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CULTURAL INFLUENCES AMONG THEME PARK VISITORS IN THE
UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AFRICA IN TERMS OF FACTORS
MOTIVATING THE FREQUENCY OF ATTENDANCE
A
Dissertation
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of the
California School of Business and Organizational Studi
Alliant International University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
by
John Muriithi
San Diego, 2006
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UMI Number: 3209200
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JOHN MURIITHI
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CULTURAL INFLUENCES AMONG THEME PARK VISITORS IN THE
UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AFRICA IN TERMS OF FACTORS
MOTIVATING THE FREQUENCY OF ATTENDANCE
A
Dissertation
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of the
California School of Business and Organizational Studies
Alliant International University
by
John Muriithi
Approved by:-~$T. Li/Akunna Winston, D.B.A
Chairperson^nairpjerj—irx
riahnam yy/Ph.D.
Ellen KaK Sehrke, Ph.D.
Ali Abu-Rahma Associate Dean
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Abstract of Dissertation
CULTURAL INFLUENCES AMONG THEME PARK VISITORS IN THE
UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AFRICA IN TERMS OF FACTORS
MOTIVATING THE FREQUENCY OF ATTENDANCE
by
John Muriithi
Alliant International University
Committeee Chairperson: Akunna Winston, DBA
THE PROBLEM. The failure to account for cultural
differences has been a contributing factor to the mixed
success in the export of theme park brands. The current
trend is for theme park brands to expand into emerging
markets including China, Mexico, South Asia, and South
Africa. The purpose of this study was to examine the role
of cultural and demographic differences in factors that
motivate frequency of attendance at theme parks in the
United States and South Africa.
METHOD. The author used a field survey research design
to collect data from 455 theme park visitors in the United
States and South Africa. Independent sample t-tests were
used to determine differences between two subgroup means,
while one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to
determine differences between multiple subgroup means.
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Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to determine
relationships between variables.
RESULTS. The study found that there were differences
in the types of rides, park image, and type of media relied
on between American and South African attendees. The study
also found more differences in factors motivating
attendance among different races and genders in South
Africa than the United States. The youth and young adults
under the age of 25 in both countries exhibited more
similarities in factors motivating attendance than older
respondents. Finally, while there was a distinct
relationship between household income and frequency of
attendance in South Africa, the study observed no such
relationship among American attendees. Relationships and
differences between variables were tested at a 0.01
statistical significance level.
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my beloved family.
To my mom and dad for their boundless love, inspiration,
and friendship. To all my siblings for their support and
encouragement. To my dear wife Irene and our wonderful
children Wairimu and Matu for their unfailing patience,
love, and support during the period we lived apart as I
pursued this great challenge, and to my Auntie Jane and her
son Duncan for their invaluable friendship.
iv
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks and appreciation to my dissertation
chairperson, Dr. Akunna Winston, for her wonderful support,
encouragement, and guidance; it made a remarkable
difference for which I will always be grateful. I would
also like to thank my other committee members, Dr.
Meenakshi Krishnamoorthy and Dr. Ellen Kaye Gehrke, for
providing several suggestions that greatly enriched the
dissertation.
I am grateful to my brother Karia for his help with
data collection in South Africa. Finally, I would like to
thank all my other friends and family members who supported
and encouraged me, in particular Dominic, Yasin, Ken, and
Mwaura, for the difference they made along the way.
