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ARollsRoyceMerlininstalledinapreservedAvroYork
AircraftengineFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Anaircraftengineisthecomponentofthepropulsionsystemforanaircraftthatgeneratesmechanicalpower.Aircraftenginesarealmostalwayseitherlightweightpistonenginesorgasturbines.
Contents
1Aircraftenginemanufacturingindustry2Timelineofaircraftenginedevelopment3Shaftengines
3.1Reciprocating(piston)engines3.1.1Inlineengine3.1.2Vtypeengine3.1.3Horizontallyopposedengine3.1.4Hconfigurationengine3.1.5Radialengine3.1.6Rotaryengine
3.2Turbinepowered3.2.1Turboprop3.2.2Turboshaft
4Reactionengines4.1Jets
4.1.1Turbojet4.1.2Turbofan
4.2Pulsejets4.3Rocket
5Newerenginetypes5.1Wankelengine5.2Dieselengine5.3Precooledjetengines5.4Electric
6Fuel7Seealso8Notes9References10Externallinks
Aircraftenginemanufacturingindustry
Asof2012,thesizeoftheaircraftenginemanufacturingmarketwasalmost$40billion.[1]Thereareover350manufacturingcompaniesintheUnitedStatesemployingover70thousandpeople.
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Wrightvertical4cylinderengine
Timelineofaircraftenginedevelopment
1848:JohnStringfellowmadeasteamenginefora10footwingspanmodelaircraftwhichachievedthefirstpoweredflight,albeitwithnegligiblepayload.1903:CharlieTaylorbuiltaninlineaeroenginefortheWrightFlyer(12horsepower).1903:ManlyBalzerenginesetsstandardsforlaterradialengines.[2]1906:LonLevavasseurproducesasuccessfulwatercooledV8engineforaircraftuse.1908:RenLorinpatentsadesignfortheramjetengine.1908:LouisSeguindesignedtheGnomeOmega,theworld'sfirstrotaryenginetobeproducedinquantity.In1909aGnomepoweredFarmanIIIaircraftwontheprizeforthegreatestnonstopdistanceflownattheReimsGrandeSemained'Aviationsettingaworldrecordforenduranceof180kilometres(110mi).1910:Coand1910,anunsuccessfulductedfanaircraftexhibitedatParisAeroSalon,poweredbyapistonengine.Theaircraftneverflew,butapatentwasfiledforroutingexhaustgasesintotheducttoaugmentthrust.[3][4][5][6]1914:AugusteRateausuggestsusingexhaustpoweredcompressoraturbochargertoimprovehighaltitudeperformance[2]notacceptedafterthetests[7]191718TheIdfliegnumberedR.30/16exampleoftheImperialGermanLuftstreitkrfte'sZeppelinStaakenR.VIheavybomberbecomestheearliestknownsuperchargerequippedaircrafttofly,withaMercedesD.IIstraightsixengineinthecentralfuselagedrivingaBrownBoverimechanicalsuperchargerfortheR.30/16'sfourMercedesD.IVaengines.1918:SanfordAlexanderMosspicksupRateau'sideaandcreatesthefirstsuccessfulturbocharger[2][8]1926:ArmstrongSiddeleyJaguarIV(S),thefirstseriesproducedsuperchargedengineforaircraftuse[9][nb1]tworowradialwithageardrivencentrifugalsupercharger.1930:FrankWhittlesubmittedhisfirstpatentforturbojetengine.June1939:HeinkelHe176isthefirstsuccessfulaircrafttoflypoweredsolelybyaliquidfueledrocketengine.August1939:HeinkelHeS3turbojetpropelsthepioneeringGermanHeinkelHe178aircraft.1940:JendrassikCs1,theworld'sfirstrunofaturbopropengine.Itisnotputintoservice.1943DaimlerBenzDB670,firstturbofanruns1944:MesserschmittMe163BKomet,theworld'sfirstrocketpropelledcombataircraftdeployed.1945:Firstturboproppoweredaircraftflies,aGlosterMeteorwithtwoRollsRoyceTrentengines.1947:BellX1rocketpropelledaircraftexceedsthespeedofsound.1948:100shp782,thefirstturboshaftenginetobeappliedtoaircraftusein1950usedtodevelopthelarger280shp(210kW)TurbomecaArtouste.1949:Leduc010,theworld'sfirstramjetpoweredaircraftflight.1950:RollsRoyceConway,theworld'sfirstproductionturbofan,entersservice.1968:GeneralElectricTF39highbypassturbofanentersservicedeliveringgreaterthrustandmuchbetterefficiency.2002:HyShotscramjetflewindive.2004:NASAX43,thefirstscramjettomaintainaltitude.
