ein Tänzer’ (KSA, VI, 345), and in contrast to the dancing god ofZarathustra stands the Spirit of Heaviness, der Geist der Schwere, whomZarathustra describes in ‘Das Tanzlied’ as ‘meinen allerhöchsten grossmäch-tigsten Teufel’ (KSA, IV, 140), and whom he encounters before the Gate‘Augenblick’ in ‘Vom Gesicht und Räthsel’ (KSA, IV, 198) (see below).18

Invoking the god of love (‘den kleinen Gott [...], der den Mädchen der liebsteist’), Zarathustra sings, as the girls begin dancing with Cupid, his dancing-song, which pits his ‘wild wisdom’ (cf. KSA, IV, 107 and 135) against thepersonified figure of Life (a female figure who, along with Wisdom and Eter-nity, offers a feminine counterbalance to the predominantly male figures ofthe work): ‘So nämlich steht es zwischen uns Dreien. Von Grund aus liebeich nur das Leben – und, wahrlich, am meisten dann, wenn ich es hasse!’(KSA, IV, 140). Later, in Part III, Zarathustra stages the second ‘Tanzlied’ –only this time it is his soul that sings, and Zarathustra’s love for Life winsout over his love for Wisdom, when he whispers in Life’s ear the doctrine ofthe Eternal Recurrence.19 But at the time of the first ‘Tanzlied’, Zarathustrahas not yet proclaimed the doctrine of the Eternal Recurrence, nor statedthat where there is Life, there is Will to Power; but one of the chapters thatmoves him significantly in this direction, and towards his understanding ofhimself as the teacher of the Eternal Recurrence,20 is ‘Das Grablied’.

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The mood for this chapter is set at the end of the immediately preceding‘Tanzlied’,21 where the girls finish their dancing, and disappear. As the sunhas set, and the woods become cool, Zarathustra becomes sad, his unhappi-ness compounded by one of the moments of uncanny sensation and self-doubt that afflict him throughout the work:

Ein Unbekanntes ist um mich und blickt nachdenklich. Was! Du lebst noch,Zarathustra?Warum? Wofür? Wodurch? Wohin? Wo? Wie? Ist es nicht Thorheit, noch zuleben? –

(KSA, IV, 141)

Although Zarathustra asks his friends (presumably, the disciples who are stillpresent) to forgive him his sadness, for it is the evening that speaks thusthrough him – indeed, he asks them to forgive him that it has become eveningat all! – the sombre mood is appropriate for the transition to ‘Das Grablied’.

In the opening segment of ‘Das Grablied’, Zarathustra espies or points tothe offshore island of the graves (Gräberinsel), and he decides to sail over thesea to visit it.22 For here lie also the graves of Zarathustra’s youth and, al-though he says he wants to carry over to them the evergreen wreath of life(einen immergrünen Kranz des Lebens), he will end up laying both the wreathand a curse on his enemies.

Although Zarathustra’s enemies are never named, their existence is repeat-edly referred to throughout the work. In ‘Das Kind mit dem Spiegel’, Zara-thustra has a dream in which a child shows him a mirror; looking into it,Zarathustra sees a sneering, devilish face. He interprets this dream as mean-ing that his teaching is in danger, and that his enemies have become powerfuland are distorting what he has taught: ‘Meine Feinde sind mächtig wordenund haben meiner Lehre Bildniss entstellt, also, dass meine Liebsten sich derGaben schämen müssen, die ich ihnen gab’ (KSA, IV, 106). That his enemiesare indeed doing just this seems to be confirmed by what the two kings tellZarathustra in Part IV, relieved that they came to see Zarathustra for them-selves: ‘Deine Feinde nämlich zeigten uns dein Bild in ihrem Spiegel: da blick-test du mit der Fratze eines Teufels und hohnlachend: also dass wir uns vordir fürchteten’ (KSA, IV, 307). In ‘Von den Priestern’, Zarathustra describesthe priests as his enemies, but immediately qualifies them as ‘bad enemies’:‘Böse Feinde sind sie: Nichts ist rachsüchtiger als ihre Demuth. Und leichtbesudelt sich Der, welcher sie angreift’ (KSA, IV, 117). (For all that, Zarathu-

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stra admits that there are heroes among them, and his blood is related totheirs.)

In ‘Der Wahrsager’, Zarathustra’s second dream – his nightmare vision ofthe coffins of death on the Berg-Burg des Todes that explode open, projectingthousands of masks of children, angels, owls, fools, and child-sized butterfliesinto his face – is interpreted by one of the disciples, to whom the biblicalepithet ‘der Jünger, den er am meisten lieb’ (cf. John 13:23 and 19:26) isapplied, as follows: ‘Wahrlich, s i e s e l b e r t r ä u m t e s t d u, deine Fein-de: das war dein schwerster Traum!’ (KSA, IV, 175). But Zarathustra rejectsthis interpretation, recognizing that his enemies do exist, as is implied by theconclusion to this chapter: ‘Darauf aber blickte er dem Jünger, welcher denTraumdeuter abgegeben hatte, lange in’s Gesicht und schüttelte dabei denKopf ’ (KSA, IV, 176).

Throughout Also sprach Zarathustra, there are repeated attempts to decon-struct the opposition between Freund and Feind, as when, in ‘Von der schen-kenden Tugend’, Zarathustra tells his disciples: ‘Der Mensch der Erkenntnissmuss nicht nur seine Feinde lieben, sondern auch seine Freunde hassen kön-nen’ (KSA, IV, 101). The earliest exploration of this theme is in ‘Vom bleichenVerbrecher’, where Zarathustra admonishes the judges: ‘‘‘Feind’’ sollt ihr sa-gen, aber nicht ‘‘Bösewicht’’; ‘‘Kranker’’ sollt ihr sagen, aber nicht ‘‘Schuft’’;‘‘Thor’’ sollt ihr sagen, aber nicht ‘‘Sünder’’’ (KSA, IV, 45). A more extensivediscussion can be found in ‘Vom Freunde’, where Zarathustra says:

‘‘Sei wenigstens mein Feind!’’ – so spricht die wahre Ehrfurcht, die nicht umFreundschaft zu bitten wagt.Will man einen Freund haben, so muss man auch für ihn Krieg führen wollen:und um Krieg zu führen, muss man Feind sein k ö n n e n.Man soll in seinem Freunde noch den Feind ehren. Kannst du an deinenFreund dicht herantreten, ohne zu ihm überzutreten?In seinem Freunde soll man seinen besten Feind haben. [...]

(KSA, IV, 71)

In fact, Zarathustra develops an entire theory of ‘enemy-ship’. In ‘Vom Kriegund Kriegsvolke’, Zarathustra describes himself to his disciples, his ‘brothersin war’, as their Feind, and urges them to look actively for enemies: ‘Ihr solltmir Solche sein, deren Auge immer nach einem Feinde sucht – nach e u r e mFeinde. [...] Euren Feind sollt ihr suchen, euren Krieg sollt ihr führen undfür eure Gedanken!’ (KSA, IV, 58). In the same chapter, he teaches: ‘Ihr dürftnur Feinde haben, die zu hassen sind, aber nicht Feinde zum Verachten. Ihrmüsst stolz auf euern Feind sein: dann sind die Erfolge eures Feindes auch

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eure Erfolge’ (KSA, IV, 59); an injunction which he repeats in ‘Von alten undneuen Tafeln’ and expands: ‘Dem würdigeren Feinde, oh meine Freunde, solltihr euch aufsparen: darum müsst ihr an Vielem vorübergehn’ (KSA, IV, 262).The idea in all such sayings, however, is that friendship must not be exclusive,but extended to all people, and even things; as Nietzsche had earlier writtenin ‘Der Wanderer und sein Schatten’, ‘[w]ir müssen wieder g u t e N a c h -b a r n d e r n ä c h s t e n D i n g e werden’ (KSA, II, 551). In ‘Das Grabli-ed’, however, the actions of Zarathustra’s enemies are, as we shall see, hintedat more clearly than anywhere else in the work.