v
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES .................................................. x
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION ...............................................1
Background of the Problem ............................ 3
Statement of the Problem ............................. 6
Purpose of the Study .................................. 7
Research Model and Research Questions ............ 8
Research Hypothesis................................. 12
Importance of the Study ............................. 14
Scope of the Study ................................... 15
Definition of Terms .................................. 15
Summary ................................................ 17
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................18
Definition of Theme Parks ........................... 18
History of Theme Parks ............................ 21
Internationalization of Theme Parks ............. 23
Current International Business Issues Related toTheme Parks ......................................... 25
Opportunities for Growth-- EmergingMarkets ........................................26
Importance of Repeat Attendance by Visitorsfrom the Local Market ........................27
vi
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Chapter Page
2. (continued)
The Influence of Culture on Consumer Behavior ....29
Standardization Versus Adaptation ofTheme Parks ......................................... 39
Cultural Dimensions and Factors MotivatingRepeat Attendance .................................. 41
Theme Park Rides ................................... 42
Water Rides ......................................... 43
Theme Shows ......................................... 43
Park Image .......................................... 45
Waiting Time on Lines ............................. 46
Media Advertising and Culture .................... 47
Hedonism and Alternative Attractions ............ 49
Demographic Variables and ThemePark Attendance .................................... 50
Globalized Youth ................................... 50
Income and Frequency of Attendance .............. 51
Family Make-Up and Disposable Income ............ 52
Race Demographics and Subcultures ................54
Summary ................................................ 58
3. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES ....................... 5 9
Introduction .......................................... 59
Research Design .......................................59
vii
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Chapter Page
3. (continued)
Research Questions ................................... 62
Data Collection .......................................65
Data Sources .......................................... 66
Instrumentation .......................................66
Scoring-Measurement Strength ........................67
Research Procedures .................................. 69
Questionnaire Development .........................69
Pilot Study ......................................... 69
Data Collection..................................... 70
Data Analysis ......................................... 71
Research Hypotheses .................................. 71
Assumptions of the Study ..........................74
Limitations of the Study.... ..........................75
Summary ............................................... 7 6
4. RESULTS AND FINDINGS .................................... 77
Introduction .......................................... 77
Chapter Summary ..................................... 103
5. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .........107
Introduction ......................................... 107
Conclusions .......................................... 116
Conclusions, Research Question 1 ................116
viii
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Chapter Page
5. (continued)
Conclusions, Research Question 2 ................117
Conclusions, Research Question 3 ................118
Conclusions, Research Question 4 ................ 119
Conclusions, Research Question 5 ................ 120
Conclusions, Research Question 6 ................ 121
Conclusions, Research Question 7 ................ 122
Conclusions, Research Questions 8 and 9 ........ 124
Conclusions, Research Questions 10 and 11 ......126
Conclusions, Research Question 12................ 128
Conclusions, Research Question 13 ............... 129
Conclusions on Other Findings ..................... 130
Recommendations for Further Research ............. 131
Concluding Statement ................................132
REFERENCES CITED ..............................................134
APPENDICES
A. THEME PARK SURVEY (UNITED STATES) .................... 147
B. THEME PARK SURVEY (SOUTH AFRICA) ..................... 151
C. INSTRUCTIONS TO SURVEY ADMINISTRATORS ................155
ix
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Demographic Composition of the UnitedStates Population ..................................... 55
2. Demographic Composition of the SouthAfrican Population .................................... 56
3. Demographic Composition of the Top 35 Percentof the South African Population ..................... 56
4. Importance Attached to High Thrill Rides .............78
5. Importance Attached to Moderate Thrill Rides ........ 79
6. Importance Attached to Water Rides ....................80
7. Willingness to Volunteer to Participate inInteractive Theme Shows .............................. 80
8. Importance Attached to the Image of a Theme Park ....81
9. Willingness to Wait in Line ............................82
10. Level of Reliance on Radio, Television, andthe Internet ........................................... 83
11. Media and Attendance (Direct Mail and Print) ........ 84
12. Rating of Alternative "Self-Improvement"Attractions ............................................ 85
13. Rating of Alternative "Hedonistic" Attractions ......86
14. Frequency of Attendance and Family Incomein South Africa .......................................87
15. Relationship between Frequency of Attendanceand Family Income in the United States ............. 87
16. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among15-24 Year Olds ........................................89
x
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Table Page
17. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among25-44 Year Olds ........................................90
18. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among45-59 Year Olds ........................................93
19. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance amongthe Different Races in the United States ........... 95
20. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance amongthe Different Races in South Africa .................96
21. Age of Respondents ...................................... 97
22. Household Size by Country .............................. 98
23. Gender of Respondents by Country ...................... 99
24. Respondents' Income by Country ........................ 99
25. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance betweenMales and Females in South Africa .................. 101
26. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance betweenMales and Females in the United States ............ 102
27. Summary of the Differences in the ImportanceAttached to Various Types of Rides .................110
28. Summary of the Differences in the ImportanceAttached to Park Image .............................. Ill
29. Summary of the Significant Differencesin the Level of Reliance on VariousMedia by Attendees .................................. 112
30. Summary of the Relationship between HouseholdIncome and Frequency of Attendance .................113
31. Summary of Significant Differences in FactorsMotivating Repeat Attendance among VariousAge Groups ............................................ 114
xi
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Table Page
32. Summary of the Significant Differences inFactors Motivating Repeat Attendanceamong Various Races .................................115
33. Summary of Results of the Differences inFactors Motivating Repeat Attendancebetween Males and Females ........................... 116
xii
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Following the opening of Disneyland in California in
1955, the theme park industry in the United States and
Western Europe experienced double-digit growth in
attendance figures from the 1960s through to the mid-1980s.