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RangerL440aircooled,sixcylinder,inverted,inlineengineusedinFairchildPT19
ARollsRoyceMerlinV12Engine
AULPowerUL260ihorizontallyopposedaircooledaeroengine
Shaftengines
Reciprocating(piston)engines
Inlineengine
Thistypeofenginehascylinderslinedupinonerow.Ittypicallyhasanevennumberofcylinders,butthereareinstancesofthreeandfivecylinderengines.Thegreatestadvantageofaninlineengineisthatitallowstheaircrafttobedesignedwithalowfrontalareatominimisedrag.Iftheenginecrankshaftislocatedabovethecylinders,itiscalledaninvertedinlineengine:thisallowsthepropellertobemountedhighuptoincreasegroundclearance,enablingshorterlandinggear.Thedisadvantagesofaninlineengine
includeapoorpowertoweightratio,becausethecrankcaseandcrankshaftarelongandthusheavy.Aninlineenginemaybeeitheraircooledorliquidcooled,butliquidcoolingismorecommonbecauseitisdifficulttogetenoughairflowtocooltherearcylindersdirectly.InlineengineswerecommoninearlyaircraftonewasusedintheWrightFlyer,theaircraftthatmadethefirstcontrolledpoweredflight.However,theinherentdisadvantagesofthedesignsoonbecameapparent,andtheinlinedesignwasabandoned,becomingararityinmodernaviation.
Vtypeengine
Cylindersinthisenginearearrangedintwoinlinebanks,typicallytilted6090degreesapartfromeachotheranddrivingacommoncrankshaft.ThevastmajorityofVenginesarewatercooled.TheVdesignprovidesahigherpowertoweightratiothananinlineengine,whilestillprovidingasmallfrontalarea.PerhapsthemostfamousexampleofthisdesignisthelegendaryRollsRoyceMerlinengine,a27litre(1649in3)60V12engineusedin,amongothers,theSpitfiresthatplayedamajorroleintheBattleofBritain.
Horizontallyopposedengine
Ahorizontallyopposedengine,alsocalledaflatorboxerengine,hastwobanksofcylindersonoppositesidesofacentrallylocatedcrankcase.Theengineiseitheraircooledorliquidcooled,butaircooledversionspredominate.Opposedenginesaremountedwiththecrankshafthorizontalinairplanes,butmaybemountedwiththecrankshaftverticalinhelicopters.Duetothecylinderlayout,reciprocatingforcestendtocancel,resultinginasmoothrunningengine.
Opposed,aircooledfourandsixcylinderpistonenginesarebyfarthemostcommonenginesusedinsmallgeneralaviationaircraftrequiringupto400horsepower(300kW)perengine.Aircraftthat
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APratt&WhitneyR2800engine
requiremorethan400horsepower(300kW)perenginetendtobepoweredbyturbineengines.
Hconfigurationengine
AnHconfigurationengineisessentiallyapairofhorizontallyopposedenginesplacedtogether,withthetwocrankshaftsgearedtogether.
Radialengine
Thistypeofenginehasoneormorerowsofcylindersarrangedaroundacentrallylocatedcrankcase.Eachrowgenerallyhasanoddnumberofcylinderstoproducesmoothoperation.Aradialenginehasonlyonecrankthrowperrowandarelativelysmallcrankcase,resultinginafavorablepowertoweightratio.Becausethecylinderarrangementexposesalargeamountoftheengine'sheatradiatingsurfacestotheairandtendstocancelreciprocatingforces,radialstendtocoolevenlyandrunsmoothly.Thelowercylinders,whichareunderthecrankcase,maycollectoilwhentheenginehasbeenstoppedforanextendedperiod.Ifthisoilisnotclearedfromthecylinderspriortostartingtheengine,seriousdamageduetohydrostaticlockmayoccur.