Once he has arrived on the grave-island, Zarathustra begins his song witha lament:

Oh ihr, meiner Jugend Gesichte und Erscheinungen! Oh, ihr Blicke der Liebealle, ihr göttlichen Augenblicke! Wie starbt ihr mir so schnell! Ich gedenke eurerheute wie meiner Todten.

(KSA, IV, 142)

These lines reveal a central conceit of ‘Das Grablied’, the word-play on ‘Aug-enblick’, meaning sight (cognate with ‘Gesicht’, ‘Erscheinung’, ‘Blicke’) andmoment (as opposed to the ‘Ewigkeiten’ and ‘Ewiges’ of which he speaks).Zarathustra’s ‘divine moments’ (göttliche Augenblicke) are thus ‘divineglances’, that is to say, moments when the ‘divine’ nature of existence revealeditself to him or, as he puts it later on: ‘Kaum als Aufblinken göttlicher Augenkam es mir nur, – als Augenblick!’ (KSA, IV, 143).

The motif of the Augenblick emerges most clearly in the terrifying riddlerelated by Zarathustra to the sailors after two days’ silence on board shiptravelling back from the Blissful Islands in ‘Vom Gesicht und Räthsel’. Here,Zarathustra has a powerful intuition of the Eternal Recurrence:

‘‘Siehe diesen Thorweg! Zwerg! sprach ich weiter: der hat zwei Gesichter. ZweiWege kommen hier zusammen: die gieng noch Niemand zu Ende.Diese lange Gasse zurück: die währt eine Ewigkeit. Und jene lange Gasse hin-aus – das ist eine andre Ewigkeit.Sie widersprechen sich, diese Wege; sie stossen sich gerade vor den Kopf: – undhier, an diesem Thorwege, ist es, wo sie zusammen kommen. Der Name desThorwegs steht oben geschrieben: ‘‘Augenblick’’.Aber wer Einen von ihnen weiter gienge – und immer weiter und immer ferner:glaubst Du, Zwerg, dass diese Wege sich ewig widersprechen?’’ –

(KSA, IV, 199–200)

As the scene develops, Zarathustra wonders: ‘Muss nicht, was laufen k a n nvon allen Dingen, schon einmal diese Gasse gelaufen sein? [...] Muss auch

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dieser Thorweg nicht schon – dagewesen sein?’ (KSA, IV, 200). In short, ‘dieZeit selber ist ein Kreis’, and Nietzsche re-presents an idea found as far backas such Stoic thinkers as Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus, and which, in theGerman tradition, informs the plot of Goethe’s Faust.23 In the late, greatpoem ‘Vermächtnis’, Goethe returns to this theme of the eternal moment,24

when he writes: ‘Genieße mäßig Füll’ und Segen, / Vernunft sei überall zuge-gen, / Wo Leben sich des Lebens freut. / Dann ist Vergangenheit beständig,/ Das Künftige voraus lebendig, / Der Augenblick ist Ewigkeit’.25 As I shallargue, the perspective of the Eternal Recurrence plays an important role ininterpreting Zarathustra’s lament in ‘Das Grablied’.

At the beginning of the chapter, however, these ‘divine moments’ havebecome Zarathustra’s dead, beloved but buried, from which there arises, asif in imitation of the miraculous ‘odour of sanctity’ associated with the bodiesof saints,26 ‘ein süsser Geruch, ein herz- und thränenlösender’. This odour,Zarathustra adds, ‘erschüttert und löst das Herz dem einsam Schiffenden’,and the term ‘Schiffenden’ is one element in the complex network of word-play running throughout Zarathustra on Schaffender [KSA, IV, 111] /Schif-fender [KSA, IV, 142] /Seemann [KSA, IV, 267] /Säemann [KSA, IV, 105 and254]/Säer/Seher [KSA, IV, 106 and 179]/Samen [KSA, IV, 106] /einsam-Ein-samste-Einsamkeit-Vereinsamung [KSA, IV, 66; 80–81; 196–97; 231–34].27 De-spite his loss of his ‘divine moments’ – the reasons for which will shortly berevealed – Zarathustra still regards himself, ‘der Einsamste’, as ‘der Reichsteund Bestzubeneidende’, for the following reason: ‘Denn ich h a t t e euchdoch, und ihr habt mich noch: sagt, wem fielen, wie mir, solche Rosenäpfelvom Baume?’ (KSA, IV, 142). Zarathustra had his divine moments, inasmuchas he experienced them, and they still have him, inasmuch as he remembersthem. Later in Part III (’Von den drei Bösen’), the image of the experienceof the ‘divine moment’ as a falling fruit is repeated in considerably elaboratedform:

Wie sicher schaute mein Traum auf diese endliche Welt, nicht neugierig, nichtaltgierig, nicht fürchtend, nicht bittend: –– als ob ein voller Apfel sich meiner Hand böte, ein reifer Goldapfel, mit kühl-sanfter sammtener Haut: – so bot sich mir die Welt: –– als ob ein Baum mir winke, ein breitästiger, starkwilliger, gekrümmt zur Lehneund noch zum Fussbrett für den Wegmüden: so stand die Welt auf meinemVorgebirge: –– als ob zierliche Hände mir einen Schrein entgegentrügen, – einen Schrein offenfür das Entzücken schamhafter verehrender Augen: also bot sich mir heute dieWelt entgegen: –

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– nicht Räthsel genug, um Menschen-Liebe davon zu scheuchen, nicht Lösunggenug, um Menschen-Wahrheit einzuschläfern: – ein menschlich gutes Ding warmir heut die Welt, der man so Böses nachredet!

(KSA, IV, 235–36)

This pattern of imagistic development is typical for Zarathustra, where animage is, as C.G. Jung recognized, first stated, then taken up, and elaboratedin successive stages.28

Equally typical is the image of multi-coloured, wild-growing virtues thatblossom in memory of Zarathustra’s ‘divine moments’ – in Zarathustra,flowers and the multi-coloured have similarly positive associations, as in the‘neue bunte Muscheln’ that symbolize the new virtues offering new conso-lation (‘Von den Tugendhaften’) (KSA, IV, 123); or in Zarathustra’s laughter,spread out over cloud and day and night like a colourful tent (über Wolkenund Tag und Nacht spannte ich noch das Lachen aus wie ein buntes Gezelt)(KSA, IV, 248); or in his vision of the world as ‘ein abgründliches reichesMeer, / – ein Meer voll bunter Fische und Krebse, nach dem es auch Göttergelüsten möchte, dass sie an ihm zu Fischern würden und zu Netz-Auswer-fern’ (KSA, IV, 296); or as in the blossoming flowers to whom he comparesthe Higher Men and which demand ‘new festivals’ (KSA, IV, 393). Zarathus-tra describes his ‘divine moments’ as coming to him like birds: as trusting,not timid (nicht schuchternen Vogeln gleich [...] als Trauende zu dem Trauen-den), as the song-birds of his hope (Singvogel meiner Hoffnungen). In ‘Diestillste Stunde’, the bird-image occurs in the crucial context of Zarathustra’smode of communication, where the stillest hour tells him: ‘Die stillsten Wortesind es, welche den Sturm bringen. Gedanken, die mit Taubenfüssen kom-men, lenken die Welt’ (KSA, IV, 189), recalling Zarathustra’s earlier remark:‘Die grössten Ereignisse – das sind nicht unsre lautesten, sondern unsre still-sten Stunden. / Nicht um die Erfinder von neuem Lärme: um die Erfindervon neuen Werthen dreht sich die Welt; u n h ö r b a r dreht sie sich’ (KSA,IV, 169). These moments, Zarathustra says, came in response to his longing(Begierde) – his ‘Begierde nach Liebe’, perhaps, of which ‘Das Nachtlied’ hadspoken (KSA, IV, 136). Playing further on Trauende/Treue and the implicitsense, buried among the words tränen[lösend] and Toten, of trauern (Ωtomourn), Zarathustra speaks of his ‘divine moments’ in paradoxical terms,in terms of fidelity and infidelity (Treue/Untreue), in terms of infidelity andinnocence (Untreue/unschuld[ig]):

Ja, zur Treue gemacht, gleich mir, und zu zärtlichen Ewigkeiten: muss ich nun

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euch nach eurer Untreue heissen, ihr göttlichen Blicke und Augenblicke: keinenandern Namen lernte ich noch.Wahrlich, zu schnell starbt ihr mir, ihr Fluchtlinge. Doch floht ihr mich nicht,noch floh ich euch: unschuldig sind wir einander in unsrer Untreue.