However during the last two decades, annual growth in
attendance has been modest, and theme park brands have
begun expanding to other markets to prolong their product
lifecycle. American theme park brands such as Disney, Six
Flags, and Universal Studios have ventured into Europe and
Japan, while the Danish brand Legoland opened new locations
in the United Kingdom and the United States. These initial
attempts by theme park brands to establish venues outside
their home countries achieved mixed results. While Tokyo
Disneyland has been a remarkably successful venture, Euro
Disney in Paris has made a loss almost every year since it
opened in 1992. Meanwhile, Legoland has had relative
success in the United Kingdom, while its Southern
California venue has performed well below expectations.
1
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In the late 1970s, western exporting companies began
to embrace the concept of market integration, adopting
their products to the needs and customs of overseas
clients. Researchers also were expounding on this movement,
with breakthrough studies by Hofstede (1980) and Peabody
(1985). The findings of these studies cautioned against
making international marketing decisions based on
stereotyping of other nations' consumers. Findings
emphasized that the scientific study of national culture
has value in international marketing, and that such
differences, if observed and measured, would be helpful in
predicting consumer behavior. In 1995, Spencer observed
that the failure to account for cultural differences was a
contributing factor to the mixed success in the export of
theme park brands.
The likely trend is for major American and European
theme park brands to focus on opportunities in emerging
markets. One reason is because these markets have middle
classes that are growing faster than anywhere else in the
world (Whelan, 2000). In addition, emerging markets have
world-class tourist destinations that are less expensive
than those in western countries. Theme parks in these
locations are, therefore, well placed to tap into the
2
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tourist market. According to King (1981), theme parks are
a cultural product. Since the export of theme park brands
involves the export of the home country's culture, it is
important for marketers to study the role of cultural
differences in order to better understand the extent of
adaptation versus standardization necessary for theme park
brands across national boundaries.
Background of the Problem
Culture is important for analyzing consumer behavior.
In 2001, Malhotra wrote that firms must recognize the
cultural variations that exist among consumers in different
countries in order to be successful in the global
marketplace. In recent years, on account of the large
increase in the number of firms doing business in several
countries, the role of culture in consumer behavior has
become a major area of study by marketers. Many of the
earlier studies on cross-cultural research focused on
traditional consumer goods or services that have a
relatively long history of internationalization.
During the last few decades, there has been a notable
rise in disposable incomes in developed and emerging
markets. This trend is attributable to, among other
3
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factors, smaller families, dual incomes, and better
educations (Silverstein and Fiske, 2003). The increase in
disposable incomes has, in turn, led to an increase in
leisure consumption. However cross-cultural comparative
research on leisure consumption is relatively rare in
academic literature (Chick, 2000). The relatively small
body of research available indicates important differences
in leisure consumption habits even when countries have
similar incomes and levels of economic development. Li and
Wong (1998) examined the effects of hedonism and
intellectualism on leisure time consumption in Australia
and Singapore and found that consumers who value hedonism
more than intellectualism were more likely to spend more
time on entertainment activities than on self-improvement
activities. As leisure time brands such as theme park
brands begin to expand into emerging markets, one might
expect that there will be a corresponding increase in the
need for information on cross-cultural leisure consumption.
According to De Mooij (2004), most studies of cultural
implications in marketing have used Hofstede's dimensions
of culture, because they have been found to be relatively
independent of each other and cover most countries of the
world. In addition, when taken together with income,
4
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Hofstede's cultural dimensions explain most aspects of
consumer behavior. For this reason, Hofstede's cultural
dimensions are used in this study.
