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EDITED BY
Z A H I H A W A S S Secretary General of the Supreme Council
of Antiquities and Director of the Giza Pyramids Excavations
PROJECT EDITORS Laura Accomazzo
Valeria Manferto De Fabianis
GRAPHIC DESICN Paola Piacco
WHITE STAR PUBLISHERS
C o n t e n t s INTRODUCTION Page 5
by H.E. Mrs. Suzanne Mubarak
THE PYRAMIDS Page 12
by Zahi Hawass
CHRONOLOGY Page is
CHAPTER I W H Y A PYRAMID? PYRAMID RELIGION
by James P. Allen Page 22
CHAPTER 2 T H E ADMINISTRATION OF THE PYRAMID
by Vassil Dobrev Page 28
CHAPTER 3 BUILDING AN OLD KINGDOM PYRAMID
by Mark Lehner Page 32
CHAPTER A T H E ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGYPTIAN ROYAL TOMB
by Zahi Hawass Page 46
CHAPTER 5 T H E ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE PYRAMID COMPLEX
by Zahi Hawass Page 50
CHAPTER e T H E PREDYNASTIC PERIOD
by Renee Friedman Page 54
CHAPTER I T H E TOMBS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DYNASTIES
AT ABYDOS AND SAQOARA
by Giinter Dreyer Page 62
CHAPTER 8 T H E ROYAL MORTUARY ENCLOSURES OF ABYDOS AND HIERAKONPOLIS
by Matthew Adams and David O'Connor Page 78
CHAPTER 9 T H E STEP PYRAMIDS
by Ali Radwan Page 86
CHAPTER 10 T H E PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY
by Rainer Stadelmann Page 112
CHAPTER \ \ T H E QUEENS' PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY AT GIZA
by Zahi Hawass Page 138
CHAPTER 12 T H E SATELLITE PYRAMID OF KHUFU
by Zahi Hawass Page 150
CHAPTER 13 T H E MYSTERY OF HETEPHERES
by Zahi Hawass Page 152
CHAPTER 14 T H E SECRET DOORS INSIDE THE GREAT PYRAMID
by Zahi Hawass Page 156
CHAPTER 15 T H E PYRAMIDION
by Zahi Hawass Page 160
CHAPTER \6 T H E ROYAL BOATS AT GIZA
by Zahi Hawass Page 164
CHAPTER a T H E SPHINX
by Mark Lehner Page 172
1 0
CHAPTER IS T H E TOMBS OF THE H I G H OFFICIALS AT GIZA
by Peter Der Manuelian Page 190
CHAPTER 19 T H E 'UNFINISHED' PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY
by Michel Valloggia Pag. 224
CHAPTER 20 T H E PYRAMIDS OF THE FIFTH DYNASTY
by Miroslav Verner Pag. 236
CHAPTER 21 T H E SURPRISING ABUSIR BLOCKS.
by Zahi Hawass and Miroslav Verner Pag. 260
CHAPTER 22 T H E PYRAMIDS OF THE SIXTH DYNASTY
by Audran Labrousse Pag. 264
CHAPTER 23 T H E DECORATIVE PROGRAM OF THE OLD KINCDOM PYRAMID COMPLEXES
by Zahi Hawass Page 282
CHAPTER 24 T H E TOMBS OF THE FIFTH AND SIXTH DYNASTIES AT SAQQARA
by Karol Mys'liwiec Page 286
CHAPTER 2 5 T H E PYRAMIDS OF THE MIDDLE KINGDOM
by Dieter Arnold Page 326
CHAPTER 26 T H E TOMBS OF THE NOBLES IN THE MIDDLE KINGDOM
by David P. Silverman Page 348
CHAPTER 21 ROYAL AND PRIVATE STATUES OF THE OLD AND MIDDLE KINGDOMS
by Hourig Sourouzian Page 366
The Publisher would like to thank:
H.E. Farouk Hosny - The Egyptian Minister of Culture,
Nabil Osman - President of the Egyptian Information Center
Attiya Shakran - General Director of the Cairo Press Center,
M. El-Damaty - Director of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo,
Mena House Oberoi Hotel, Cairo,
Gamal Sbafik of the Cairo Press Center,
The curators and assistants of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo,
Rajiv Kaul,
Guido Paradisi and Fabio Calamante - photographers' iiss/staiifs.
The Editor would like to thank Mark Linz and Neil Hewison of the American University
in Cairo Press. He also wants to thank Essam Shehab of the Giza Inspectorate, and
Mohamed Ismail, Mobamed Megahed, Brook Myers, and Sahar Mabroukfrom the
Technical Office of the Supreme Council of Antiquities.
10-11
Scene showing the 'Meidum geese,'
Egyptian Museum Cairo, Old
Kingdom.
INDEX AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 392
© 2 0 0 3 W h i t e S t a r S.r.l .
V i a C S a s s o n e , 2 2 / 2 4
1 3 1 0 0 V e r c e l l i , I taly
w w w . w h i t e s t a r . i t
All rights reserved. N o pan ol this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written
permission from the publisher.
I S B N 8 8 - 8 0 9 5 - 2 3 3 - 1
Reprints:
1 2 3 4 5 6 0 7 0 6 05 0 4 0 3
Printed in Italy b y O f f i c i n e Graf i che D e A g o s t i n i
C o l o r separat ion b y F o t o m c c , Turin
I I
C h a p t e r 4
T h e Arch i tec tu ra l D e v e l o p m e n t of t h e Egyp t i an Royal T o m b
T A h e
„he kings of the First Dynasty were buried in
their ancestral cemetery at Abydos. There is also a
group of large, elaborate First Dynasty tombs at
Saqqara, near the Early Dynastic capital of lneb-hedj ;
the current Egyptological consensus is that these
tombs belong to high officials, but it is also possible
that these are royal cenotaphs or cult centers.