(KSA, IV, 142-43)

Zarathustra and his ‘divine moments’ are parted from, yet remain faithful to,each other, and, in their infidelity, retain their innocence because they havebeen destroyed by Zarathustra’s enemies. Aiming to destroy Zarathustra him-self, they have destroyed his past, inasmuch as they have distorted his mem-ory of his ‘divine moments’: ‘M i c h zu todten, erwurgte man euch, ihr Sing-vogel meiner Hoffnungen! Ja, nach euch, ihr Liebsten, schoss immer die Bos-heit Pfeile – mein Herz zu treffen!’. The subsequent sentences develop thisthought to the conclusion: ‘Aber diess Wort will ich zu meinen Feinden re-den: was ist alles Menschen-Morden gegen Das, was ihr mir thatet!’ (KSA,IV, 143). The image of the arrow echoes Zarathustra’s earlier threat to hisenemies to destroy them through his speech:

Wie ein Schrei und ein Jauchzen will ich uber weite Meere hinfahren, bis ichdie gluckseligen Inseln finde, wo meine Freunde weilen: –Und meine Feinde unter ihnen! Wie liebe ich nun Jeden, zu dem ich nur redendarf! Auch meine Feinde gehoren zu meiner Seligkeit.Und wenn ich auf mein wildestes Pferd steigen will, so hilft mir mein Speerimmer am besten hinauf: der ist meines Fusses allzeit bereiter Diener: –Der Speer, den ich gegen meine Feinde schleudere! Wie danke ich es meinenFeinden, dass ich endlich ihn schleudern darf!

(KSA, IV, 107)

Furthermore, the image of arrows is linked to the idea of competitive andultimately victorious discourse, to the issue of interpretation, and to the workof the true poet, by Pindar (Olympian Ode, II).29 Thus the malicious arrows(die Bosheit Pfeile) of his enemies have hit Zarathustra’s heart (Herz) andwhat is closest to his heart (Herzlichstes), what he possessed (Besitz) andwhat possessed him (Besessen-sein): and what they have done is worse thanany manslaughter or murder: ‘Boseres thatet ihr mir, als aller Menschen-Mord ist; Unwiederbringliches nahmt ihr mir: – also rede ich zu euch, meineFeinde’ (KSA, IV, 143). Contrary to what he said earlier, Zarathustra seemsto take little pleasure in speaking to his enemies, and he goes on to cursethem:

Mordetet ihr doch meiner Jugend Gesichte und liebste Wunder! Meine Gespie-len nahmt ihr mir, die seligen Geister! [...] Diesen Fluch gegen euch, meine

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Feinde! Machtet ihr doch mein Ewiges kurz, wie ein Ton zerbricht in kalterNacht! Kaum als Aufblinken gottlicher Augen kam es mir nur, – als Augen-blick!

(KSA, IV, 143)30

The question inevitably arises: by what means have Zarathustra’s maliciousenemies destroyed his ‘divine moments’, and apparently struck at his veryheart? The second part of ‘Das Grablied’ narrates in greater detail the dam-age inflicted on Zarathustra.

In the past, Zarathustra oriented his existential attitude in terms of hispurity (Reinheit) and wisdom (Weisheit), blessing each creature and each dayas ‘divine’ and ‘holy’. His enemies, however, subverted his outlook by surpris-ing him with foul phantoms and making his nights sleepless. As a result,Zarathustra’s ‘joyful wisdom’ (frohliche Weisheit) was driven away; a refer-ence, perhaps, to the work immediately preceding Also sprach Zarathustra,Die frohliche Wissenschaft (1882), in which the figure of Zarathustra is firstintroduced in the section entitled ‘Incipit tragoedia’ (KSA, III, 571) and inwhich a new perspective on time is elaborated in ‘Das grosste Schwergewicht’(KSA, III, 570). In a sequence of grotesque and striking images, Zarathustrarhetorically addresses a series of questions to his enemies regarding the fateof his ‘cheerful wisdom’, his ‘tender desire’, and his ‘noblest vow’:

Aber da stahlt ihr Feinde meine Nachte und verkauftet sie zu schlafloser Qual:ach, wohin floh nun jene frohliche Weisheit?Einst begehrte ich nach glucklichen Vogelzeichen: da fuhrtet ihr mir ein Eulen-Unthier uber den Weg, ein widriges. Ach, wohin floh da meine zartliche Be-gierde?Allem Ekel gelobte ich einst zu entsagen: da verwandeltet ihr meine Nahen undNächsten in Eiterbeulen. Ach, wohin floh da mein edelstes Gelöbniss?

(KSA, IV, 143–44)

Replacing his nights with sleeplessness, his auspices of good fortune with anowl-like monster, and transforming his neighbours and relatives into suppu-rative abscesses or boils of pus, Zarathustra’s enemies provoke in him pre-cisely the disgust (Ekel) from which Zarathustra is always trying to escapeor, rather, as in ‘Der Genesende’ (cf. KSA, IV, 271 and 274-75), which heis trying to overcome. Further images conjure up the life-denying, disgust-provoking actions of Zarathustra’s enemies: even a blind man would be dis-gusted by what they throw in his path; when he had achieved his most diffi-cult tasks and celebrated the victories of his greatest overcomings, they madethose who loved Zarathustra cry that he had hurt them the most; and the

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sweetest honey of his most industrious bees they made bitter; to wound Zara-thustra’s virtues of charitableness and pity, they sent impertinent beggars andincurably shameless people; and placed fatty sacrificial gifts on the same altarwhere Zarathustra sacrificed what was most holy to him.

These images echo themes and motifs elsewhere in Zarathustra: Zarathus-tra wishes to abolish beggars (KSA, IV, 114 and 354), preaching instead:‘Gelobt sei die kleine Armuth!’ (KSA, IV, 63 and 354); and he inveighs timeand again against pity (e.g. KSA, IV, 408). In particular, the honey imagelinks this chapter to other parts of the work: in the very first section of thePrologue, Zarathustra compares the superfluity of his wisdom to the beesthat have collected too much honey, harking back, as has been pointed out,to the image of poets as bees gathering honey from the garden of the Muses(Ion 534a-b).31 Similarly, in the first section of Part IV, Zarathustra preparesto make ‘Das Honig-Opfer’, instructing his animals to look for ‘gelber, weis-ser, guter, eisfrischer Waben-Goldhonig’ and telling them that ‘[e]s ist derH o n i g in meinen Adern, der mein Blut dicker und auch meine Seele stillermacht’ (KSA, IV, 296). The reference to his ‘overcomings’ (Überwindungen)anticipates the title of the following chapter, ‘Von der Selbst-Ueberwindung’(KSA, IV, 146). The rest of the ‘Grablied’ moves the intellectual argument ofZarathustra forward to the next important stage, but there is a particularexample of the power wielded by Zarathustra’s enemies that occupies the nextfour paragraphs:

Und einst wollte ich tanzen, wie nie ich noch tanzte: über alle Himmel wegwollte ich tanzen. Da überredet ihr meinen liebsten Sänger.Und nun stimmte er eine schaurige dumpfe Weise an; ach, er tutete mir, wie eindüsteres Horn, zu Ohren!Mörderischer Sänger, Werkzeug der Bosheit, Unschuldigster! Schon stand ichbereit zum besten Tanze: da mordetest du mit deinen Tönen meine Verzückung!Nur im Tanze weiss ich der höchsten Dinge Gleichniss zu reden: – und nunblieb mir mein höchstes Gleichniss ungeredet in meinen Gliedern!Ungeredet und unerlöst blieb mir die höchste Hoffnung! [...]