In summarizing, the following factors are the most
important in the background of the problem for this study.
1. The failure to account for cultural differences
has been a contributing factor to the mixed success in the
export of theme park brands.
2. Since the export of theme park brands involves
the export of the home country's culture, it is important
for marketers to study the role of cultural differences in
order to better understand the extent of adaptation versus
standardization necessary for theme park brands across
national boundaries.
3. The likely trend is for major American and
European theme park brands to focus on opportunities in
emerging markets.
This section introduced the background of the problem
for this study. The next sections will deal with the
specifics of the problem, the scope of the study, and the
particular research questions to be investigated.
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Statement of the Problem
In the past two decades, American theme parks
expanding globally focused on Europe and Japan. Thus,
Disney opened parks in Tokyo and Paris, Six Flags ventured
into Spain, and Universal Studios opened a theme park in
Japan. The focus in recent years, however, has been on
emerging markets. This is evidenced by the recent entry of
Six Flags into Mexico; the opening of a Disney park in Hong
Kong, China, in September 2005 (Landreth, 2005); and the
proposed opening of Disney and Universal Studios theme
parks in Mainland China. In South Africa, the newly opened
Ushaka Marine Park in Durban is based on a similar concept
to the Sea World brand of theme parks owned by Anheuser
Busch.
The early initiatives at exporting theme park brands
into Europe and Japan did not always achieve the
anticipated results. The surprisingly poor performance of
Euro Disney contrasts with the somewhat unexpectedly
remarkable success of Tokyo Disney (Spencer, 1995).
Universal Studios recently entered the Japanese market,
perhaps expecting similar success to Disney's, but so far,
attendance figures have been below initial projections,
while Six Flags recently decided to withdraw from Europe to
6
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concentrate on its venues in the United States and Mexico
(Koranteng, 2004). There are indications that many of the
problems encountered by these theme park brands in
international markets might have been reduced, if cultural
sensitivities had been taken into account. As the export
of theme park brands begins to focus on developing markets,
there is, therefore, a need to examine the cultural
influences among theme park visitors in the United States
and a developing country, South Africa, in terms of factors
motivating frequency of attendance.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine the role of
cultural and demographic differences on factors that
motivate frequency of attendance at theme parks in the
United States and South Africa. The study, therefore,
examined culturally-related factors motivating repeat
attendance to the same theme park as well as culturally-
and demographically-related factors motivating frequency of
attendance to theme parks in general.
Repeat attendance to the same park is important from a
market share point of view, while frequency of attendance
to theme parks in general is important to theme park
7
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operators from a market size viewpoint. In the next
section, the specific research questions of this study are
discussed.
Research Model and Research Questions
There were a total of 13 questions in this study. The
objective of the research questions was to measure and
predict the differences and relationships between the two
countries with regard to the dependent variable Frequency
of Attendance based on the independent variables as shown
on the research model on page 9.
Ql: Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance to experience high thrill
rides between attendees from an individualist culture, the
United States, and attendees from a collectivist culture,
South Africa?
Q 2 : Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance to experience moderate
thrill rides between attendees from a collectivist culture,
South Africa, and attendees from an individualistic
culture, the United States?
Q 3 : Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance to experience water rides
8
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Country Culture
The United StatesIndividualist Low Power distance Short term orientation Weak Uncertainty Avoidance
South AfricaCollectivist High power distance Long-term orientation Strong Uncertainty Avoidance
Rides
High thrill rides Moderate thrill rides Water Rides
DemographicVariables
Age of visitor Race/ Ethnicity Family Income Family makeup
Frequencyof
attendance
AlternativeAttractions
Zoos/Animal parks Museums Arcade games Miniature golf Water parks
Theme Shows
Localhistory -US Localhistory -SA Cultural shows Science fiction shows Animal shows
Park Image
Cleanliness Staff service level Scenery
Media Advertising
TelevisionRadioNewspapers Direct mail Web sites
Times Spent Waiti in Lines Lines at ride locations Lines at park entrance
ng
IFigure 1
Research Model
9
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between attendees from a low power distance, high
uncertainty avoidance culture, the United States, and
attendees from a high power distance, high uncertainty
avoidance culture, South Africa.