The tombs of the First Dynasty at Abydos are
located in an area called the Umm al-Qa'ab, which
means 'mother of pots.' These Early Dynastic tombs
mark a significant change in construction from those
of the Predynastic Period, when tombs were simple
oval or rectangular graves. The tombs become more
and more elaborate, with pits and chambers lined with
mud brick or, in some cases, wood In addition to the
burial chamber, there were also chambers for grave
goods. Surrounding the tombs of the First Dynasty
were small subsidiary tombs for attendants thought to
have been sacrificed to accompany each king into the
afterlife.
On the east side of each tomb limestone stelae
were set, bearing the name of the king in a sn&h (a
rectangle bounded at the bottom by the
representation of a niched palace facade). Most of the
kings of the Second Dynasty were buried at Saqqara,
but the last two kings of this dynasty, Peribsen and
Khasekhemwy, were buried at Abydos.
At a distance of about two kilometers from the
Early Dynastic tombs in Umm al-Qa'ab, is a group of
large enclosures associated with the funerary cults of
the kings,- the earlier enclosures also had subsidiary
burials associated with them. These are thought to
have once contained ritual structures built ol
perishable materials. David O'Connor of the
Pennsylvania-Yale Expedition recently found a fleet of
twelve boats moored neared the complex of the
Second Dynasty king, Khasekhemwy (although not
necessarily belonging to this king). The funerary
complexes associated with the Second Dynasty tombs
at Saqqara have not yet been located. Wc are now
making a new plan of these tombs, in cooperation
with Giinter Dreyer of the German Institute,- we have
already begun to clean these tomhs in preparation for
this new plan.
Through study of the royal tombs and associated
enclosures at Abydos, one can identify the basic
architectural components, and correlate them with the
by Zahi Hawass
elements of later complexes; the tomb, enclosure wall,
the stelae (corresponding to the upper temple), the
funerary complex (lower temple), and boats. Thus,
the basic elements of the royal tombs, which
continued to develop throughout Egyptian history,
were already in existence at this time.
A number ol the Early Dynastic tombs at Saqqara
have mounds, and in one case a stepped platform,
over the burial shafts. The tombs at Abydos are also
thought to have been covered with mounds. These
are thought to represent the primeval mound on
which the creator god stood to bring the universe
into being.
The Step Pyramid complex of Djoser represents a
major step forward in royal funerary architecture.
Djoser and his chief architect, Imhotcp, brought the
two elements of the Early Dynastic complex, tomb
and valley enclosure, together into one monumental
complex, and translated the mud brick and perishable
materials into stone. The mound above the burial
shaft became a towering step pyramid, rising in six
stages to a height of 6 0 meters.
The components of Djoser's complex are;
1 The enclosure wall with the colonnaded
entrance
2. The pyramid
3. The northern temple
4. The south tomb
5. The south court
6. The hib^td court
7. The southern altar
8. Temple T
9. The northern temple
1 0 . The northern altar
1 1 . Pavilion of the south
1 2 Pavilion of the north
1 3 . Boundary markers
Over the course of the next hundred years, the
major elements of the step pyramid complex evolved
into the standardized elements of the Old Kingdom
pyramid complex. Much of this development can be
traced in the complexes of Snefcru, first king of the
Fourth Dynasty, at Meidum and Dahshur Snefcru
built four pyramids; one each at Seila and Meidum,
and two at Dahshur. He built the Seila pyramid as a
representation of the primeval mound, associated with
a royal residence in the area, not as a tomb. The
Meidum pyramid was built as a step pyramid in the
beginning of his reign and left unfinished for reasons
we do not know. Sneferu started a new pyramid
complex at Dahshur in about the fifteenth year of his
reign ( this was designed to be the first true pyramid-
However, for structural reasons, the angle of slope
had to be modified part way up, which gave the
pyramid its distinctive 'bent' profile. This complex was
then abandoned, and a new true-pyramid complex in
North Dahshur was completed and used for the king's
burial
The complex at Meidum contains some of the
basic elements of the pyramid complex; a wall, which
encloses a small satellite pyramid to the south and an
offering chapel to the east, and a causeway leading
toward the flood plain. There are also tombs of
officials and family members near the pyramid.
The Bent Pyramid complex contains all of these
elements, plus a lower temple at the eastern end of
the causeway These elements now become standard,
and can also be seen in Sneferu's northern pyramid
complex at Dahshur. We also have evidence for a
pyramid city associated with this complex.
Thus, by the time ol Sneferu's son and successor,
Khufu, the basic elements of the pyramid complex
were in place The Early Dynastic mound has become
a straight-sided pyramid. The royal stelae have
become the upper, or mortuary, temple Djoser's south
tomb, sftf-festival court, and Temple T become the
satellite, or ritual, pyramid and its court. Djoser's
complex also contains W-fesiivat chapels, altars, and
the pavilions of the north and south. These separate
buildings develop into rooms and niches inside later
pyramid temples. Khufu adds three queens' pyramids
and an elaborate, planned cemetery for royal relatives
and officials to the elements of the pyramid complex.
Evidence lor harbors associated with the complexes of
Chapter •) I 4 6
46 bottom
In this genera] view oj the Djoser
pyramid complex ai Sahara, the Step
Pyramid dating to the Third Dynasty
can be observed.
47
both Khufu and his son Khafre have also been round,
and traces of Khufu's palace have recently been
uncovered. Ongoing excavations at Giza are yielding
traces of the workers who built the pyramids: the
tombs of the pyramid builders, the workmen's tamp,
and the workmen's installation, where the workers
who built the pyramids received took and rations, and
perhaps slept,
The current work at Giza is clarifying the issue of
where the king lived while his pyramid was being
built It used to he thought that the capital, the royal
residence, of the king was at Memphis itself.
However, the Egypt Exploration Society excavations
at Memphis under David Jelfreys have found no
evidence lor a settlement dated to the Archaic Period
or the Old Kingdom. They have, however, found
traces ol an Archaic settlement at the foot of the
Saqqara plateau, near the First Dynasty tombs there.