(KSA, IV, 144)

In this passage, various motifs from Zarathustra are interwoven with whatseems likely to be autobiographical self-referentiality. As we have seen, theimage of the dance is a central motif of Zarathustra, and it is linked here withhis message to his disciples when he parts from them in ‘Von der schenkendenTugend’ that virtues are metaphors (Gleichnisse) (KSA, IV, 98) and that whenthe spirit wants to speak in metaphors, this is the origin of virtue (KSA, IV,

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99). The expression ‘highest hope’ (höchste Hoffnung) is a common expres-sion in the work, which occurs on a total of ten occasions (KSA, IV, 19; 53;54; 59; 102; 128; 203; 237; 351), and one of the Kings, speaking on behalf ofthe rest of the Higher Men in ‘Die Begrüssung’, says that ‘the last remnantof God among humankind’ – that is, all who are possessed by great longing,great disgust, great weariness, and long to die unless they learn to hopeagain – will learn from Zarathustra ‘die g r o s s e Hoffnung!’ (KSA, IV,349). And in the figure of the favourite singer who, lured by enemies, becomesa performer of gloomy melodies, one can detect a reference to Wagner, whohas also been identified as the Sorcerer in Part IV (KSA, IV, 313–20).32 Thegreat, tragic Wagner, to whom Die Geburt der Tragödie (1872) had beendedicated and whom Nietzsche had identified as the new Aeschylus, inaugur-ating the re-emergence of the Dionysian spirit and the rebirth of tragedy(KSA, I, 127 and 132), had turned out to be a decadent; his music dramas(as exemplified by Der Ring der Nibelungen [first performed 1876]), ‘operasof redemption’ (KSA, VI, 16) and, in the case of Parsifal (1877), ‘romantic’(KSA, VI, 19).33 As if to confirm the reference to Wagner, Zarathustra al-ludes further on to Isolde’s words in Act II, Scene 2 of Tristan und Isolde:‘Wie ertrug ich’s nur?’.34 The exultation in love-in-death in that opera standsin contrast to the frank assertion of the value of love-of-life in Zarathustra.If, in the score of Wagner’s opera, we are able to hear, as the Americancomposer Virgil Thomson once claimed, the sound of Tristan and Isoldeachieving simultaneous orgasm no less than seven times, then, for Zarathus-tra, orgasm (Wollust)35 is ‘the great simulacrum-happiness for higher happi-ness and’ – see above – ‘highest hope’ (das grosse Gleichniss-Glück für höheresGlück und höchste Hoffnung) (KSA, IV, 237). Later on, an extended versionof Isolde’s phrase occurs at the end of ‘Vom Gesicht und Räthsel’: ‘[O]h wieertrage ich noch zu leben! Und wie ertrüge ich’s, jetzt zu sterben! –’ (KSA,IV, 202).

Two intermediate paragraphs form a transition between Zarathustra’s la-ment about what his enemies have done to him (including the implicit refer-ence to Wagner), summarizing his sense of loss, yet restating the idea ofovercoming:

[...] Und es starben mir alle Gesichte und Tröstungen meiner Jugend!Wie ertrug’s ich nur? Wie verwand und überwand ich solche Wunden? Wieerstand meine Seele wieder aus diesen Gräbern?

(KSA, IV, 144)

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At this point, Zarathustra’s tone changes, and the song turns from one oflament into one of – at this stage, grim – affirmation. Comparing himself toan inverse Achilles, who is invulnerable only in his heel (‘Unverwundbar binich allein an meiner Ferse’), Zarathustra locates within himself ‘ein Unver-wundbares, Unbegrabbares [...], ein Felsensprengendes’ and identifies this ashis Will – mein Wille. In line with the conceit of the inverse Achilles, Zarathu-stra relates his Will to his own footsteps: ‘Schweigsam schreitet es und unver-ändert durch die Jahre. / Seinen Gang will er gehn auf meinen Füssen, meinalter Wille; herzenshart ist ihm der Sinn und unverwundbar’ (KSA, IV, 145).

Thus far, Zarathustra has spoken of the Will only in general terms. Ad-dressing the crowd in the market-place in the Prologue, Zarathustra said:‘Der Übermensch ist der Sinn der Erde. Euer Wille sage: der Übermenschs e i der Sinn der Erde!’ (KSA, IV, 14), and he returned to this theme at thevery end of Part I: ‘‘‘T o d t s i n d a l l e G ö t t e r: n u n w o l l e n w i r,d a s s d e r Ü b e r m e n s c h l e b e.’’ – diess sei einst am grossen Mittagunser letzter Wille! – ’ (KSA, IV, 102). Equally, he had identified differentkinds of Will, speaking of virtue in terms of ‘Wille zum Untergang’ (KSA,IV, 17) (as opposed to the ‘Wille zur Gleichheit’ [KSA, IV, 129], mentioning‘der Wille zum Selbst’ (KSA, IV, 47), warning the Preachers of Death that‘euer Fleiss ist Flucht und Wille, sich selber zu vergessen’ (KSA, IV, 56),asking a disciple about his ‘Wille zur Ehe’ (KSA, IV, 92), and identifying in‘Auf den glückseligen Inseln’ the ‘Wille zur Wahrheit’ (KSA, IV, 109; cf. 132and 146) and the ‘Wille zur Zeugung’ (KSA, IV, 111; cf. 157). At the con-clusion of that chapter, moreover, Zarathustra had spoken of ‘mein schaffen-der Wille’ and ‘mein inbrünstiger Schaffens-Wille’ (cf. KSA, IV, 181), em-phasizing the importance of all willing: ‘Wollen befreit: das ist die wahreLehre von Wille und Freiheit – so lehrt sie euch Zarathustra’ (KSA, IV, 111).Later, he will speak of ‘der Löwen-Wille’, which desires to be ‘[h]ungernd,gewaltthätig, einsam, gottlos’ (KSA, IV, 133), and make a crucial link be-tween Willing and Beauty: ‘Wo ist Schönheit? Wo ich mit allem Willen w o l -l e n m u s s’ (KSA, IV, 157). Now, in ‘Das Grablied’, Zarathustra addresseshis Will directly thus:

[...] Immer noch lebst du da und bist dir gleich, Geduldigster! Immer nochbrachst du dich durch alle Gräber!In dir lebt auch noch das Unerlöste meiner Jugend; und als Leben und Jugendsitzest du hoffend hier auf gelben Grab-Trümmern.

(KSA, IV, 145)

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Later, in section of 30 of ‘Von alten und neuen Tafeln’, Zarathustra will offera more extensive exordium to his Will (KSA, IV, 268–69), in terms remi-niscent of Fichte’s address to the Will in Book III of Die Bestimmung desMenschen (1800).36 Unlike Fichte, however, who knows no name for the Will,and unlike Schopenhauer, who misnames the Will, Nietzsche, through Zara-thustra, identifies the Will correctly as Will to Power in ‘Von tausend undEinem Ziele’ as follows: ‘Eine Tafel der Güter hängt über jedem Volke. Siehe,es ist seiner Überwindungen Tafel; siehe, es ist die Stimme seines Willens zurMacht’ (KSA, IV, 74).