Mostradialengineshavethecylindersarrangedevenlyaroundthecrankshaft,althoughsomeearlyengines,sometimescalledsemiradialsorfanconfigurationengines,hadanunevenarrangement.ThebestknownengineofthistypeistheAnzaniengine,whichwasfittedtotheBleriotXIusedforthefirstflightacrosstheEnglishChannelin1909.Thisarrangementhadthedrawbackofneedingaheavycounterbalanceforthecrankshaft,butwasusedtoavoidthesparkplugsoilingup.
Inmilitaryaircraftdesigns,thelargefrontalareaoftheengineactedasanextralayerofarmorforthepilot.Alsoaircooledengines,withoutvulnerableradiators,areslightlylesspronetobattledamage,andonoccasionwouldcontinuerunningevenwithoneormorecylindersshotaway.However,thelargefrontalareaalsoresultedinanaircraftwithanaerodynamicallyinefficientincreasedfrontalarea.
Rotaryengine
Rotaryengineshavethecylindersinacirclearoundthecrankcase,asinaradialengine,(seeabove),butthecrankshaftisfixedtotheairframeandthepropellerisfixedtotheenginecase,sothatthecrankcaseandcylindersrotate.Theadvantageofthisarrangementisthatasatisfactoryflowofcoolingairismaintainedevenatlowairspeeds,retainingtheweightadvantageandsimplicityofaconventionalaircooledenginewithoutoneoftheirmajordrawbacks.ThefirstpracticalrotaryenginewastheGnomeOmegadesignedbytheSeguinbrothersandfirstflownin1909.Itsrelativereliabilityandgoodpowertoweightratiochangedaviationdramatically.[10]BeforethefirstWorldWarmostspeedrecordsweregainedusingGnomeenginedaircraft,andintheearlyyearsofthewarrotaryenginesweredominantinaircrafttypesforwhichspeedandagilitywereparamount.Toincreasepower,engineswithtworowsofcylinderswerebuilt.
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LeRhone9Crotaryaircraftengine
CutawayviewofaGarrettTPE331turbopropengineshowingthegearboxatthefrontoftheengineAnAllisonModel250turboshaft
enginecommontomanytypesofhelicopters
However,thegyroscopiceffectsoftheheavyrotatingengineproducedhandlingproblemsinaircraftandtheenginesalsoconsumedlargeamountsofoilsincetheyusedtotallosslubrication,theoilbeingmixedwiththefuelandejectedwiththeexhaustgases.Castoroilwasusedforlubrication,sinceitisnotsolubleinpetrol,andtheresultantfumeswerenauseatingtothepilots.Enginedesignershadalwaysbeenawareofthemanylimitationsoftherotaryenginesowhenthestaticstyleenginesbecamemorereliableandgavebetterspecificweightsandfuelconsumption,thedaysoftherotaryenginewerenumbered.
Turbinepowered
Turboprop
Whilemilitaryfightersrequireveryhighspeeds,manycivilairplanesdonot.Yet,civilaircraftdesignerswantedtobenefitfromthehighpowerandlowmaintenancethatagasturbineengineoffered.Thuswasborntheideatomateaturbineenginetoatraditionalpropeller.Becausegasturbinesoptimallyspinathighspeed,aturbopropfeaturesagearboxtolowerthespeedoftheshaftsothatthepropellertipsdon'treachsupersonicspeeds.Oftentheturbinesthatdrivethepropellerareseparatefromtherestoftherotatingcomponentssothattheycanrotateattheirownbestspeed(referredtoasafreeturbineengine).Aturbopropisveryefficientwhenoperatedwithintherealmofcruisespeedsitwasdesignedfor,whichistypically200to400mph(320to640km/h).
Turboshaft
Turboshaftenginesareusedprimarilyforhelicoptersandauxiliarypowerunits.Aturboshaftengineissimilarinprinciple,butinaturbopropthepropellerissupportedbytheengineandtheengineisboltedtotheairframe:inaturboshaft,theenginedoesnotprovideanydirectphysicalsupporttothehelicopter'srotors.Therotorisconnectedtoatransmissionwhichisboltedtotheairframe,and
theturboshaftenginedrivesthetransmission.Thedistinctionisseenbysomeasslim,asinsomecasesaircraftcompaniesmakebothturbopropandturboshaftenginesbasedonthesamedesign.