At Giza, in addition to the remains of a
monumental building which may he Khufu's palace,
we have found traces ol an Old Kingdom settlement
under the modern village that lies at the foot of the
plateau. This settlement was about five square
kilometers, and I believe that this is where the royal
administration was based. Textual evidence from the
Fifth Dynasty also supports this interpretation^ the
Abustr Papyri, found in the pyramid complex ol
Neferirkare Kaki, mention a palace of Djedkarc Isesi
which was located near his pyramid.
The pyramid was the national project of the
nation; every household participated in this
monumental task by sending workers and food to help
the king. The construction of the pyramid and its
complex magically provided for the rebirth and
dtvinity of the king, and thus assured the safety and
prosperity of the country It has been said that the
pyramids built Egypt: the complex administration
needed to manage these enormous projects helped to
create tins ancient civilization The king would have
had his primary residence near the pyramid site so
that he could supervise the most important project of
his reign.
Khulu's pyramid required a large number ol men
to move and place over 2 , 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 cubic meters of
stones, yet the number of artisans required was
relatively few. This ratio of stone-movers to artisans
would change, however, over the next two dynasties
as architects decreased the volume of stone by making
the pyramids smaller and using smaller stones, mud
brick, or loose rubble fill, while they increased the
number of beautiful wall reliefs with which the
OSwptff * 4 7
The imposing structure oj the pyramid oj
King Khufu oj the Fourth Dynasty
dominates the Giza Platen and represents
an architectural ability n e w again
reached during thtfollmoing dynasties
Jht pyramid of Amenembrl ill al
Dahshur, Middle Kintjdom.
temples were decorated. For example, it is estimated
that the pyramid of the Fifth Dynasty's first king,
Userkal, contains only one-thirteenth of the bulk ol
Khufu s pyramid. Indeed, the 2,600,000 cubic meters
of raw stone in Khufu's pyramid is almost equal to all
the raw stone of all the pyramids of the Fifth and
Sixth Dynasties combined. On the other hand, the
Filth Dynasty pyramid of Sahure at Abusir had,
according to German Egyptologist Ludwig Borchardt,
10,000 square meters ol wall reliefs. The decreasing
size of the pyramids and hence, the reduced need for
workmen, was probably not economically motivated,
because the increasing number of relicts would have
necessitated hiring many more skilled artisans who
commanded a higher wage than the workmen who
moved the stones.
It is at the end oi the Fifth Dynasty that the so-
tailed I'vumid Te\h appeal on the inside walls ol
the pyramids chambers—the first example being the
pyramid ol Unas at Saqqara. The Pyramid Texts are
magical spells inscribed in vertical columns on the
walls of the antechamber and burial chamber of the
pyramid. The spells are designed to help the king
ascend to the sky, to illuminate the relationship of the
king to the gods, and to ensure the divinity of the
king, In the following dynasty these precise carvings
grace the burial chambers of both kings and queens.
The pyramid complexes of the Filth Dynasty, in
addition to their expanded decorative repertoire,
make some changes to the specific details of the
Fourth Dynasty complex Unlike the Giza pyramids,
the pyramids of Userkaf, Sahure, Neferirkare Kaki,
and Niuserre all have their entrances at ground level,
and the interior layout is different. The sarcophagus is
placed near the west end of the chamber and the
chamber walls are decorated with designs of a palace
ia^ade, an alabaster veneer, and later, the Pyramid
Texts. The temples become larger (providing more
wall surface for the reliefs), and contain numerous
rooms and magazines. The courts of the upper
temple, which are oriented north to south in the
Fourth Dynasty, are now oriented cast to west.
The kings of the Fifth Dynasty also built sun
temples in an area about one kilometer north of
Abusir. These complexes consist of a large, squat
obelisk and an altar in an open court, an upper
temple, causeway, and lower temple. These temples
were dedicated to the worship of the sun god, Re.
Two of these temples have been found and excavated
so far,- we have textual evidence for six of them.
After the chaos of the First Intermediate Period,
the kings of the Middle Kingdom were once again
buried in pyramids. The first king of the Twelfth
Dynasty, Amenemhet I, built his pyramid at Lisht,
near the entrance to the Fayum. In the core of his
pyramid, he used rough blocks of limestone and a fill
of mud brick and debris. Included in this debris, and
also in the lining and blocking ol the substructure,
were inscribed blocks from the pyramid complexes of
Khufu, Khafre, and Unas. These blocks may have
served to magically link this king with his divine
predecessors,
Amenemhet Is complex is clearly based on the
Old Kingdom prototype, with, however, some details
that reveal theTheban origin of the family. Some of
the standard features are present: upper temple,
causeway, and lower temple, but the causeway was
unroofed, like the processional ways of the Tbeban
tombs of the kings who preceded him. Another
Theban element is the fact that the pyramid and its
temple are on terraces. There was no satellite
pyramid, and family members were buried in mastabas
or shaft tombs within the pyramid enclosure. A small
chapel lay in front of the entrance to the substructure
in the north face of the pyramid, and the king was
buried in a chamber that lay at the bottom of a shaft
on the vertical axis of the pyramid—this shaft is
another Theban element. The Middle Kingdom
decoration that has been retrieved from this complex
is difficult to tell from the Old Kingdom intrusive
fragments, as the later artists appear to have tried to
copy the older models as faithfully as possible. The
causeway was decorated with scenes ol foreigners,
Cbtljlttr 4
1 4 8
y \ r e / ? / / ( ' ( I it r¿il . | V / J> Í'Í>C / o / > m e > ? t
funerary estates, royal officials, and gods.
Amenemhet Is son and successor, Senusret 1, built
his pyramid near that of his Father. For the core of the
pyramid itself, his architects used an ingenious system
of spines and cross-walls, but the pyramid was
unstable, and only a mined mound remains today.