In the chapter that immediately follows ‘Das Grablied’, entitled ‘Von derSelbst-Ueberwindung’, Zarathustra explores, following the pattern identifiedby Jung whereby an idea is stated and then picked up again later,37 the linkbetween the Will to Power and Self-Overcoming. To begin with, Zarathustrarejects the so-called ‘will to truth’ of the philosophers (KSA, IV, 109–10 and132), asserting that it amounts to no more than the ‘Wille zur Denkbarkeitalles Seienden’ (KSA, IV, 146). Behind this ‘will to truth’ there is, Zarathustraclaims, another will at work – a Will to Power: ‘Das ist euer ganzer Wille,ihr Weisesten, als ein Wille zur Macht; und auch wenn ihr vom Guten undBösen redet und von den Werthschätzungen’ (KSA, IV, 146).38 Indeed, every-thing – everything living, all life, even Life itself – is Will to Power:39

Wo ich Lebendiges fand, da fand ich Willen zur Macht; und noch im Willendes Dienenden fand ich den Willen, Herr zu sein.[...]‘‘Nur, wo Leben ist, da ist auch Wille: aber nicht Wille zum Leben, sondern –so lehre ich’s dich – Wille zur Macht!‘‘Vieles ist dem Lebenden höher geschätzt, als Leben selber; doch aus demSchätzen selber heraus redet – der Wille zur Macht!’’ –

(KSA, IV, 147–49)

Thus not only is the Schopenhauerian doctrine of the Will to Life rejected,but the doctrine of Life as Will to Power is presented as coming from Lifeitself (or in Zarathustra, herself). And the connection between living andvaluing – creating value – is the key to understanding Nietzsche’s concept of‘self-overcoming’:

Und diess Geheimniss redete das Leben selber zu mir. ‘‘Siehe, sprach es, ich bindas, w a s s i c h i m m e r s e l b e r ü b e r w i n d e n m u s s.‘‘Freilich, ihr heisst es Wille zur Zeugung oder Trieb zum Zwecke, zum Höheren,Ferneren, Vielfacheren: aber all diess ist Eins und Ein Geheimniss.‘‘Lieber noch gehe ich unter, als dass ich diesem Einen absagte; und wahrlich,

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wo es Untergang giebt und Blätterfallen, siehe, da opfert sich Leben – umMacht![’’]

(KSA, IV, 148)

Because all life is about value, all life involves conflict, a struggle for thepower to assert and impose the values in which the individual believes. Thisidea has been anticipated in ‘Von den Taranteln’, when Zarathustra, echoingthe Goethean terminology of Steigerung,40 declared: ‘Steigen will das Lebenund steigend sich überwinden’ (KSA, IV, 130); and it recurs in ‘Von denErhabenen’, when Zarathustra announces: ‘Aber alles Leben ist Streit umGeschmack und Schmecken!’ (KSA, IV, 150). In ‘Von der Selbst-Ueberwin-dung’, Zarathustra identified the creation of value (i.e., good and evil) andthe process of self-overcoming, when he teaches: ‘Gutes und Böses, das unver-gänglich wäre – das giebt es nicht! Aus sich selber muss es sich immer wiederüberwinden’ (KSA, IV, 149). And because the exercise of power to assertvalues equally involves the creation of those values, valuing represents themost fundamental form of creativity – and destructiveness: ‘Und wer einSchöpfer sein muss im Guten und Bösen: wahrlich, der muss ein Vernichtererst sein und Werthe zerbrechen. / Also gehört das höchste Böse zur höchstenGüte: diese aber ist die schöpferische. – ’ (KSA, IV, 149).

These themes are found again further on in Part II in the chapter entitled‘Von der Erlösung’, which offers yet greater clarity about the essential unityof the themes of creativity, willing, the Will to Power – and the Eternal Recur-rence.41 In ‘Das Grablied’, Zarathustra speaks of what remains ‘un-achieved’ – and ‘unredeemed’ – (das Unerloste) in his youth; but if, in ‘Vonder Selbst-Ueberwindung’ (KSA, IV, 149), what remains ‘unspoken’ (ungere-det) about his ‘highest hope’ becomes the basis of the imperative to speak,rather than remain silent, then what is ‘unachieved’ or ‘unredeemed’ aboutthat hope will seek, and be shown the way to, its achievement, and redemp-tion, in ‘Von der Erlosung’. Here Zarathustra repeats his earlier teaching, butqualifies it in an important respect:

Wille – so heisst der Befreier und Freudebringer: also lehrte ich euch, meineFreunde! Und nun lernt diess hinzu: der Wille selber ist noch ein Gefangener.Wollen befreit: aber wie heisst Das, was auch den Befreier noch in Kettenschlägt?

(KSA, IV, 179)

Willing may liberate, but the Will itself is trapped, a prisoner of – the past.Returning to the problematic of time set out in ‘Von den Taranteln’, where

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Zarathustra speaks of his project ‘d a s s d e r M e n s c h e r l ö s t w e r d ev o n d e r R a c h e’ as ‘die Brücke zur höchsten Hoffnung und ein Regenbo-gen nach langen Unwettern’ (KSA, IV, 128), and as enacted in allegoricalform in ‘Vom Gesicht und Räthsel’ as the dialogue with the Spirit of Heavi-ness at the Gate of ‘Moment’, Zarathustra defines the revenge from whichhe seeks to liberate humankind as ‘des Willens Widerwille gegen die Zeit undihr ‘‘Es war’’’. For ‘‘‘Es war’’: also heisst des Willens Zähneknirschen undeinsamste Trübsal’, in the sense that the Will cannot will an event in the past,it cannot ‘will backwards’: ‘Nicht zurück kann der Wille wollen; dass er dieZeit nicht brechen kann und der Zeit Begierde, – das ist des Willens einsamsteTrübsal’ (KSA, IV, 179–80). (The technique of repetition and slight variationof phrases such as ‘loneliest affliction’ creates a continuity across the text anda density of feeling; here, the repetition in such close proximity creates afeeling of oppressiveness, just as the Will itself is oppressed. Note, too, thatZarathustra’s argument does not proceed in logical stages, but rather emergesfrom his pronouncements across the text; even in this chapter the argumentappears, at first sight, jumbled and incoherent, but close reading reveals theintellectual logic amid the increasingly ecstatic intensity of expression.)

Time cannot move backwards, it is the stone which cannot be rolled away(‘‘‘Das, was war’’ – so heisst der Stein, den [der gefangene Wille] nicht wälzenkann’ [KSA, IV, 180]), and in a variant of this image (and of the stone whichcontains the image of Zarathustra’s visions [KSA, IV, 111]) the half-mole,half-dwarf figure of the Spirit of Heaviness will taunt Zarathustra in ‘VomGesicht und Räthsel’: ‘Oh Zarathustra, du Stein der Weisheit, du Schleuder-stein, du Stern-Zertrümmerer! Dich selber warfst du so hoch, – aber jedergeworfene Stein – muss fallen!’ (KSA, IV, 198). So it seems that the Will istrapped in time, unless – and Zarathustra himself provides the rest of theargument:

Alles ‘‘Es war’’ ist ein Bruchstück, ein Räthsel, ein grauser Zufall – bis derschaffende Wille dazu sagt: ‘‘aber so wollte ich es!’’–– Bis der schaffende Wille dazu sagt: ‘‘Aber so will ich es! So werde ich’swollen!’’