Reactionengines
Reactionenginesgeneratethethrusttopropelanaircraftbyejectingtheexhaustgasesathighvelocityfromtheengine,theresultantreactionofforcesdrivingtheaircraftforwards.Themostcommonreactionpropulsionenginesflownareturbojets,turbofansandrockets.Othertypessuchaspulsejets,ramjets,
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AGeneralElectricJ85GE17Aturbojetengine.Thiscutawayclearlyshowsthe8stagesofaxialcompressoratthefront(leftsideofthepicture),thecombustionchambersinthemiddle,andthetwostagesofturbinesattherearoftheengine.
AcutawayofaCFM563turbofanengine
scramjetsandPulseDetonationEngineshavealsoflown.Injetenginestheoxygennecessaryforfuelcombustioncomesfromtheair,whilerocketscarryoxygeninsomeformaspartofthefuelload,permittingtheiruseinspace.
Jets
Turbojet
AturbojetisatypeofgasturbineenginethatwasoriginallydevelopedformilitaryfightersduringWorldWarII.Aturbojetisthesimplestofallaircraftgasturbines.Itconsistsofacompressortodrawairinandcompressit,acombustionsectionwherefuelisaddedandignited,oneormoreturbinesthatextractpowerfromtheexpandingexhaustgasestodrivethecompressor,andanexhaustnozzlethatacceleratestheexhaustgasesoutthebackoftheenginetocreatethrust.Whenturbojetswereintroduced,thetopspeedoffighteraircraftequippedwiththemwasatleast100milesperhourfasterthancompetingpistondrivenaircraft.Intheyearsafterthewar,thedrawbacksoftheturbojetgraduallybecameapparent.BelowaboutMach2,turbojetsareveryfuelinefficientandcreatetremendousamountsofnoise.Earlydesignsalsorespondveryslowlytopowerchanges,afactthatkilledmanyexperiencedpilotswhentheyattemptedthetransitiontojets.Thesedrawbackseventuallyledtothedownfallofthepureturbojet,andonlyahandfuloftypesarestillinproduction.ThelastairlinerthatusedturbojetswastheConcorde,whoseMach2airspeedpermittedtheenginetobehighlyefficient.
Turbofan
Aturbofanengineismuchthesameasaturbojet,butwithanenlargedfanatthefrontthatprovidesthrustinmuchthesamewayasaductedpropeller,resultinginimprovedfuelefficiency.Thoughthefancreatesthrustlikeapropeller,thesurroundingductfreesitfrommanyoftherestrictionsthatlimitpropellerperformance.Thisoperationisamoreefficientwaytoprovidethrustthansimplyusingthejetnozzlealoneandturbofansaremoreefficientthanpropellersinthetranssonicrangeofaircraftspeeds,andcanoperateinthesupersonicrealm.Aturbofantypicallyhasextraturbinestagestoturnthefan.Turbofanswereamongthefirstenginestousemultiplespoolsconcentricshaftsthatarefreetorotateattheirownspeedtolettheenginereactmorequicklytochangingpowerrequirements.Turbofansarecoarselysplitintolowbypassandhigh
bypasscategories.Bypassairflowsthroughthefan,butaroundthejetcore,notmixingwithfuelandburning.Theratioofthisairtotheamountofairflowingthroughtheenginecoreisthebypassratio.Lowbypassenginesarepreferredformilitaryapplicationssuchasfightersduetohighthrusttoweightratio,whilehighbypassenginesarepreferredforciviluseforgoodfuelefficiencyandlownoise.Highbypass
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AnXLR99
turbofansareusuallymostefficientwhentheaircraftistravelingat500to550milesperhour(800to885km/h),thecruisespeedofmostlargeairliners.Lowbypassturbofanscanreachsupersonicspeeds,thoughnormallyonlywhenfittedwithafterburners.