Q4 : Is there a significant difference in the level of
willingness to volunteer to take part in the execution of
theme shows between attendees from an individualist
culture, the United States, and attendees from a
collectivist culture, South Africa?
Q 5 : Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance due to the image of a
theme park between attendees from a high power distance
culture, South Africa, and attendees from a low power
distance culture, the United States?
Q6: Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance as a result of having to
wait in line between attendees from a high power distance
culture, South Africa, and attendees from a low power
distance culture, the United States?
Q 7 : What are the significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the 15-24-year-old age
group compared to older age groups (25-44, 45-59) in both
countries?
10
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Q 8 : What are the significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
South Africa?
Q9: What are the significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
the United States?
Q10: Is there a significant relationship between
frequency of attendance at theme parks and family income in
South Africa?
Qll: Is there a significant relationship between
frequency of attendance at theme parks and family income in
the United States?
Q12: What are the significant differences in the level
of influence that different types of advertising media have
on attendance in the United States and South Africa?
Q13: What are the significant differences in the
ratings of alternative attractions to theme parks between
attendees from an individualist, short-term orientation
culture, the United States, and attendees from a
collectivist, long-term orientation culture, South Africa?
11
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Research Hypothesis
There were a total of 13 hypotheses in this study
corresponding to the 13 research questions.
HI: Attendees from an individualistic culture, the
United States, will have a significantly higher motivation
for repeat attendance to experience high thrill rides than
attendees from a collectivist culture, South Africa.
H 2 : Attendees from a collectivist culture, South
Africa, will have a significantly higher level of
motivation for repeat attendance to experience moderate
thrill rides than attendees from an individualistic
culture, the United States.
H3: Attendees from a low power distance, high
uncertainty avoidance culture, the United States, will have
a significantly higher level of motivation for repeat
attendance to experience water rides than attendees from a
high power distance, high uncertainty avoidance culture,
South Africa.
H 4 : Attendees from an individualist culture, the
United States, will have a significantly higher level of
willingness to volunteer to participate in the execution of
theme shows than attendees from a collective culture, South
Africa.
12
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H5: Attendees from a high power distance culture,
South Africa, will have a significantly higher level of
motivation for repeat attendance to theme parks with a
prestigious image than attendees from a lower power
distance culture, the United States.
H6: Attendees from a high power distance culture,
South Africa, will have a significantly lower level of
motivation for repeat attendance as a result of having to
wait in line than attendees from a lower power distance
culture, the United States.
H 7 : There are fewer significant differences in
factors motivating repeat attendance among 15-24-year-olds
than there are among the older age groups, 25-44- and 45-
59-year-olds in both countries.
H8: There are significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
South Africa.
H9: There are significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
the United States.
H10: There is a positive relationship between
frequency of attendance at theme parks and family income in
South Africa.
13
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Hi1: There is a positive relationship between
frequency of attendance at theme parks and family income in
the United States.
H12: There are significant differences in the level of
influence that different types of advertising media have on
attendance in the United States and South Africa.
H13: Attendees from an individualist, short-term
orientation culture, the United States, are more likely to
favor hedonistic alternative attractions such as arcade
games, water parks, and miniature golf than attendees from
a collectivist, long-term orientation culture, South
Africa.
Importance of the Study
The findings of this study will assist theme park
managers, who have the responsibility of exporting their
brand to other countries. Managers may incorporate the
findings of the study in their planning of theme park
shows, rides, and attractions in different cultural
environments. Optimization of the degree of standardization
versus adaptation necessary for theme park brands in
different cultures will enhance the prospects of success of
theme park brands in the international arena.
14
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Scope of the Study
This study examined differences in factors motivating
repeat attendance at theme parks in two different cultures,
South Africa and the United States. Primary data were
collected from interviewing nationals of each country. The
data were quantitative and were collected from theme park
visitors in the Gauteng province of South Africa and from
Southern California in the United States. The ages of theme
park visitors interviewed are divided into the following
age groups: 15-24, 25-44, 45-59, and over 60. Two hundred
and fifty theme park visitors from each country were
interviewed, and care was taken to include a representative
sample from each of the major racial groups in each
country.
