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Methodological Perspectives from Anthropology

Dr.Zubeeda QuraishyDept of InformaticsUniversity of Oslo

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Objective of this session is to.. To introduce students to the concepts of

anthropological field techniques and how to construct an effective research design.

To develop a workable methodology to adequately address your research design and to write qualitative research.

To learn to think analytically, to grasp the range of human adaptability, and to reinforce tolerance for the differences found in today's interdependent world.

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Writing Qualitative Research Wolcott(1990)points out that many qualitative

researchers make the mistake of leaving the writing up until the end i.e. until they have got “the story” figured out.

Wolcott makes the point that ‘writing is thinking’. Writing actually helps a researcher to think straight and to figure out what the story should be.

The motto of every qualitative researcher should be to start writing as soon as possible.

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Research methods

Research methods provide important clue regarding the most relevant strategy to be used (Yin, 1994).

Case settings influences the choice of a relevant and rigorous approach.

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Research Approach

Is a strategy of inquiry which moves from the underlying assumptions to research design and data collection.

The way data is collected is influenced by the choice of research approach.

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Different Research Approaches in Anthropology

Quantitative &

Qualitative

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Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative methods which are now well accepted in the social sciences include:

Survey methods Laboratory experiments, Formal methods (e.g.

econometrics) and Numerical methods such as

mathematical modeling

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What is Qualitative Research? Qualitative research can be

characterized as the attempt to obtain an in-depth understanding of the meanings and 'definitions of the situation' presented by informants, rather than the production of a quantitative 'measurement' of their characteristics or behavior (Wainwright, 1997) 

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Qualitative Research

“Any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification.” (Strauss and Corbin (1990, pp. 17-18)

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Quantifying the Qualitative Data Qualitative interviewing techniques-’Triad

Sorting’ are employed by some researchers to gather textual data that are subsequently coded and analyzed statistically thus quantifying the qualitative data. (Bernard 1988; Trotter and Potter 1993; Weller and Romney 1988)

The results of such analyses generate an understanding of cognitive categories, or how people perceive the relationship among categories in some domain, such as HIV risk behaviors.

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But what happens when qualitative data is quantified..

The goal of understanding a phenomenon from the point of view of the participants and its particular social and institutional context is largely lost when textual data are quantified (Kaplan and Maxwell, 1994)

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Triangulation

Combination of one or more research methods has been referred as ‘Triangulation’.

(Ethnographers should have more than one way to show how we arrived at the conclusions of our research; field notes, interviews, and site documents which work together to support our claims.  This is called triangulation ).

Good discussions of triangulation can be found in Gable (1994), Kaplan and Duchon (1988), Lee (1991), Mingers (2001) and Ragin (1987) . An empirical example of the use of triangulation is Markus' (1994) paper on electronic mail.

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Other distinctions in research methods.. Objective versus Subjective (

Burrell and Morgan, 1979) Nomothetic(general laws) Vs Idiographic

(uniqueness of each particular situation) Emic (insider) Vs Etic (outsider)

perspective. (For a fuller discussion see Luthans and Davis (1982),

and Morey and Luthans (1984). The list goes on.

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Philosophical Perspectives All research (whether quantitative or

qualitative) is based on some underlying assumptions about what constitutes 'valid' research and which research methods are appropriate. In order to conduct and/or evaluate qualitative research, it is therefore important to know what these (sometimes hidden) assumptions are.

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Epistemology

Most pertinent philosophical assumptions are those which relate to the underlying epistemology which guides the research.

Epistemology refers to the assumptions about knowledge and how it can be obtained (for a fuller discussion, see Hirschheim, 1992).

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Assumptions that underlie the Anthropological Research Perspective

First, it is assumed that people are symbol constructing and spend a great deal of time consciously and unconsciously interpreting what the symbols & behaviors created by themselves and others mean

Anthropologist gain knowledge of how people think and behave through involvement in their daily social milieus.

Finally, it is assumed that people’s perceptions and behaviors are related to context.

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Qualitative Research Methods Originally developed in the Social Sciences. Have a specific strength in helping to

understand people as well as social and cultural phenomena (Avison, Lau, Myers & Nielsen,1999).

Used for describing the participant’s views of processes and collecting subjective accounts of phenomena.