(KSA, IV, 181)

The Will is trapped in time, since it cannot ‘will backwards’, but it can ‘willforwards’, that is, it can will for the moment to recur – and recur and recur,again and again; in other words, for it to recur eternally. For the Will toredeem the moment, redeem itself, and thereby discover the highest expres-

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sion of itself as Will to Power, it must be taught the doctrine of the EternalRecurrence: ‘‘‘Höheres als alle Versöhnung muss der Wille wollen, welcherder Wille zur Macht ist – : doch wie geschieht ihm das? Wer lehrte ihn auchnoch das Zurückwollen?’’’ (KSA, IV, 181). The answer to this question, ‘Zara-thustra must teach the doctrine of the Eternal Recurrence’, thus also providesthe answer to Zarathustra’s question (and Heidegger’s), ‘who is Zarathustra?’(cf. KSA, IV, 179; 188; 349) – ‘Zarathustra is the teacher of the EternalRecurrence’ (KSA, IV, 275). In ‘Das Nachtwandler-Lied’ of Part IV, thisanswer is given its most ecstatic expression as Zarathustra surveys the mo-ment of horror of ‘Vom Gesicht und Räthsel’ (KSA, IV, 398) and the affirm-ative joy of the creative Will in willing the return of the Moment, combiningin the Midnight Song echoes of the Mothers’ Scene from Faust II – ‘Waseinmal war in allem Glanz und Schein, / Es regt sich dort; denn es will ewigsein’ (ll.6431–32) – with Goethe’s famous lines: ‘Alles geben die Götter, dieunendlichen, / Ihren Lieblingen ganz, / Alle Freuden, die unendlichen, / AlleSchmerzen, die unendlichen, ganz’:42

Sagtet ihr jemals Ja zu Einer Lust? Oh, meine Freunde, so sagtet ihr Ja auchzu a l l e m Wehe. Alle Dinge sind verkettet, verfädelt, verliebt, –– wolltet ihr jemals Ein Mal Zwei Mal, spracht ihr jemals ‘‘du gefällst mir,Glück! Husch! Augenblick!’’ so wolltet ihr A l l e s zurück![...] D e n n a l l e L u s t w i l l – E w i g k e i t!

(KSA, IV, 402)

Now, in the context of ‘Das Grablied’, it becomes clearer why Zarathustra’sWill sits, as life and youth, on the yellow grave-ruins on the island of graves,with hope (hoffend), and why Zarathustra salutes his Will as follows:

Ja, noch bist du mir aller Gräber Zertrümmerer: Heil dir, mein Wille! Und nurwo Gräber sind, giebt es Auferstehungen. –

(KSA, IV, 145)

For as Zarathustra senses, but does not at this point fully understand, hisenemies have not really won. Although they seem to have robbed him of his‘divine moments’, how can they have, when every moment can be willed toreturn, and to recur eternally?43 In ‘Das Grablied’, we see Zarathustra beforethe announcement of the doctrine of the Eternal Recurrence, but dimly sens-ing that his sense of mission is bound up with his Will. As a result, however,we are privileged to glimpse what is at stake, existentially, for Zarathustra,and for us, in this doctrine.

Even though the language Zarathustra uses, speaking of ‘resurrections’,

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appears religious, it is, of course, parodistic. Earlier, in ‘Von der schenkendenTugend’, Zarathustra had linked ‘metaphoric virtue’ with ‘bodily resurrec-tion’:

Achtet mir, meine Brüder, auf jede Stunde, wo euer Geist in Gleichnissen redenwill: da ist der Ursprung eurer Tugend.Erhöht ist da euer Leib und auferstanden; mit seiner Wonne entzückt er denGeist, dass er Schöpfer wird und Schätzer und Liebender und aller Dinge Wohl-thäter.

(KSA, IV, 99)

And later, in another section of ‘Das Nachtwandler-Lied’, Zarathustra re-sponds to the ‘murmuring’ of the graves (die Gräber stammeln) with an in-junction to the Higher Men to ‘redeem the graves’:

Ihr flogt nicht hoch genug: nun stammeln die Gräber ‘‘erlöst doch die Todten!Warum ist so lange Nacht? Macht uns nicht der Mond trunken?’’Ihr höheren Menschen, erlöst doch die Gräber, weckt die Leichname auf! [...]

(KSA, IV, 399)

Two sections later, Zarathustra repeats the words, the famous noli me tangere,that Christ spoke to Mary Magdalene after the resurrection (John 20:17),when he cries: ‘Lass mich! Lass mich! Ich bin zu rein für dich. Rühre michnicht an! Ward meine Welt nicht eben vollkommen?’ (KSA, IV, 400).

Unlike St Paul, however, who envisaged the resurrection in terms of ‘spiri-tual embodiment’ in the eternal realm of Heaven,44 Zarathustra preaches the‘resurrection’ of the body in the here-and-now which is, so he insists, the onlyrealm of existence there is (KSA, IV, 15). For Zarathustra, the ‘healthy body’speaks only of ‘the meaning of the earth’ (KSA, IV, 38), and ‘the soul’ isonly a word for something pertaining to the body (KSA, IV, 39). Hence it isfitting that ‘Das Grablied’, which begins in sorrow and lament, moves to anassertion of hope and confidence, and a dim apprehension of the conse-quences of the ‘good news’. This ‘good news’, known to Zarathustra but notto all men (cf. KSA, IV, 14), is the news of a monumental event that stillneeds time to reach the ears of men, just as the light of the stars needs timeto reach the planet Earth (KSA, IV, 481). It is the news that ‘God is dead’;that this Earth is the only world there is; that this Earth is rich in goodlittle perfect things, in fine things (an kleinen guten vollkommenen Dingen, anWolhgerathenem) (KSA, IV, 364); and that, as even the Ugliest Man canrealize, ‘[e]s lohnt sich auf der Erde zu leben: Ein Tag, Ein Fest mit Zarathu-stra lehrte mich die Erde lieben’ (KSA, IV, 396).

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Thus, read in detail and in context, ‘Das Grablied’ represents a major stepin the argument of Also sprach Zarathustra. For it sings of how we, too, canlearn to love the earth, as a world, not of Being, but of Becoming; as a worldin which birth and death are, as Fichte understood,45 inextricably linked ina cycle which is, as Jung explained, embodied in the very structure of thework itself:

Zarathustra [...] is like a dream in its representation of events. It expresses re-newal and self-destruction, the death of a god and the birth of a god, the endof an epoch and the beginning of a new one. When an epoch comes to an enda new epoch begins. The end is the beginning: what has come to an end isreborn in the moment when it ceases to be.46

NOTES

1. In this article, references are made to Nietzsche’s works from the following edition:Friedrich Nietzsche, Sämtliche Werke: Kritische Studienausgabe [ΩKSA], ed.Giorgio Colli and Mazzino Montinari (Munich and Berlin: dtv/Walter de Gruyter,1980); and Sämtliche Briefe: Kritische Studienausgabe [ΩKSB], ed. Giorgio Colliand Mazzino Montinari (Munich and Berlin: dtv/Walter de Gruyter, 1986), inboth cases followed by volume number and page reference.

2. Leo Strauss, Seminar on Zarathustra, 1959, unpublished transcription, p.70. I amgrateful to Laurence Lampert for making this transcript available to me; forfurther discussion of Strauss’s approach to Nietzsche, see Laurence Lampert, LeoStrauss and Nietzsche (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1996).

3. Hans Weichelt, Zarathustra-Kommentar (Leipzig: Felix Meiner, 1910; second edi-tion, 1922).

4. C. G. Jung, Nietzsche’s Zarathustra: Notes of the Seminar given in 1934–1939, ed.James Jarrett, 2 vols (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1989).

5. Martin Heidegger, Nietzsche, 2 vols (Pfullungen: Neske, 1961).6. But see Lampert, 1996.7. Anne-Marie Pieper, ‘‘Ein Seil geknüpft zwischen Tier und Übermensch‘‘: Philoso-

phische Erläuterungen zu Nietzsches erstem ‘‘Zarathustra’’ (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta,1990).