Like his father, he placed an entrance chapel against
the north face, from which a descending passage leads
to the burial chamber, far beneath the ground (and
now under the water table). All nf the Twelfth
Dynasty kings placed their burial chambers deep in
the earth, as part of an effort to link themselves with
Osiris, king of the underworld,
Senusret Is complex contains most of the
elements that had become standard by the end of the
Old Kingdom: upper temple, causeway (originally
uncovered but later roofed), lower temple (which has
never been found), and a satellite pyramid in the
southeast corner of the inner enclosure. Nine queens'
pyramids lie inside the outer enclosure wall,
surrounding the main pyramid. Large statues of the
king in the red and white crowns were placed in
niches along the inside of the causeway. Another
decorative innovation found in this complex is the
addition of monumental strekfc containing the king's
names to both faces of the inner enclosure wall The
wall was also niched, harkening back to the Third
Dynasty enclosure of Djoser and the Early Dynastic
walls at Abydos and Saqqara.
The succeeding kings, Amenemhet 11 and
Senusret II, built pyramid complexes that are
significantly different, referring perhaps more to the
Third Dynasty step pyramid enclosures than to the
late Old Kingdom models In any event, each of the
next kings built a unique complex which incorporates
some of the standard elements with experimental
features. Amenemhet lis pyramid is at Dahshur, and is
set in a rectangular, east-west enclosure. The pyramid
itself was built as a skeleton of stone filled with sand
and then cased with fine white limestone; it is now in
ruins. The entrance to the substructure is in the north
face, and leads to a burial chamber which contains a
sarcophagus of sandstone. This complex has been
neglected by archaeologists: little is known about the
layout of the upper temple, and the lower temple has
never been found, although an open causeway leads
down to the edge of the floodplain.
Senusret II moved back to the Fayum, and built a
pyramid primarily of mud brick within a square
enclosure The substructure of this pyramid is very
unusual, and is the first to try to hide the entrance in
an attempt to foil tomb robbers. This substructure is
entered via a shaft on the south side of the pyramid.
A horizontal passage at the bottom of the shaft leads
to a vaulted chamber, at one end of which is a deep
well whose bottom has never been reached. The
horizontal passage continues through an antechamber
to the burial chamber cased in granite, in which was
found a red granite sarcophagus and an alabaster
offering table. A passageway runs around the burial
chamber, providing for the symbolic journey of the
king's spirit and also helping to associate him with
Osiris, whose cult was becoming increasingly more
important during this period.
In this complex are a number of maslabas and one
subsidiary pyramid which may be a satellite pyramid.
The enclosure wall of the complex was niched, like
Senusret I's. Included in the complex were an upper
temple, causeway, and lower temple, none of which
have been adequately explored. At the foot of the
plateau is Senusret Ms pyramid town, a planned
settlement which tells us a great deal about daily life,
at least under royal protection, in the Middle
Kingdom.
Senusret III moved back to Dahshur, and built his
pyramid again of mud brick with limestone casing.
The substructure consists of a hidden entrance to the
west, a descending passage leading to an
antechamber, magazine, and burial chamber of granite
containing a granite sarcophagus. Against the
northern face of the pyramid is an entrance chapel,
and to the east is a small upper temple. The pyramid
enclosure was expanded later in the reign, and a
second temple was added to the south. A causeway
leads from the southeastern corner of the expanded
enclosure; no lower temple has yet been found.
Surrounding the main pyramid are the superstructures
of seven small pyramids, underneath are the shaft
tombs of a number of royal women, in which a
number of inscribed artifacts and jewels were found
Just outside the southwest corner of the pyramid
enclosure is a building of mud brick and a fleet of six
wooden boats, each six meters long.
Fragments of relief from the upper temple include
the king at an offering table, a Itinerary menu,
offering bearers, scenes of gods, officials, and the
butchering of sacred cattle Bits of relief from the
southern temple show the king in his ifJ-festival robe.
Josef Wegner has recently discovered a second tomb
for Senusret III at Abydos, which may have been the
kings actual burial place,
Amenemhet III built two pyramids, one at
Dahshur and the other in the Fayum, The Dahshur
pyramid was built of mud brick Underneath is a maze
of corridors cased in white limestone which includes
the king's burial chamber, a number of small chapels.
and the chambers used for the burial and equipment
of several queens. There are two entrances, and the
corridors are quite complex. They may, in addition to
their practical purposes, model the underworld. In
1 9 9 7 , 1 was able to visit this pyramid with Dieter
Arnold. It was amazing to explore these labyrinthine
corridors myself.
Amenemhet Ill's Dahshur complex had an upper
temple, causeway, and lower temple. Structural
problems, however, caused the king to leave this site
and build a second pyramid at Hawara in the Fayum.
The layout of this pyramid and its enclosure is very
different from its predecessor at Dahshur. The
substructure here is truly a labyrinth, with dead-end
corridors, and passageways hidden in the ceiling. The
burial chamber itself is carved from a single piece of
quartzite. Inside was the king's quartzite sarcophagus,
a second, smaller sarcophagus, and two canopic
chests,
The pyramid complex of Amenemhet III at
Hawara is the largest of the Middle Kingdom
enclosures. It is oriented north to south. It was
approached via an open causeway from the east. The
upper temple is completely unique, and was called The
Labyrinth1 by visitors in ancient times. Unfortunately,
most of this structure has now been destroyed, enough
remains only to tell us that it was a vast complex of
small courts and shrines. Fetrie found the remains of a
large granite statue of the king close to the pyramid.
Other statue fragments of gods, the king, and offering
bearers, were recovered from this area.
The kings of the New Kingdom were aware that
neither the huge monuments of the Fourth Dynasty
nor the maze corridors of the late Twelfth Dynasty
had protected the royal burials. Thus, beginning
with Thutmose 1 of the Eighteenth Dynasty, the
kings built only their mortuary temples in the open,
in the floodptain along the west bank. In place of a
valley, or lower temple, they used the temples at
Karnak In a vain effort to protect their mummies
and treasures, they hid their actual tombs in a
remote valley further to the west, the Valley of the
Kings. Towering above this series of desert wadis is a
pyramid-shaped peak, known as the Qurn, Thus, the
royal burials continued to be surmounted by the
powerful symbol of the pyramid. In one sense, the
New Kingdom came full circle, back again to the
tombs separated from their cult centers that were
seen in the First Dynasty, Each period introduced
changes in the funerary cult, but the primary
importance of the pyramid remained, from its
beginnings as a mound of sand over the first royal
tombs, to the towering peak that protected the last.