Used for analysis of the data, finding connections & relationships, the influence of the context and different perspectives toward phenomena.

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Benefits of Using Anthropological Methods

Through anthropological methods, it is possible to gain an understanding of the meanings people attribute to their actions as well as delineate the widersocio-political and ecological context in which their behaviors take place (Ex, drug use and HIV risk behaviors)

cont..

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Benefits of using Anthropological methods

Such an understanding is crucial not only for designing and evaluating questionnaires but also for designing locally and culturally sensitive intervention and prevention programs as well as for formulating meaningful research questions (Carlson et al. 1994a)

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Distinguishing Features of Anthropological Research Concerned with exploring and interpreting

social phenomena (tries to understand how people make sense of their world).

Studies people in their own territory & in their natural settings.

Gives insight concerning questions in terms of ‘Who’, ’Where’, ’How’ & ’Why’ .

Anthropologists have the expertise of studying complex human behavior (HIV, drug abuse etc)

Employs different methods

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….. Anthropological Research “..often the only means available for

gathering sensitive and valid data from otherwise elusive populations (ex, substance abusers, commercial sex workers etc.” Wiebel (1990, p. 5)

Anthropological research is necessary not only to design questionnaires but also to formulate meaningful research questions, conduct appropriate statistical analyses, and interpret the results (Werner and Schoepfle (1987a) )

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Anthropologists… Study things in their natural settings,

attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.

Involve a variety of empirical materials- case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives ( Denzin and Lincoln, 1994b,p.2).

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To be an anthropologist… One needs to explore, investigate, roam, and be

nomadic. Give up any thoughts about sending someone else

out to do the work. Forget having someone else do the transcription. 

The nuances are what count, and you can not delegate that work.  This is not something you can do impersonally to avoid your own bias. 

Bias is your locator, your internal detective, but only after you self-reflect and figure out your bias, you can move ahead of it. This is why it is important to keep a field diary, to record your dreams, your insights, your conjecture, those hypotheses that comes from doing the field work. 

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REQUIREMENTS FOR ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH PERSPECTIVE

“Anthropological research requires the investigator to spend considerable time with the group under study, to develop contacts with key respondents, to learn the language, norms, values, and attitudes of this group, and to build trust relation-ships”.(Sterk-Elifson (1993, p. 163)

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Contd..

Equal time must be allotted for data processing and analysis.

Anthropological research methods were developed to enable researchers to study social and cultural phenomena.

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Some of the Research Methods in Anthropology are… Action Research

Case Study Research

Ethnography

Grounded Theory

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Action Research

‘Action research aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to the goals of social science by joint collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical framework’ (Rapoport, 1970, p. 499).

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Contd.. Action Research Action research is concerned to enlarge the stock of

knowledge of the social science community. It is this aspect of action research that distinguishes it

from applied social science, where the goal is simply to apply social scientific knowledge but not to add to the body of knowledge.

Action research has been accepted as a valid research method in applied fields such as organization development and education (e.g. see the Special Issue on action research in Human Relations, Vol. 46, No. 2, 1993, and Kemmis and McTaggart, 1988).

In recent years action research is undertaken in Information Systems research.

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ICIS 1999 Panel on "IS Action Research: Can We Serve Two Masters?"

A brief overview of action research is the article by Susman and Evered (1988).

The article by Baskerville and Wood-Harper (1996) provides a good introduction to how action research might be used by IS researchers. An empirical example of action research is the article by Ytterstad et al. (1996).

Investigating Information Systems with Action ResearchReferences on Action ResearchMIS Quarterly Special Issue on Action Research in Information Systems has now been published. See Baskerville and Myers (2004)

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Case Study Research The term “Case Study" has multiple meanings. It can be

used to describe a unit of analysis (e.g. a case study of a particular organisation) or to describe a research method.

Case study research is the most common qualitative method used in information systems (Orlikowski and Baroudi, 1991; Alavi and Carlson, 1992).

Yin (2002) defines the scope of a case study as follows:

A case study is an empirical inquiry that: investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context,

especially when The boundaries between phenomenon and context are not

clearly evident (Yin 2002

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Case Study Research

Case study research method is particularly well-suited to IS research, since the object of our discipline is the study of information systems in organizations, and "interest has shifted to organizational rather than technical issues" (Benbasat et al. 1987).