8. Werner Frizen, ‘‘‘Von der unbefleckten Erkenntniss’’: Zu einem Kapitel des Zara-thustra’, Deutsches Vierteljahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesge-schichte, 58 (1984), 428–53; Kathleen Higgens, ‘The Night Song’s Answer’, andRobin Alice Roth, ‘Answer to ‘‘The Night Song’s Answer’’’, International Studiesin Philosophy, 17 (1985), 33–50 and 51–54; Waller R. Newell, ‘Zarathustra’s Danc-ing Dialectic’, Interpretation, vol. 17, no. 3 (Spring, 1990), 415–32; and PaulBishop, ‘Estrangement from the Deed and the Memory Thereof: Freud and Jungon the Pale Criminal in Nietzsche’s Zarathustra’, Orbis Litterarum, vol. 54, no. 6(1999), 424–38.

9. Laurence Lampert, Nietzsche’s Teaching: An Interpretation of Thus Spoke Zara-

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thustra (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1986); Stanley Rosen,The Mask of Enlightenment: Nietzsche’s Zarathustra (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1995); and Volker Gerhardt (ed.), Friedrich Nietzsche, Alsosprach Zarathustra (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 2000).

10. See Paul Bishop and Roger H. Stephenson, ‘Nietzsche and Weimar Aesthetics:The Case of Die Geburt der Tragödie’, German Life and Letters, vol. 52, no.4(October, 1999), 412–29; and ‘Zarathustras Evangelium des Schönen: Nietzscheund die klassische Weimarer Ästhetik’, Sprachkunst: Beiträge zur Literaturwissen-schaft, vol. 32, no. 1 (2001), 1–26.

11. Rosen, pp.139–40; and Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth (eds), The Ox-ford Classical Dictionary [third ed.] (Oxford and New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1996), p. 769. See Hesiod, The Homeric Hymns and Homerica, trans. HughG. Evelyn-White (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press/London: WilliamHeinemann, 1982), pp. 14–15 and 154–55; The Odes of Pindar, trans. John Sandys(London: William Heinemann/New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1927), pp. 24–27;and Homer, The Odyssee, trans. Walter Shewring (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 1980), pp.48 and 85–98.

12. Plato, The Statesman – Philebus – Ion, trans. Harold N. Fowler, W. R. M. Lamb(London: William Heinemann/New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1925).

13. Wilhelm Heinse, Ardinghello und die glückseligen Inseln [Kritische Studienaus-gabe], ed. Max L. Baeumer (Stuttgart: Reclam, 1975) (see p. 459).

14. Traditionally located in the Far West, in later classical times the Blissful Islandswere identified sometimes with Madeira, sometimes with the Canaries. In Ardingh-ello, the utopia of love and freedom is established on Paros and Naxos, whilst, forNietzsche himself they were Sicily, as he wrote to Peter Gast [ΩHeinrich Köselitz]from Messina on 8 April 1882: ‘Also, ich bin an meinem ‘‘Rand der Erde’’ ange-langt, wo, nach Homer, das G l ü c k wohnen soll’ (KSB, 6, p. 189). For furtherdiscussion, see Joachim Köhler, Zarathustras Geheimnis: Friedrich Nietzsche undseine verschlüsselte Botschaft: Eine Biographie (Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt,1992), chap. 10, ‘Auf den glückseligen Inseln’ (pp.305–24).

15. Cf. R. J. Hollingdale’s notion of ‘non-metaphysical transcendence’ (A NietzscheReader (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), p. 11.

16. See Goethe, Faust-Dichtungen, ed. Ulrich Gaier (Stuttgart: Reclam, 1999), vol. 2,Kommentar, p. 131.

17. Goethe, Gedichte, ed. Erich Trunz (Munich: C.H. Beck, 1974), p.160. See alsoNietzsche’s remark in Die fröhliche Wissenschaft, §107: ‘Als ästhetisches Phäno-men ist uns das Dasein immer noch e r t r ä g l i c h, und durch die Kunst ist unsAuge und Hand und vor Allem das gute Gewissen dazu gegeben, aus uns selberein solches Phänomen machen zu k ö n n e n’ (KSA, III, 464); and his referencein Der Antichrist, §59, to ‘den freien Blick vor der Realität, die vorsichtige Hand’(KSA, VI, 248).

18. For a discussion of the significance of the motif of the dance in German literaturecontemporary with and after Nietzsche, see Leona Van Vaerenbergh, Tanz undTanzbewegung: Ein Beitrag zur Deutung deutscher Lyrik von der Dekadenz bis zumFrühexpressionismus (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1991).

19. According to Michael Platt, ‘What does Zarathustra whisper in Life’s Ear?’, Nietz-sche-Studien, 17 (1988), 179–194; and Lampert, Nietzsche’s Teaching, p. 238.

20. Cf. Martin Heidegger, ‘Wer ist Nietzsches Zarathustra?’, Vorträge und Aufsätze

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(Pfullingen: Neske, 1954, 21995), pp. 101–126. For further discussion, see GünterWohlfart, ‘Wer ist Nietzsches Zarathustra?’, Nietzsche-Studien, 28 (1997), 319–30;and Laurence Paul Hemming, ‘Who is Heidegger’s Zarathustra?’, Literature andTheology, vol. 12, no. 3 (September, 1998), 268–93.

21. Cf. the structural principle at work in Zarathustra elucidated by Jung in his sem-inars, according to which ‘if you carefully study the end of a chapter and compare itwith the subsequent title, you discover how [Nietzsche] arrives at the particulartheme of the next chapter’ (Nietzsche’s Zarathustra: Notes of the Seminar, II, p. 956).

22. For a contemporary visual analogue of Nietzsche’s grave-island, one might thinkof Arnold Böcklin’s Heiliger Hain (1882) (a work much admired by ThomasMann, as his Betrachtungen eines Unpolitischen (1918) makes clear [ThomasMann, Gesammelte Werke, 13 vols (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1960–1974)),XII, pp. 478–79]).

23. In the Pact Scene of Faust I, Faust promises Mephistopheles: ‘Werd ich zum Au-genblicke sagen:/Verweile doch! du bist so schön!/Dann magst du mich in Fesselnschlagen,/Dann will ich gern zugrunde gehn!’ (ll.1769–1702); and towards the endof Faust II, the motif returns: ‘Zum Augenblicke dürft ich sagen:/‘‘Verweile doch,du bist so schön! [...]’’’ (ll.11581–82).

24. The Scholastic concept of the nunc stans, frequently found in Thomas Aquinas,derives from the nunc permanens of Boethius: ‘Nostrum nunc quasi currens tempusfacit et sempiternitatem, divinum vero nunc permanens neque movens sese atqueconsistens aeternitatem facit’ (Boethius, De sancta trinitate, IV, 72–74 [ed. H.F.Stewart and E.K. Rand, London, 1918], cited in: Historisches Wörterbuch derPhilosophie, ed. Joachim Ritter und Karlfried Gründer, 9 vols (Basle: Schwabe &Co., 1971–1995), VI, pp. 989–991). For further discussion, see Pierre Hadot, ‘‘‘ThePresent Alone is our Joy’’: The Meaning of the Present Instant in Goethe and inAncient Philosophy’, Diogenes, 133 (1986), 60–82; Jozef Wissink (ed.), The Eter-nity in the Thought of Thomas Aquinas and his Contemporaries (Leiden and NewYork: E. J. Brill, 1990), esp. pp. 28–29; and Andreas Anglet, Der »ewige« Augen-blick: Studien zur Struktur und Funktion eines Denkbildes bei Goethe (Cologne,Weimar, Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 1991).

25. Goethe, Gedichte, ed. Erich Trunz (Munich: C.H. Beck, 1974), p. 371.26. The notion of the ‘odour of sanctity’ is thematized by Joris-Karl Huysmans in La

cathedrale (1898): ‘[M]any of the Elect have diffused, during their lifetime andafter their death, an exquisite fragrance that cannot be analyzed; such were Mada-lene of Pazzi, Saint Etienne de Muret, Saint Philip Neri, Saint Paternianus, SaintOmer, the Venerable Francis Olympus, Jeanne de Matel and many more. [...] [I]ncertain persons it has been known to assume a natural character almost identicalwith certain familiar scents. Saint Treverius exhaled a fragrance compounded ofroses, lilies, balm, and incense; Saint Rose of Viterbo smelt of roses; Saint Cajetanof orange-blossom; Saint Catherine of Ricci of violets; Saint Theresa by turns oflily, jasmine, and violet; Saint Thomas Aquinas of incense; Saint Francis of Paulof musk’ (The Cathedral [1898], trans. Clara Bell (Sawtry, Cambridgeshire: De-dalus, 1989), p. 298).