Cfcafiter 4
I 4 9
RISE AND RUN - CASING
A r n o l d , D . , " M a n e u v e r i n g c a s i n g b l o c k s of pyra
mids," in J o h n Baines, e t al. ( eds . ) , Pyramid Studies
and Other Essays presented to I. E. S. Edwards, L o n d o n ,
1 9 8 8 , p p . 1 2 - 2 4 .
Isler, M-, " C o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n c a v e faces o n t h e
G r e a t Pyramid," JARCE 2 0 , n o . 2 7 - 3 2 ( 1 9 8 3 ) .
Lally, M . , "Engineer ing a pyramid," JARCE 2 6 , n o .
2 0 7 - 2 1 8 ( 1 9 8 9 ) .
Lauer, J.-P., "Sur le c h o i x d e l 'angle d e p e n t e dans les
p y r a m i d e s d'Égypte," Bulletin de l'Institut d'Égypte 3 7
( 1 9 5 6 ) , p p . 57-66.
Lauer, J.P., "Observat ions sur les pyramides ," BdÉ 3 0
(Ca iro , 1 9 6 0 ) .
R o b i n s , G. a n d C . C . D . S h u t e , " D e t e r m i n i n g t h e
s l o p e o f pyramids ," G M 5 7 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 4 9 - 5 4 .
P h o t o c r e d i t s :
3 3 t o p A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
3 3 b o t t o m A r a l d o D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
3 4 , 3 5 G i u l i o V e g g i / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
3 6 , 3 7 A l b e r t o S i l i o t t i / A r c h i v i o G e o d i a
3 8 M a r k ^ e h n e r
3 9 Al f io G a r o z z o / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
4 3 , 4 5 M a r c e l l o Bert inet f i /Archiv io W h i t e Star
T H E A R C H I T E C T U R A L D E V E L O P M E N T
O F T H E E G Y P T I A N R O Y A L T O M B
T e x t b y Z a h i H a w a s s
B i b l i o g r a p h y :
Edwards , I.E.S., The Pyramids of Egypt, rev. ed., N e w
York, 1 9 8 5 .
H a s s a n , S., The Sphinx: Its History in the light ojRecent
Excavations, Ca iro : C a i r o Univers i ty , 1 9 4 9 .
H a w a s s , Z . , ' T h e Khufu Statuet te : Is It an O l d
K i n g d o m Sculpture?" Melanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar.
Bibliotheque d'Etude, Institut Francais d'Archeologie
Orientale n o . 9 7 1 , ( 1 9 8 5 ) .
The Funerary Establishments oj Khufu, Khafra, and
Menkaura During the Old Kingdom, Ph. D .
D i s s e r t a t i o n U n i v e r s i t y of P e n n s y l v a n i a m i c r o
film, A n n Arbor, MI , 1 9 8 7 .
"Histor ies , M y s t e r i e s of M a n " in W M . F . Petrie ,
The Pyramid and Temples of Gizab, L o n d o n , 1 9 9 0 .
--- "Pyramid C o n s t r u c t i o n : N e w E v i d e n c e
D i s c o v e r e d in Giza ," in H . G u k s c h a n d D . P o l z
( e d s ) , Stationen Beiträge zur Kultur-gescbichte Ägyptens
Gewidmet R. Stadelmann, M a i n z , 1 9 9 8 .
—Jbe Pyramid of Ancient Egypt, C a r n e g i e Inst i tute ,
P i t t sburgh, 1 9 9 0 .
Lehner, M . , ' T h e D e v e l o p m e n t of t h e G i z a
N e c r o p o l i s : T h e Khufu Project." MDAIK 4 1 , 1 9 8 5 .
M a r a g i o g l i o , V., a n d C . Rinaldi . , VArchitettura della
piramidi menfite. V o l s . 2 - 8 . Turin a n d R a p e l l o , 1963¬
7 7 .
Reisner, G. A. , The Development of The Egyptian Tomb
Down to the Accession of Cheops, C a m b r i d g e , Mass . ,
1 9 3 5 .
S m i t h , W. S. , The Art and Architecture Of Ancient Egypt.
2 n d e d . , r ev i sed b y W. K. S i m p s o n ,
H a r m o n d s w o r t h , 1 9 8 1 .
P h o t o c r e d i t s :
4 6 G i u l i o V e g g i / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
4 7 M a r c e l l o Berti n e t t i / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
4 8 Al f io G a r o z z o / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
T H E A R C H I T E C T U R A L C O M P O N E N T S
O F T H E P Y R A M I D C O M P L E X
T e x t b y Z a h i H a w a s s
B i b l i o g r a p h y :
Badawy A. , A History of Architecture I, Berkeley,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Cal i fornia , 1 9 6 6 .
Brinks, J., Die Entwicklung der Königlichen Grabanlagen des
AltenReicbes, H i l d e s h e i m , 1 9 7 9 .
Edwards , I.E.S., The Pyramids of Egypt, rev. ed . , N e w
York, 1 9 8 5 .
Fakhry, A. , The Pyramids, 2nd ed., C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y
o f C h i c a g o Press, 1 9 7 4 .
H a w a s s , Z . , ' T h e Pyramid," in D . P. S i l verman a n d
D . Baird (eds ) , Ancient Egypt, L o n d o n a n d N e w
York: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 9 8 .
The Funerary Establishments of Khufu, Kbafra,_and
Menkaura During the Old Kingdom, Ph . D .
D i s s e r t a t i o n U n i v e r s i t y o f Pennsy lvana ia m i c r o
film, A n n Arbor, M I , 1 9 8 7 .
"Pyramid C o n s t r u c t i o n : N e w E v i d e n c e
D i s c o v e r e d in Giza," in H . G u k s c h a n d D . P o l z
( eds . ) Stationen Beiträge zur Kultur-geschichte Ägyptens
Gewidmet R. Stadelmann, M a i n z , 1 9 9 8 .