Pulsejets
Pulsejetsaremechanicallysimpledevicesthatinarepeatingcycledrawairthroughanoreturnvalveatthefrontoftheengineintoacombustionchamberandignitedit.Thecombustionforcestheexhaustgasesoutthebackoftheengine.Itproducespowerasaseriesofpulsesratherthanasasteadyoutput,hencethename.TheonlyapplicationofthistypeofenginewastheGermanunmannedV1flyingbombofWorldWarII.Thoughthesameengineswerealsousedexperimentallyforersatzfighteraircraft,theextremelyloudnoisegeneratedbytheenginescausedmechanicaldamagetotheairframethatwassufficienttomaketheideaunworkable.
Rocket
Afewaircrafthaveusedrocketenginesformainthrustorattitudecontrol,notablytheBellX1andNorthAmericanX15.Rocketenginesarenotusedformostaircraftastheenergyandpropellantefficiencyisverypoorexceptathighspeeds,buthavebeenemployedforshortburstsofspeedandtakeoff.Rocketenginesareveryefficientonlyatveryhighspeeds,althoughtheyareusefulbecausetheyproduceverylargeamountsofthrustandweighverylittle.
Newerenginetypes
Wankelengine
AnotherpromisingdesignforaircraftusewastheWankelrotaryengine.TheWankelengineisaboutonehalftheweightandsizeofatraditionalfourstrokecyclepistonengineofequalpoweroutput,andmuchlowerincomplexity.Inanaircraftapplication,thepowertoweightratioisveryimportant,makingtheWankelengineagoodchoice.Becausetheengineistypicallyconstructedwithanaluminiumhousingandasteelrotor,andaluminiumexpandsmorethansteelwhenheated,aWankelenginedoesnotseizewhenoverheated,unlikeapistonengine.Thisisanimportantsafetyfactorforaeronauticaluse.ConsiderabledevelopmentofthesedesignsstartedafterWorldWarII,butatthetimetheaircraftindustryfavoredtheuseofturbineengines.Itwasbelievedthatturbojetorturbopropenginescouldpowerallaircraft,fromthelargesttosmallestdesigns.TheWankelenginedidnotfindmanyapplicationsinaircraft,butwasusedbyMazdainapopularlineofsportscars.Recently,theWankelenginehasbeendevelopedforuseinmotorgliderswherethesmallsize,lightweight,andlowvibrationareespeciallyimportant.[11]
Wankelenginesarebecomingincreasinglypopularinhomebuiltexperimentalaircraft,duetoanumberoffactors.MostareMazda12Aand13Bengines,removedfromautomobilesandconvertedtoaviationuse.Thisisaverycosteffectivealternativetocertifiedaircraftengines,providingenginesrangingfrom100to300horsepower(220kW)atafractionofthecostoftraditionalengines.Theseconversionsfirsttookplaceintheearly1970s,andwithhundredsoreventhousandsoftheseenginesmountedonaircraft,asof10
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PowerplantfromaSchleicherASH26eselflaunchingmotorglider,removedfromthegliderandmountedonateststandformaintenanceattheAlexanderSchleicherGmbH&CoinPoppenhausen,Germany.Counterclockwisefromtopleft:propellerhub,mastwithbeltguide,radiator,Wankelengine,mufflershroud.
December2006theNationalTransportationSafetyBoardhasonlysevenreportsofincidentsinvolvingaircraftwithMazdaengines,andnoneoftheseisofafailureduetodesignormanufacturingflaws.