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Ethnography Ethnographic research comes purely from

the discipline of social and cultural anthropology where an ethnographer is required to spend a significant amount of time in the field & conduct an in-depth research.

Ethnographers immerse themselves in the lives of the people they study (Lewis 1985, p. 380) and seek to place the phenomena studied in their social and cultural context.

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According to Anthropologists… Ethnographic research is not objective

but an interpretive endeavor. Not all field sites are "foreign" for

ethnographers in the same way. Ethnography is not replicable

research. Ethnography is not based on large

numbers of cases (like quantitative research).

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Cultural Relativism

there is no one standpoint from which to judge all cultures and ways of being in the world.  Because of this, anthropologists are conditioned to see various perspectives as  "positioned" (Abu-Lughod 1991), and the things that we learn in the field as "partial truths" (Clifford 1986)

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Cultural and other barriers to Field Research Cultural stereo Information Systems as

Social systems : Implications for Developing Countries by types(subcultural groups-drug users, CSWs etc

Minority group cultural barrier-unless we have good rapport or contacts many of the ethnic groups will not let the researchers study the group.

Organised networks-heroin group

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Ethnographers… Ethnographers engage in participant observation in

order to gain insight into cultural practices and phenomena. 

These insights develop over time and through repeated analysis of many aspects of our field sites.

Ethnographers are expected to be "reflexive"

To facilitate this process, ethnographers must learn how to take useful and reliable notes regarding the details of life in their research contexts. 

These field notes will constitute a major part of the data on which later conclusions will be based.

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Field notes Field notes should be written as soon as

possible after leaving the field site, immediately if possible. 

We are all very likely to forget important details unless we write them down very quickly. 

Since this may be very time-consuming, students should plan to leave a block of time for writing just after leaving the research context.

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Field Notes    a list of points that should be included in all field notes: Date, time, and place of observation Specific facts, numbers, details of what happens at the

site Sensory impressions: sights, sounds, textures, smells,

tastes Personal responses to the fact of recording fieldnotes Specific words, phrases, summaries of conversations,

and insider language Questions about people or behaviors at the site for

future investigation Page numbers to help keep observations in order

(Chiseri-Strater and Sunstein (1997)

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Ethnography as a Method in IS Ethnography has now become more

widely used in the study of information systems in organizations, from the study of the development of information systems to the study of aspects of information technology management (Hughes et. al, 1992; Orlikowski, 1991; Preston, 1991) (Davies, 1991; Davies and Nielsen, 1992).

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Grounded Theory Grounded theory is a research method

that seeks to develop theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed. According to Martin and Turner (1986), grounded theory is "an inductive theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultaneously grounding the account in empirical observations or data."

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(Contd..) Grounded Theory

The major difference between grounded theory and other methods is its specific approach to theory development - grounded theory suggests that there should be a continuous interplay between data collection and analysis.

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(Contd..) Grounded Theory

Grounded theory approaches are becoming increasingly common in the IS research literature because the method is extremely useful in developing context-based, process-oriented descriptions and explanations of the phenomenon (see, for example, Orlikowski, 1993).

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Techniques for Collecting Qualitative Data Field Work Active & Passive Participation Observation: Participant and Non participant

observation Interviews: Formal & Informal

Structured & Unstructured Interview Guide Focus Group Interviews Questionnaire Analysis of documents

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(Contd..) Techniques for collecting Qualitative Data

Narrative Approach Story telling Life History method Action Research Researchers impressions and

reactions. Narrative & Metaphor

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Narrative & Metaphor

Narrative & metaphor play an important role in all types of thinking and social practice.

In IS the focus has mostly been on understanding language, communication and meaning among systems developers and organizational members.

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Participant Observation Participant observation is a dialectic

process that cycles back and forth between assuming a role of a participant and the role of an observer.

Guides ethnographic fieldwork Participant observation techniques require

professional training and the allocation of the lead time necessary to develop rapport with the people being studied

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Developing Rapport Developing Rapport means developing and

maintaining complementary relation-ships with the people.

Rapport means trust and communication as well as commitment and skills in interpersonal relations.

The flexibility to develop rapport is an advantage of qualitative methods and an important factor in assuring the validity of the data.

Building relationships can contribute to the execution of qualitative interviews in more controlled settings.