Maragiog l io , V , and C . Rinaldi, LArchitettura della
piramidi menfite, vols . 2 -8 . Turin a n d Rapello, 1963-77 .
Petrie , W. M . F., The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh,
L o n d o n , 1 8 8 3 .
S m i t h , W. S. The Art and Architecture Of Ancient Egypt,
2 n d e d , rev i sed b y W. K. S i m p s o n ,
H a r m o n d s w o r t h , 1 9 8 1 .
Stadelmann, R., Die ägyptischen Pyramiden, Mainz , 1985.
P h o t o cred i t s :
5 2 , 5 3 A r a l d o D e Luca /Arch iv io W h i t e Star
T H E P R E D Y N A S T I C P E R I O D
T e x t b y R e n e e F r i e d m a n
R e n e e Fr iedman is the H e a g y Research Curator in
the Egypt ian D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e British M u s e u m a n d
D i r e c t o r of t h e H i e r a k o n p o l i s E x p e d i t i o n , spec ia l i z
ing in Egypt's Predynas t i c Per iod . E d u c a t e d at the
U n i v e r s i t y of Cal i fornia , Berkeley, s h e has e x c a v a t e d
at a n u m b e r of s i tes in E g y p t , i n c l u d i n g G i z a ,
M e n d e s , Tell e l - M u q d a m , a n d H i e r a k o n p o l i s , w h e r e
s h e has w o r k e d s i n c e 1 9 8 3 . S h e has c o - a u t h o r e d a n d
e d i t e d several b o o k s i n c l u d i n g Egypt Uncovered
( 1 9 9 8 ) , The Followers of Horns ( 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d Egypt and
Nubia: Gifts of the Desert ( 2 0 0 2 ) .
B i b l i o g r a p h y :
A d a m s , B., Predynastic Egypt (Shire E g y p t o l o g y 7 ) ,
Aylesbury , 1 9 8 8 .
--- , Ancient Nekhen: Garstang in the City of Nekhen (ESA
n o . 3 ) , SIA P u b l i s h i n g , 1 9 9 5 .
A d a m s , B a n d K. C i a l o w i c z , Protodynastic Egypt
(Shire E g y p t o l o g y 2 5 ) , G r e a t Britain, 1997 .
Darne l l , J . C , Theban Desert Road Survey in the Egyptian
Western Desert, Volume i-. Gebel Tjauti Rock Inscriptions
1-45 and Wadi el-Hdl Rock Inscriptions i-45, Or ienta l
Inst i tute Pub l i ca t ions 119 , C h i c a g o , 2 0 0 2 .
Fr iedman, R. e t al., "Preliminary Report o n Field
W o r k at H i e r a k o n p o l i s 1 9 9 6 - 1 9 9 8 , " JARCE 3 6
( 1 9 9 9 ) , p p . 1 - 3 5 .
Friedman, R. a n d B. A d a m s ( eds . ) , The Followers of
Horus: Studies dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman,
O x f o r d , 1 9 9 2 .
Friedman R., Egypt and Nubia-. Gifts of the Desert,
L o n d o n , 2 0 0 2 .
H o f f m a n , M . A. , Egypt Before the Pharaohs, N e w York,
Texas , 1 9 7 9 / 1 9 9 1 .
M i d a n t - R e y n e s , B., The Prehistory of Egypt: From the
First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs, O x f o r d , 2 0 0 0 .
S p e n c e r , A. ]., Early Egypt-. The Rise of Civilization in the
Nile Valley, L o n d o n , 1 9 9 3 .
--- ( e d . ) , Aspects of Early Egypt, L o n d o n : British
M u s e u m Press, 1 9 9 6 .
S h a w , I. ( e d . ) , The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt,
O x f o r d , 2 0 0 0 .
W e n d o r f , F. a n d R S c h i l d , Holocene Settlement of the
Egyptian Sahara, vol. i-. The Archaeology of Nabta
Playa, N e w York, 2 0 0 2 .
P h o t o cred i t s :
5 4 , 5 5 A r a l d o D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
5 6 , 5 7 left R e n e e Fr iedman
5 7 r i g h t A r a l d o D e Luca /Arch iv io W h i t e Star
5 8 , 5 9 R e n e e Fr iedman
6 0 T h e British M u s e u m
6 1 K e n n e t h Garret t
T H E T O M B S O F T H E F I R S T A N D S E C O N D
D Y N A S T I E S A T A B Y D O S A N D S A Q Q A R A
T e x t b y G ü n t e r D r e y e r
G ü n t e r D r e y e r s t u d i e d E g y p t o l o g y , A s s y r i o l o g y
a n d A n c i e n t N e a r Eastern a r c h a e o l o g y in H a m b u r g
a n d Berlin, w h e r e h e c o m p l e t e d his P h . D . in 1 9 7 8
a b o u t t e m p l e d o n a t i o n s in the early p e r i o d s of
E g y p t . H e e x c a v a t e d w i t h t h e G e r m a n Inst i tute of
A r c h a e o l o g y at Luxor, E l e p h a n t i n e , W a d i Garawi ,
A b y d o s a n d G i z a . H e b e c a m e assistant d i rec tor o f
t h e G e r m a n Inst i tute in 1 9 8 9 , a n d d irec tor in 1 9 9 8 .
H e c o m p l e t e d h i s H a b i l i t a t i o n at Berlin U n i v e r s i t y
in 1 9 9 7 o n Early W r i t i n g from E g y p t a n d is n o w
m a i n l y c o n d u c t i n g t h e e x c a v a t i o n s o f t h e earl iest
Royal T o m b s at A b y d o s .
B i b l i o g r a p h y :
S p e n c e r A. J., Early Egypt, L o n d o n : British M u s e u m
Press, 1 9 9 3 .
ABYDOS
A m e l i n e a u , E., Les Nouvelles Fou^lles d'Abydos I-III,
Paris, 1 8 9 5 - 1 9 0 4 .