Dieselengine
Mostaircraftenginesusesparkignition,generallyusinggasolineasafuel.Startinginthe1930sattemptsweremadetoproduceacompressionignitionDieselengineforaviationuse.Ingeneral,Dieselenginesaremorereliableandmuchbettersuitedtorunningforlongperiodsoftimeatmediumpowersettings,whichiswhytheyarewidelyusedin,forexample,trucksandships.Thelightweightalloysofthe1930swerenotuptothetaskofhandlingthemuchhighercompressionratiosofdieselengines,sotheygenerallyhadpoorpowertoweightratiosandwereuncommonforthatreason,althoughtheClerget14FDieselradialengine(1939)hasthesamepowertoweightratioasagasolineradial.ImprovementsinDieseltechnologyinautomobiles(leadingtomuchbetterpowerweightratios),theDiesel'smuchbetterfuelefficiencyandthehighrelativetaxationofAVGAScomparedtoJetA1inEuropehaveallseenarevivalofinterestintheuseofdieselsforaircraft.ThielertAircraftEnginesconvertedMercedesDieselautomotiveengines,certifiedthemforaircraftuse,andbecameanOEMprovidertoDiamondAviationfortheirlighttwin.FinancialproblemshaveplaguedThielert,soDiamond'saffiliateAustroEnginedevelopedthenewAE300turbodiesel,alsobasedonaMercedesengine.[12]CompetingnewDieselenginesmaybringfuelefficiencyandleadfreeemissionstosmallaircraft,representingthebiggestchangeinlightaircraftenginesindecades.WilkschAirmotivebuild2strokeDieselengine(samepowertoweightasagasolineengine)forexperimentalaircraft:WAM100(100hp),WAM120(120hp)andWAM160(160hp)
Precooledjetengines
Forveryhighsupersonic/lowhypersonicflightspeedsinsertingacoolingsystemintotheairductofahydrogenjetenginepermitsgreaterfuelinjectionathighspeedandobviatestheneedfortheducttobemadeofrefractoryoractivelycooledmaterials.Thisgreatlyimprovesthethrust/weightratiooftheengineathighspeed.
ItisthoughtthatthisdesignofenginecouldpermitsufficientperformanceforantipodalflightatMach5,orevenpermitasinglestagetoorbitvehicletobepractical.ThehybridairbreathingSABRErocketengineisaprecooledengineunderdevelopment.
Electric
About60electricallypoweredaircraft,suchastheQinetiQZephyr,havebeendesignedsincethe1960s.[13][14]Someareusedasmilitarydrones.[15]InFranceinlate2007,aconventionallightaircraftpoweredbyan18kWelectricmotorusinglithiumpolymerbatterieswasflown,coveringmorethan50kilometers(31mi),thefirstelectricairplanetoreceiveacertificateofairworthiness.[13]
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Limitedexperimentswithsolarelectricpropulsionhavebeenperformed,notablythemannedSolarChallengerandSolarImpulseandtheunmannedNASAPathfinderaircraft.
Fuel
Allaviationfuelisproducedtostringentqualitystandardstoavoidfuelrelatedenginefailures.Aviationstandardsaremuchmorestrictthanthoseforroadvehiclefuelbecauseanaircraftenginemustmeetastrictlydefinedlevelofperformanceunderknownconditions.Thesehighstandardsmeanthataviationfuelcostsmuchmorethanfuelusedforroadvehicles.
Aircraftreciprocating(piston)enginesaretypicallydesignedtorunonaviationgasoline.Avgashasahigheroctaneratingthanautomotivegasolinetoallowhighercompressionratios,poweroutputandefficiencyathigheraltitudes.CurrentlythemostcommonAvgasis100LLthatreferstotheoctanerating(100octane)andtheleadcontent(LL=lowlead).
RefineriesblendAvgaswithtetraethyllead(TEL)toachievethesehighoctaneratings,apracticethatgovernmentsnolongerpermitforroadvehiclegasoline.TheshrinkingsupplyofTELandthepossibilityofenvironmentallegislationbanningitsusehasmadeasearchforreplacementfuelsforgeneralaviationaircraftapriorityforpilot'sorganizations.[16]
TurbineenginesandaircraftDieselenginesburnvariousgradesofjetfuel.Jetfuelisarelativelyheavyandlessvolatilepetroleumderivativebasedonkerosene,butcertifiedtostrictaviationstandards,withadditionaladditives.
Seealso
Notes1. Theworld'sfirstseriesproducedcarswithsuperchargerscameearlierthanaircraft.ThesewereMercedes
6/25/40hpandMercedes10/40/65hp,bothmodelsintroducedin1921andusedRootssuperchargers.G.N.Georgano,ed.(1982).Thenewencyclopediaofmotorcars1885tothepresent(3rded.).NewYork:Dutton.p.415.ISBN0525932542.
References1. "PellResearchAircraftEngineManufacturingIndustryReport"(https://www.pellresearch.com/AircraftEngine
andEnginePartsManufacturing.htm).Pellresearch.com.Retrieved7April2013.
AircraftdieselengineAircraftenginepositionnumberAirsafetyEngineconfigurationHyperengineListofaircraftenginesModelengineUnitedStatesmilitaryaeroenginedesignations
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WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoAircraftengines.