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Interviewing Techniques Ranging from informal to semi structured

and life histories

Open ended interview conversation is allowed to flow freely in reference to a particular topic.

Free flowing conversation plays an important role in gaining familiarity with the way people perceive and express various dimensions of their lives.

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Interviewing Techniques In a more structured interview a set of

pre designed discussion topics are offered for a person’s response.

Open – ended interviewing serves as a means of determining how people talk about or perceive various aspects of their lives and categorize things.

Generally used for creating more focused set of questions that pertain to particular research problem

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Sources of Data Collection in Anthropology Primary: Data which is unpublished and

gather from the people or organisation directly.

Field work notes and the experience of living is an important source of data.

Secondary : refers to any materials (books, articles etc.) which have been previously published.

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Motivation for doing Anthropological Research

Anthropological research methods are designed to help researchers understand people and the social and cultural contexts within which they live

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Field Work Each research approach employs various

methods for collecting & generating empirical data.

Either one or a combination of several techniques can be used in collection and generation of empirical data.

One or more data sources can be used for collecting data (informants, newspapers, diaries, memos, documents, reports etc).

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DATA COLLECTION STRATEGIES

Ethnographic Method

Participant Observation

In-depth Interviews

Focus Groups Discussions

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Ethnographic Method is intended to help investigators understand the

social organization of behaviors under study in the targeted neighborhood.

Its goals are: A. To provide information needed

B. To identify and cultivate contacts with social networks

c. To develop an in-depth understanding of the group under study for example, major drug-using networks in terms of drug preferences, needle-use practices, sexual preferences and practices, and knowledge and beliefs about HIV/AIDS

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In-depth Interviews In- depth and open-ended individual interviews

offer the researcher a vital flexibility and allows for the identification of issues and questions not yet in the

information bank developed by the research. The formulation of new questions and routes of

inquiry is an important strength of qualitative research.

The researcher’s skills, attitudes, and experiences are key to engaging hard-to-reach individuals to participate in research studies particularly in in-depth interviews.

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What is Focus Group? are sources of highly detailed, specific

group data obtained on a focused research topic or question.

Focus group interviews are interactive events guided by a skilled moderator (interviewer) whose ability to stimulate participation, guide discussion, and probe directly affects both success in meeting research objectives and the quality of the data obtained.

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Focus Groups are used to gain an understanding of the

attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions of a specific group or population, which are then communicated to policymakers and program planners.

Focus groups are different from individual ethnographic or other group interviews because of their composition and focus.

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Focus Groups Focus groups are dynamic and process driven

and, unlike other group interviews, attempt to maintain the interaction predominantly within the group rather than between the participating individuals and the interviewer/moderator.

Focus groups can provide insights into the meaning of the behaviors and events within the research domain as seen by a particular group or population of the larger they represent.

This range of possibilities is, of course, important in identifying extremes as well as mainstream information (HIV/AIDS).

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FOCUS GROUPS Focus groups also provide an excellent

mechanism for the exploration of the meaning of words and the use of language.

The resulting insights are useful for increasing the effectiveness and validity of both qualitative and quantitative research instruments.

This is notable in their application to

marginalized, hard-to reach populations (drug addicts), which often have their own sub cultural vernacular and norms governing communication.

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FGDs can be used to..

support and inform data analysis by explaining inconsistencies in research findings either by providing additional depth and detail on a particular issue or by bringing the unexplained variation or inconsistency directly to the group for its examination and analysis.

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Advantages in using Focus Groups Discussions Tend to empower individuals to express

their ideas by providing peer group support and reassurance particularly if there is a feeling of status differential between the researcher and the interviewee.

Tend to empower individuals to express their ideas by providing peer group support and reassurance, for ex, Domestic Violence in India

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Focus Groups can be used To determine appropriate ways of

communicating in a particular social context.

Help researchers and service providers who utilize research data to understand the context and environment of the target population, the norms of communication, and the expectations placed on their behavior and presentation of self in the interview interaction itself.

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Constraints of FGDs It is inappropriate to generalize from

focus group findings to the more general as they are not based upon a representative sample population.

It also is inappropriate to use focus groups when statistical data are needed. While focus group data can be quantified, the numbers produced are descriptive of the groups only, and are not applicable to the general population.