Definition of Terms
Individualism refers to the degree to which citizens
of a country act as individuals rather than as members of
cohesive groups; collectivism is the opposite of
individualism.
Power Distance refers to the extent to which less
powerful members of a society consider and accept that
power is distributed unequally.
15
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Long-term orientation refers to an emphasis on values
of thrift and perseverance, while short-term orientation
refers to high consumption, low savings values.
Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which
people feel threatened by ambiguity and try to avoid these
situations. In countries of strong uncertainty avoidance,
there is a need for rules and customs to structure life.
High thrill rides are designed to provide theme park
visitors with experiences of extreme speed, height, free
fall, and weightlessness. These rides are restricted to
persons over 4.5 feet tall. Some of these rides may include
giant roller coasters, ferris wheels, and tower drops.
Moderate thrill family rides are suitable for both
adults and children over 3.5 feet tall. The rides are
smaller than high thrill rides and do not feature
experiences of free fall or weightlessness. Some of these
rides may include small roller coasters, merry-go-rounds,
and simulator rides such as helicopters and spacecrafts.
Water rides are rides that have water as a
transportation medium. They include rapid rides on boats or
water slides. Their source of thrill comes from the
experience of moving rapidly through water, and the
opportunity to get wet in the process.
16
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Park Image is the aggregate rating of a theme park
based on visitors' perceptions of its cleanliness, customer
service levels, and scenery.
Summary
As theme parks are at a mature stage of their product
lifecycle in the United States and Europe, a trend is on
the increase indicating investment in emerging markets with
growing middle classes. Theme parks are cultural products,
and their export to other countries has important cultural
implications. The purpose of this study was to determine
the role of culture on factors that motivate frequency of
attendance at theme parks in the United States and South
Africa. The findings of this study will assist theme park
managers, who have the responsibility of exporting their
brand to other countries. Managers may incorporate the
findings of the study in their planning of theme park
shows, rides, and attractions in different cultural
environments, which will, in turn, enhance the prospects of
success of theme park brands in the international arena.
17
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This study examined cultural and demographic aspects
related to theme park attendance in the United States and
South Africa. This chapter reviewed major contributions to
existing literature. The literature was reviewed in three
major areas, beginning with the definition and history of
theme parks. This was followed by a discussion on the
internationalization of theme parks and a review of current
international issues pertaining to the industry. The final
section discussed the influence of culture and demographics
on consumer preferences that have a bearing on theme park
attendance in the United States and South Africa.
Definition of Theme Parks
Theme parks belong to the group of venues that provide
entertainment targeted at the entire family. There are
three main types of entertainment centers in this category.
These include theme parks, amusement parks, and shopping
mall family entertainment centers.
18
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The shopping mall family entertainment center is
designed to attract visitors to a shopping complex and keep
them there as long as possible. In 2004, Mooradian wrote
that this type of entertainment center typically is about
several thousand square feet large and usually contains
three or more of the following elements as major
attractions: miniature golf, batting cages, bumper
boats/cars, go-karts, simple rides, and coin-operated
games. Video arcade games, redemption games, as well as
food and beverage services are other features associated
with this type of family entertainment center. Shopping
mall family entertainment centers typically are located
indoors, but outdoor locations are also available.
Theme parks and amusement parks tend to be much
larger, typically several acres in size and with most
activities based outdoors. Traditional amusement parks are
focused on providing a variety of high thrill rides as well
as arcade games. Roddewig, Schiltz, and Papke (1986)
observed that the concept of theme parks differs from the
more traditional amusement parks in that typically there is
a unifying theme around which the park is organized.
Typically the theme concept attempts to create the feeling
of another place and time. Modrego et al. (2000) added that
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amusement parks focus on entertainment, while theme parks
focus on edutainment.
The Marriott Corporation's definition, as quoted by
Blazey (1984:14), describes a theme park as "A family
entertainment complex oriented to a particular subject or
historical area, combined with entertainment and
merchandise to create a fantasy provoking atmosphere."
The marketing activities of the theme park revolve
around a distinct positioning built around this theme. The
positioning of the renowned Disney brand of theme parks
revolves around Mickey Mouse, arguably America's most
famous cartoon character, and is designed to evoke a return
to childhood experience. King (1981) argued that the
return to childhood is the basic appeal of the Disney
parks, epitomized by Mickey Mouse and the simulation of
other fairy tale classics such as Snow White and
Cinderella.