27. See Graham Parkes, Composing the Soul: Reaches of Nietzsche’s Psychology (Chi-cago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1994), p. 424.

28. ‘First, there is generally an allusion to a certain situation, and then the motif goes

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on and on, returning from time to time in a more definite form, a more definiteapplication’ (Nietzsche’s Zarathustra: Notes of the Seminar, II, p. 1387).

29. ‘Full many a swift arrow have I beneath mine arm, within my quiver, many anarrow that is vocal to the wise; but for the crowd they need interpreters. The truepoet is he who knoweth much by gift of nature, but they that have only learnt thelore of song, and are turbulent and intemperate of tongue, like a pair of crows,chatter in vain against the god-like bird of Zeus. Now, bend thy bow toward themark! tell me, my soul, whom are we essaying to hit, while we shoot forth ourshafts of fame from the quiver of a kindly heart?’ (Pindar, op. cit., p. 27).

30. A variant use of the idea of a tone hanging in the night can be found at the endof the description of Adrian Leverkühn’s symphonic cantata ‘Dr. Fausti Wehe-klag’ in Thomas Mann’s Doktor Faustus (1946): ‘Aber der nachschwingend imSchweigen hängende Ton, der nicht mehr ist, dem nur noch die Seele nachlauscht,und der Ausklang der Trauer war, ist es nicht mehr, wandelt den Sinn, steht alsein Licht in der Nacht’ (end of chapter 46) (Thomas Mann, Gesammelte Werke,13 vols (Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer, 1960–1974), VI, p. 651).

31. ‘For the poets tell us, I believe, that the songs they bring us are the sweets theycull from honey-dropping founts in certain gardens and glades of the Muses – likebees, and winging the air as these do. And what they tell is true. For a poet is alight and winged and sacred thing [...]’ (Plato, The Statesman – Philebus – Ion, pp.421–25; cf. Parkes, p. 412).

32. For documentation of the growth and collapse of the friendship with Wagner, seeDieter Borchmeyer and Jörg Salaquarda (eds), Nietzsche und Wagner: Stationeneiner epochalen Begegnung, 2 vols (Frankfurt am Main and Leipzig: Insel, 1994).For a detailed and, to my mind, convincing discussion of Wagner’s influence onthe composition of Nietzsche’s Zarathustra, see Roger Hollinrake, Nietzsche,Wagner, and the Philosophy of Pessimism (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1982).

33. In Der Fall Wagner (1888), Nietzsche cites Goethe’s ‘definition’ of romanticism as‘am Wiederkäuen sittlicher und religiöser Absurditäten zu ersticken’ (see his re-marks about Friedrich Schlegel and Adam Müller in his letter to C.F. Zelter of20 October 1831).

34. In Tristan und Isolde (completed 1859, first performed 1865), Isolde sings: ‘Doches rächte sich/der verscheuchte Tag;/mit deinen Sünden/Rat’s er pflag:/was dir ge-zeigt/die dämmernde Nacht,/an des Tag-Gestirnes/Königsmacht/mußtest du’sübergeben,/um einsam/in öder Pracht/schimmernd dort zu leben./Wie ertrug’s ichnur?/Wie ertrag’ ich’s noch?’.

35. See Julian Roberts, German Philosophy: An Introduction (Cambridge: Polity Press,1988), p. 226.

36. ‘Erhabner lebendiger Wille, den kein Name nennt, und kein Begriff umfasst, wohldarf ich mein Gemüth zu dir erheben; denn du und ich sind nicht getrennt. DeineStimme ertönt in mir, die meinige tönt in dir wieder; und alle meine Gedanken,wenn sie nur wahr und gut sind, sind in dir gedacht. [...] Du lebest und bist, denndu weisst, willst, und wirkest, allgegenwärtig der endlichen Vernunft; aber du bistnicht, wie ich alle Ewigkeiten hindurch allein ein Seyn werde denken können’(Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Sämmtliche Werke, 6 vols (Berlin: Veit, 1845–46), II, pp.303–04 and 305).

37. In the dramatic structure of the ‘spiral’, Jung saw in Zarathustra a similarity with

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Goethe’s Faust (Nietzsche’s Zarathustra: Notes of the Seminar, II, pp. 956; cf. II,pp. 786 and 1243).

38. In Jenseits von Gut und Böse, §221, Nietzsche expanded this claim into an argu-ment (KSA, V, 144–45); cf. Die fröhliche Wissenschaft, §4 (KSA, III, 352), §344(KSA, III, 575–76); Jenseits von Gut und Böse, §1–2 (KSA, V, 15–17), §10 (KSA,V, 23); and Zur Genealogie der Moral, section III, §24 (KSA, V, 400–01) and §27(KSA, V, 410).

39. See Der Wille zur Macht, §1067 (KSA, XI, 610–11).40. For discussion of Goethe’s concept of Steigerung, see Elizabeth M. Wilkinson,

‘‘‘Tasso – ein Gesteigerter Werther’’ in the Light of Goethe’s Principle of ‘‘Steig-erung’’’ [1951], in Elizabeth M. Wilkinson and L. A. Willoughby, Goethe: Poetand Thinker (London: Edward Arnold, 1962), pp. 185–213.

41. On the conceptual unity of the Will to Power, the Eternal Recurrence, and theRevaluation of all Values, see Martin Heidegger: ‘Die Lehre von der ewigen Wie-derkunft des Gleichen gehört mit der Lehre vom Willen zur Macht aufs innigstezusammen. Das Einheitliche dieser Lehre sieht sich selbst geschichtlich als Umwer-tung aller bisherigen Werte’ (Nietzsche, I, p.26; cf. pp. 481–82).

42. ‘[Aus einem Brief an die Gräfin Auguste zu Stolberg]’, in: Goethe, Gedichte inzeitlicher Folge, ed. Heinz Nicolai (Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1982), p.216.

43. In other words, the doctrine of the Eternal Recurrence is, as Georg Simmel sug-gested, not so much a cosmological hypothesis as a kind of ‘categorical imperative’(Schopenhauer und Nietzsche: Ein Vortragszyklus (Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot,1907)).

44. 1 Corinthians 15:44; ‘Or else, brothers, put it this way: flesh and blood cannotinherit the kingdom of God: and the perishable cannot inherit what lasts for ever.I will tell you something that has been secret: that we are not all going to die, butwe shall all be changed. This will be instantaneous, in the twinkling of an eye,when the last trumpet sounds. It will sound, and the dead will be raised, imperish-able, and we shall be changed as well, because our present perishable nature mustput on imperishability and this mortal nature must put on immortality’ (1 Corin-thians 15:50–53, Jerusalem Bible translation).

45. ‘Tod und Geburt ist bloss das Ringen des Lebens mit sich selbst, um sich stetsverklärter und ihm selbst ähnlicher darzustellen’ (Die Bestimmung des Menschen,in: Werke, II, pp. 317–18).

46. Nietzsche’s Zarathustra: Notes of the Seminar, II, p. 1132.

Paul Bishop. Born 1967. D.Phil (Oxon.). Professor of German at the University ofGlasgow. Author of The Dionysian Self: C. G. Jung’s Reception of Friedrich Nietzsche(Berlin: de Gruyter, 1995); Synchronicity and Intellectual Intuition: Kant, Swedenborg,Jung (Lewiston: Mellen, 2000); and various articles on Weimar classicism and analyti-cal psychology.