—, he Tombeau d'Osiris, Paris, 1 8 9 9 .
Petrie, W. M. F, The Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty I-II
( M e m . Egypt Expl. f u n d 1 8 , 2 1 ) , London, 1900 -1901 .
Dreyer, G., Umm el-Qaab I, Das prädynastische Königsgrab
U-j in Abydos und seine frühen Schriftzeugnisse
(Archäologische Veröffentlichungen 86) , Mainz, 1998.
Dreyer G., et al., "Umm e l -Qaab, Nachuntersuchungen
im f rühze i t l i chen Königs fr i edhof . V o r b e r i c h t e
(preliminary reports)," Mitteilungen DAIKairo (MDAIK)
3 8 , 4 6 , 4 9 , 5 2 , 5 4 , 5 6 ( M a i n z , 1 9 8 2 - 2 0 0 0 ) .
SAQQARA
Emery, W B., Great Tombs of the ist Dynasty I-III,
Excavations at Sahara, Cairo, 1949,-London, 1955-58 .
— The Tomb of Hemaka, Excavations at Sacjcfara, Cairo, 1938.
Hor Aha, Excavations at Sahara, Ca i ro , 1 9 3 9 .
Lauer, J. Ph. , "His to ire m o n u m e n t a l e de s p y r a m i d e s
d '£gypte ," Bibliothfyue dttude 3 9 , Ca iro , 1 9 6 2 .
P h o t o cred i t s :
6 2 A r a l d o D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
6 3 G ü n t e r D r e y e r
6 4 t o p R M N
6 4 c e n t e r a n d b o t t o m G ü n t e r D r e y e r
6 6 A r a l d o D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
6 7 t o p G ü n t e r D r e y e r
6 7 c e n t e r Ara ldo D e Luca /Arch iv io W h i t e Star
6 8 - 6 9 a n d 6 8 b o t t o m G ü n t e r D r e y e r
6 9 b o t t o m left Araldo D e Luca/Archiv io W h i t e Star
7 0 a n d 71 private c o l l e c t i o n
7 2 - 7 3 private c o l l e c t i o n
7 3 t o p , c e n t e r a n d b o t t o m A r a l d o D e Luca/
A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
7 4 G ü n t e r D r e y e r
7 5 Ara ldo D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
7 6 t o p a n d b o t t o m A r a l d o D e L u c a / A r c h i v i o W h i t e
Star
7 6 - 7 7 G ü n t e r D r e y e r
T H E R O Y A L M O R T U A R Y E N C L O S U R E S O F
A B Y D O S A N D H I E R A K O N P O L I S
T e x t b y D a v i d O ' C o n n o r a n d M a t t h e w A d a m s
D a v i d O ' C o n n o r is Lila A c h e s o n Wal lace Professor of
Egypt ian Art and A r c h a e o l o g y at the Institute of Fine
Arts, N e w York University . H e is also a Professor
Emeritus of the Univers i ty of Pennsylvania and
Curator Emeritus of the Egypt ian Sec t ion , Univers i ty
of Pennsylvania M u s e u m of A n t h r o p o l o g y and
Archaeo logy . D a v i d O ' C o n n o r has excavated ex ten
s ive ly in Egypt a n d the Sudan, and his publ icat ions
inc lude Ancient Nubia: Egypt's Rival in Africa, Ancient Egypt:
a Social History (co-author),- a n d several others . H e is
currently c o m p l e t i n g a b o o k ent i t l ed Abydos-. The
Evolution of a Sacred Landscape.
M a t t h e w D o u g l a s A d a m s h o l d s a dual P h . D . in
A n t h r o p o l o g y a n d E g y p t o l o g y from the Univers i ty
of Pennsylvania . H e is Research S c h o l a r at the
Institute of Fine Arts, N e w York Univers i ty , a n d a
Research Assoc ia te of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Pennsylvania
M u s e u m . H e has w o r k e d at A b y d o s s ince 1981 a n d
has b e e n a project director there s ince 1 9 9 1 . H e is
D i r e c t o r of the A b y d o s S e t t l e m e n t Si te Project , a n d
has undertaken e x c a v a t i o n s in the anc ient t o w n of
A b y d o s . H e is Assoc ia te D i r e c t o r of the A b y d o s Early
D y n a s t i c Project a n d has e x c a v a t e d m a n y of north
A b y d o s ' Early D y n a s t i c royal m o n u m e n t s . In addi t ion
t o Egypt , Dr. A d a m s has a lso d o n e archaeo log ica l
f ie ldwork in Turkey, Syria, a n d N o r t h America . T h e
author of several articles a n d rev iews , his research
interests inc lude E g y p t as a c o m p l e x soc ie ty , k ingsh ip
a n d the nature of the early state in Egypt , Egypt ian
s o c i o - e c o n o m i c organizat ion , a n d the a r c h a e o l o g y of
s e t t l ement in Egypt .
B i b l i o g r a p h y :
K e m p , B., "Abydos: T h e Royal T o m b s of t h e First
D y n a s t y , " JEA 5 2 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 1 4 - 2 2 .
O'Connor , D . , "New Funerary Enclosures (Talbezirke)
o f the Early D y n a s t i c Period," Journal of the American
Research Center in Egypt 2 6 (1989 ) , pp. 51 -86 .
—, "Boat Graves and Pyramid Origins: N e w Discoveries
at A b y d o s , Egypt," Expedition 3 3 / 3 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 5-17.
O ' C o n n o r , D . a n d M . A d a m s , " M o o r e d in t h e
D e s e r t : D i g g i n g an A n c i e n t Armada," Archaeology
(May /June 2 0 0 1 ) , p p . 4 4 - 4 5 .