Zoltak (2003) contended that customers like making
contact with characters they see on television and in
movies. As a result, other parks have followed Disney's
initiative and tried to build their theme park brands
around famous cartoon and comic book characters. Paramount
parks, which initially were positioned as thrill ride-
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oriented amusement parks, recently began making use of
characters from their parent company Viacom's Nickelodeon
television network to create themed entertainment. This
strong cast of kid-friendly characters includes Sponge Bob,
Dora the Explorer, and Jimmy Neutron. The Six Flags group
of parks is licensed to use Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Batman,
and Superman. The company believes that the use of these
characters promotes increased attendance, supports higher
ticket prices, increases length of stay, and enhances in
park spending (w w w .datamonitor.com) .
History of Theme Parks
The history of theme and amusement parks goes back to
the seventeenth century, when large parks known as pleasure
gardens began to spread across England, France, and other
parts of Europe. A variety of sporting activities was
offered to visitors in an atmosphere of pleasantry
including flowers, fountains, and landscaped pathways.
According to Kyriazi (1976), the oldest and best known of
this generation of amusement parks still in existence today
is Tivoli Gardens, located in Belgium, which dates back to
the mid-1800s.
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Hildebrandt (1981) wrote that the roots of the modern
theme park could be traced back to the trolley parks of the
late nineteenth century. These early amusement parks were
developed by the transit companies to encourage trolley
riding during the less busy weekends and typically were
located at the end of the trolley line several miles from
the city center near a river or lake. According to
Roddewig et al. (1986), Coney Island at the southern tip of
Brooklyn is the best known of these early amusement park
sites in the United States. It featured a series of rides
and attractions developed by a host of entrepreneurs.
Restaurants, beer gardens, and hotels were also built to
cater to the needs of visitors.
The real change from small, family-owned and -operated
parks of the early part of the century came about with the
postwar prosperity of the 1950s and 1960s. Hunter and
Bleinberger (1996) claimed that the opening of Disneyland
in California in 1955 was perhaps the most significant
development in the history of the modern theme park. King
(1981) argued that Disney differed from the earlier
traditional amusement parks, whose focus was centered
around thrill rides and games of chance, by emphasizing
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theme shows based on American history and culture presented
in a fantasy adventure setting.
The industry expanded rapidly in the 1960s and 1970s,
and by 1983, annual attendance had reached 65 million.
Twenty-eight of the largest metropolitan areas in the
United States had a theme park within a 100-mile radius
(Formica and Olsen, 1998). In the 1980s, growth in
attendance began to slow down, and average annual growth in
attendance dipped into single figures for the first time
since the 1960s. Theme parks were approaching the maturity
stage in the product life cycle in the U. S. This was
confirmed by even slower growth in the 1990s. According to
Formica and Olsen, between 1991 and 1995, for instance,
attendance at the top 20 theme and amusement parks grew by
14 percent, representing an annual growth of less than 3
percent per year.
Internationalization of Theme Parks
According to Vernon (1979), when an industry or
product category reaches maturity in its home country, it
expands into other markets internationally to prolong its
lifecycle and thus avoid or postpone decline. No surprise,
then, that the market leader, Disney, decided to look to
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other markets to establish its theme park brand. Tokyo
Disneyland opened in 1983, and Euro Disney in Paris
followed in 1992. Six Flags also ventured abroad in the
1990s by opening theme parks in Mexico, Canada, and Spain.
Meanwhile the Danish toy firm Lego began exporting its
theme park brand by building theme parks in London in 1996,
Southern California in 1999, and Germany in 2002.
These initial attempts at exporting theme park brands
achieved mixed results. Indeed, for most brands, there
were probably as many poor performing parks abroad as there
were successes. Euro Disney, Legoland California, and Six
Flags in Spain are examples of export ventures that
achieved disappointing results.
With all the wealth of knowledge on international
business available from the 1970s and 1980s, one might
expect that renowned theme park businesses such as Disney
and Legoland would have anticipated some of the issues that
led them to experience lackluster results in exporting
their brands. The evidence suggests that this was not the
case, as illustrated by the pricing policy for Euro Disney.