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Constraints of FGDs Increasing the number of sessions

to improve coverage and representativeness achieves neither and rarely affects the utility of the data. Conducting too many sessions suggests a basic misunderstanding of the purpose of focus groups and qualitative research in general.

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Focus Group Discussions Important technique for identifying the

range of reactions to particular information,material activities, or program interventions.

Useful for exploring possible reasons for satisfaction and dissatisfaction and the underlying norms and values upon which costs and benefits as well as likes and dislikes are assessed.

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Focus Group Discussions Focus groups can provide directions and insights

to guide and inform evaluation activities, but should not provide definitive conclusions about success or failure, appropriateness, or effectiveness.

The purpose of focus groups differs from other group interactions in which the goal is to provide recommendations, reach consensus, or make decisions among alternatives (Krueger 1994). Brainstorming techniques seem similar to focus group interactions, but they are much more directed.

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FGDs can be used… at a midpoint in the research to examine

unexplained variation or to confirm initial findings.

Can be used to monitor the research process itself by providing feedback from individuals and from groups of interviewers and supervisory personnel.

Valuable after the completion of preliminary data collection on a particular research topic and a given community or population.

Useful at all stages of data analysis to provide explanation, depth, and detail and to serve as another resource for cross-validation of data collected by other methods.

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Type of data produced by the FGDs FGDs data are generally in the form of audio tapes,

notes, and transcripts of the sessions. Field notes, information from screening instruments, notes from the debriefing, and observer/assistant field notes are also sources of data.

Such data often include information on the environment or context, perceptions, beliefs, opinions, linguistic preferences, and interpretations of behaviors or events central to the research questions.

These data are particularly important in research on hard-to-reach populations engaged in group-specific and context-specific behaviors and language because they facilitate communication and the understanding of the context and motivations that determine behavior and that can influence behavior change.

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Focus Group Discussion as a data collection technique

Professional expertise and skills to facilitate focus groups are required to ensure methodological rigor and the validity of data.

Moderators of focus groups in behavioral and health research need to have sufficient grounding in research and interviewing skills as well as group process in order to be effective moderators.

Practice and experience, however, are the most important factors in becoming an effective moderator.

Training programs should take into account the educational and skill levels of potential moderators and tailor the instruction and training exercises to be responsive to individual needs and to the needs of the research itself.

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Focus Group Discussion Focus group sessions have great potential in

understanding complex behaviors such as HIV/AIDS. Focus groups can provide data important to the

development of research instruments, education materials, and public health interventions.

Because of the nature of the group format, focus groups are also uniquely effective in obtaining information from hard-to-reach populations who are

traditionally difficult to interview. Focus groups, increase the researcher’s ability to understand

unique cases and situations rather than providing generalizability, as do quantitative methods

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Requirement for conducting FGDs

Researchers need to negotiate and decide the characteristics of the participants that will yield information required for meeting the research objectives.

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Characteristics of the Group participants

Gender Differences in status and hierarchy

among participants Risk factors and specific behaviors Ethnicity Size of the group

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Characteristics of a Moderator A non judgmental attitude, A clearly projected interest in the group and the topics, Sincerity and openness, Comfort with sensitive topics,

A sense of humor, and basic knowledge of the target population and significant knowledge of the research topic. Gender is often a factor to consider regardless of other qualities

and attributes. No matter how relaxed, sincere, and direct, a moderator of the opposite gender will have an effect on the discussion, especially when gender is, in itself, one of the factors to be explored

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Moderating the Session

In any type of group, the moderator is the key to assuring that the discussion flows smoothly and that the research objectives for the session are met.

Moderators must create a relaxed and thoughtful atmosphere, present ground rules for the session, and set the tone for the discussion.

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FGDs demand that… Confidentiality is maintained of the participants

Analysis and reporting – data is person-intensive and time consuming( tapes, verbatim transcripts, field notes, screening instruments, moderator notes, and observer or debriefing notes).

Reports are most useful when they are well organized, succinct, and direct. Carefully selected quotes should be included as examples of vernacular, to clarify meaning, and to illustrate statements and conclusions.

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Good discussions of anthropological techniques for data collection can be found in Pelto and Pelto( )Denzin and Lincoln (1994), Miles and Huberman (1984), Rubin and Rubin (1995) and Silverman (1993).