P h o t o cred i t s :
78 , 7 9 , 8 0 top, 8 0 - 8 1 Giulio Veggi/Archivio W h i t e Star
8 1 t o p , 8 2 - 8 3 , 8 3 D a v i d O ' C o n n o r
8 4 , 8 5 G i u l i o V e g g i / A r c h i v i o W h i t e Star
T H E S T E P P Y R A M I D S
T e x t b y Ali R a d w a n
Al i R a d w a n is a Professor at C a i r o U n i v e r s i t y w h e r e
h e t e a c h e s E g y p t i a n Art a n d A r c h a e o l o g y . H e w a s
t h e former d e a n of C a i r o U n i n e r s i t y a n d e x c a v a t e d
at Abusir.
B i b l i o g r a p h y :
A l l e n , J. P., "Funerary T e x t s a n d T h e i r M e a n i n g , " in
S. D'Auria, P. Lacovara a n d C . H . R o e h r i g ( eds . ) ,
Mummies and Magic-. The Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt,
B o s t o n , 1 9 8 8 , p p . 3 8 - 4 9 .
Al tenmül ler . H . , "Bemerkungen zur frühen a n d
s p ä t e n Bauphase d e s D j o s e r b e z i r k e s in Saqqara,"
MDAIK 28 ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 8 - 1 2 .
Barsanti, A. , "Ouvertüre d e la p y r a m i d e d e Zaouie't
e l -Aryan," ASAE II ( 1 9 0 1 ) , p p . 9 2 - 4 .
C w i e k , A. , "Date a n d Funct ion of the S o - c a l l e d M i n o r
S t e p Pyramids," G M 162 ( 1 9 9 8 ) , p p . 3 9 - 5 2 .
D r e y e r G. a n d W. Kaiser, "Zu d e n k l e i n e n
S t u f e n p y r a m i d e n O b e r - u n d M i t t e l ä g y p t e n s , "
MDAIK 3 6 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , p p . 4 3 - 5 9 , Taf. 6 8 - 7 7 .
D r e y e r G. a n d N . S w e l i m , "Die k l e ine
S tufen p y r a m i d e v o n A b y d o s - S ü d (Sinki) ," in
MDAIK 38 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 8 3 - 9 3 , Taf. 1 1 - 1 4 .
Dreyer , G. , "Der erste K ö n i g der 3 . D y n a s t i e , " in H .
G u k s c h a n d D . P o l z ( eds . ) , Stationen, Fs. R
Stadelmann, M a i n z , 1 9 9 8 , p p . 3 1 - 3 4 .
D o d s o n , A. , "On t h e D a t e of the U n f i n i s h e d
P y r a m i d of Z a w y e t e l -Aryan," Discussions in
Egyptology 3 ( 1 9 8 5 ) , p. 2 1 .
Edwards , I. E. S., The Pyramids of Egypt,
H a r m o n d s w o r t h , 1 9 6 1 .
Fakhry, A. , ThePyramids, C h i c a g o , 1 9 6 9 .
Faulkner, R. O . , The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts,
O x f o r d , 1 9 6 9 .
Firth, C . M . , J. E. Q u i b e l l a n d J-Ph. Lauer, The Step
Pyramid, I, II, Ca i ro , 1 9 3 5 , 1936 .
Fischer, H . G , "Some Emblematic U s e s of Hierog lyphs
with Particular Reference t o an Archaic Ritual Vessel,"
in Ancient Egypt in The Metropolitan Museum Journal
( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 3lff , 181 (pa le t te from H e l w a n ) .
Fr iedman, F. D . , "The U n d e r g r o u n d Relief Pane l s of
K i n g D j o s e r at t h e S t e p Pyramid C o m p l e x , "
JARCE 3 2 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 1-42.
G o n e i m , M . Z . , The Buried Pyramid, L o n d o n , 1 9 5 6 .
- - , Horas Sekhem-Khetm the Unfinished Step Pyramid at
Sahara, I Cairo, 1 9 5 7 .
G r e v e n , L , "Der Ka in T h e o l o g i e und Königkul t der
Ägypten des Alten Reiches," ÄF 17 (Glückstadt, 1952).
H a w a s s , Z . , "A Fragmentary M o n u m e n t o f D j o s e r
from Saqqara," JEA 8 0 ( 1 9 9 4 ) , p p . 4 5 - 5 6 .
Helck, W , "Der N a m e des letzten Königs der 3. Dynastie
un d i e S tadt Ehnas," SAK 4 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 1 2 3 - 1 3 0 .
— , "Gane," LÄ II ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 3 9 1 , n. 9 5 .
"Die D a t i e r u n g d e r Gefäßaufschr i f t en aus der
D j o s e r p y r a m i d e , " ZÄS 106 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 1 2 0 - 1 3 2 .
— , "Sanacht"LÄ V ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 375f.
- - , "Zum S t a t u e n s o c k e l d e s Djoser," in I. G a m e r -
Wal l er t a n d W . H e l c k ( eds . ) , Gegengabe, Fs Emma
Brunner-Traut, T ü b i n g e n , 1 9 9 2 , 1 4 3 - 1 5 0 .
H o r n u n g , E., "Exploring t h e Beyond," in E. H o r n u n g
a n d B. M . Bryan ( eds . ) , The Quest for Immortality:
Treasures of Ancient Egypt, M u n i c h , L o n d o n a n d N e w
York, 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 3 .
Kaiser, W , ' Z u den Königl ichen Talbezirken in A b y d o s
u n d zur B a u g e s c h i c h t e d e s D j o s e r - G r a b m a l s der 1.
u n d 2 . D y n a s t i e , " MDAIK 2 5 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 1 -21 .
- - , "Ein Kul tbez irk d e s K ö n i g s D e n in Sakkara,"
M D A I K 41 ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 4 7 - 6 0 .
— , "Zur unter i rd i schen A n l a g e der D j o s e r p y r a m i d e
u n d ihrer e n t w i c k l u n g s g e s c h i c h t l i c h t e n
Einordnung," in I. G a m e r - W a l l e r t a n d W. H e l c k
( eds . ) , Gegengabe, Fs Emma Brunner-Traut, T ü b i n g e n
( 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 1 6 7 - 1 9 0 .
K e e s , H . , Der Götterglaube im Alten Ägypten, L e i p z i g ,
1 9 4 1 , p p . 214ff.
3 9 6