LookupaircraftengineinWiktionary,thefreedictionary.
2. IanMcNeil,ed.(1990).EncyclopediaoftheHistoryofTechnology(http://books.google.com/books?id=fj96Dpp35gC&lpg=PA315&dq=rateau%20engine&pg=PA315#v=onepage&q&f=false).London:Routledge.pp.31521.ISBN0203192117.
3. GibbsSmith,CharlesHarvard(1970).Aviation:anhistoricalsurveyfromitsoriginstotheendofWorldWarII(http://books.google.com/books?id=hxEOAQAAIAAJ).London:HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice.
4. GibbsSmith,CharlesHarvard(1960).TheAeroplane:AnHistoricalSurveyofItsOriginsandDevelopment(http://books.google.com/books?id=mzcZAAAAIAAJ).London:HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice.
5. Winter,FrankH.(December1980)."DuctedFanortheWorld'sFirstJetPlane?TheCoandaclaimreexamined"(http://books.google.com/books?id=XkBWAAAAMAAJ).TheAeronauticalJournal(RoyalAeronauticalSociety)84.
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7. Guttman,Jon(2009).SPADXIIIvs.FokkerDVII:WesternFront1918(http://books.google.com/books?id=8TBE5nGmxbEC&lpg=PA25&dq=Rateau%20Hispano&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false)(1sted.).Oxford:Osprey.pp.2425.ISBN1846034329.
8. Powell,Hickman(Jun1941)."HeHarnessedaTornado..."(http://books.google.com/books?id=UycDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA66&ots=1wK1pz44JD&dq=altitude%20record%20supercharger%20british&pg=PA70#v=onepage&q&f=false).PopularScience.
9. Anderson,JohnD(2002).Theairplane:Ahistoryofitstechnology.(http://books.google.com/books?id=FrvrkXYDCL8C&lpg=PA253&dq=Siddeley%20Jaguar%20the%20first%20production%20supercharged&pg=PA253#v=onepage&q&f=false)Reston,VA,USA:AmericanInstituteofAeronauticsandAstronautics.pp.25253.ISBN1563475251.
10. GibbsSmith,C.H.(2003).Aviation.London:NMSO.p.175.ISBN1900747529.11. "ASH26EInformation"(http://web.archive.org/web/20061008125929/http://www.alexander
schleicher.de/englisch/produkte/ash26/e_ash26_main.htm).DE:AlexanderSchleicher.Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://www.alexanderschleicher.de/englisch/produkte/ash26/e_ash26_main.htm)on20061008.Retrieved20061124.
12. "DiamondTwinsReborn"(http://www.flyingmag.com/pilotreports/pistons/diamondtwinsreborn).FlyingMag.Retrieved20100614.
13. Worldwidepremire:firstaircraftflightwithelectricalengine(http://www.apame.eu/AA%20Projects.html),AssociationpourlaPromotiondesAronefsMotorisationlectrique,December23,2007.
14. SuperconductingTurbojet(http://www.physorg.com/printnews.php?newsid=101391900),Physorg.com.15. Voyeur(http://www.litemachines.com/mil/mil_main.htm),Litemachines.16. "EAA'SEarlLawrenceElectedSecretaryofInternationalAviationFuelCommittee"
(http://www.eaa.org/communications/eaanews/pr/011207_lawrence.html)(Pressrelease).
Externallinks
AircraftEnginesandAircraftEngineTheory(includeslinkstodiagrams)(http://www.aviationhistory.com/indexengine.htm)TheAircraftEngineHistoricalSociety(http://www.enginehistory.org/)JetEngineSpecificationDatabase(http://www.jetengine.net/)AircraftEngineEfficiency:ComparisonofCounterrotatingandAxialAircraftLPTurbines(http://www.softinway.com/news/articles/CounterRotatingandTraditionalAxialAircraftLowpressureTurbines/1.asp)TheHistoryofAircraftPowerPlantsBrieflyReviewed:Fromthe"7lb.perh.p"Daystothe"1lb.perh.p"ofToday(http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1935/1935%20%201222.html)"TheQuestforPower"(http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1954/1954%20%200959.html)a1954FlightarticlebyBillGunston
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