Spencer (1995) cited the case of Disney, who, in their
haste to recover their investment, set initial entry fees
almost 20 percent higher in Paris than in the United
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States, in spite of the lower disposable incomes and more
conservative spending habits in Europe.
In making marketing and strategic decisions, Disney
management appears to have been operating on the premise
that European culture was closer to American culture than
to Japanese culture. Hence, as cited by Van Maanen (1992),
in Japan, Disney opted for royalty payments in lieu of the
risk of ownership owing to muted expectations about the
Japanese market and the failure to appreciate the
fascination of the Japanese with American culture. As a
result, it is estimated that over the first decade, Disney
probably sacrificed at least a billion dollars in profits
owing to this decision alone (Spencer, 1995). Meanwhile,
according to the Wall Street Journal (October 7, 1998), the
sensitivity of the French to overbearing American cultural
influence was ignored when, for example, Disney management
insisted on strict compliance with American dress code for
staff, a fact that contributed to less than optimum
customer service at Euro Disney.
Current International Business Issues Related to Theme Parks
Theme park managers looking to expand internationally
are concerned with identifying the most promising locations25
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abroad. They also want to ensure that first-time visitors
from the local market will make repeat visits.
Opportunities for Growth-- Emerging Markets
In the last two decades, American theme parks
expanding globally focused on Europe and Japan as the main
market opportunities. The focus in recent years, however,
has been on emerging markets. There are several possible
reasons for this trend. Europe has its own fairly strong
theme and amusement park brands including the Tussaud and
Legoland groups. Competition and entry costs, therefore,
are higher. Besides, as Milman (2001) observed, future
demographic trends are similar to the United States, where
the number of younger citizens-- the primary target for
theme parks-- is falling. Emerging markets also have middle
classes that are growing faster than anywhere else in the
world. A case in point is China, which, according to Orr
(2004), is now the fifth largest market for automobiles,
and Disney already has plans, after Hong Kong, to open
another theme park on the Chinese mainland. Emerging
markets also offer world-class tourist destinations at
cheaper rates than western countries, and theme parks in
these locations are well placed to tap into this market.26
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Importance of Repeat Attendance by Visitors from the Local Market
According to Roddewig et a l . (1986), most theme parks
other than the Disney family draw as much as 70 percent of
their business from the region in which they are located,
typically within a three hour drive. This allows
sufficient time for a family to drive to the park and spend
about six hours before returning home the same day.
Therefore, theme parks need to understand the consumer
preferences in the local area in order to influence repeat
patronage.
The Disney family of parks may have a larger volume of
tourist visitors, but many of these tourists favor
attending a Disney park closest to home. Thus, according
to Khan (2003), Disney projects that one third of the
visitors to its Hong Kong Park will come from Mainland
China. Spencer (1995) contended that in the 1990s, part of
Euro Disney problems were attributed to the park's failure
to attract enough local visitors from Paris and its
surrounding districts. This suggests that even the Disney
family of theme parks needs to understand the consumer
preferences in the larger regional area in order to
influence frequency of attendance.
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A review of the literature including studies on
American theme parks by Blazey (1984), Thach and Axinn
(1994), and Formica and Olsen (1998) shows that customer
perceptions of the following elements has a direct bearing
on attendance at theme parks.
Types of rides
Types of theme shows
Waiting time on lines
Park image
Safety concerns
Media advertising
Distance from home
Ticket prices
Discounts and special offers
Food services
Park cleanliness
Weather/climate
The present study examines some of these variables
within the context of national culture with a view to
determining how differences in consumer preferences affect
attendance at theme parks in the United States and South
Africa.
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The Influence of Culture on Consumer Behavior
According to Lipman (1988), culture influences every
aspect of marketing including the products or services
people buy and the attributes they value. Jain (1989)
argued that similarities and differences in cultural
values, level of economic development, and psychological
perception were the primary factors that marketers should
consider in determining the appropriate degree of
standardization or customization of their marketing.
The increased pace of globalization has greatly
enhanced the importance of cross-cultural marketing
research. According to Malhotra (2001), firms must
recognize the cultural variations that exist among
consumers in different countries in order to be successful
in the global marketplace. Krishnamoorthy et al. (2003)
noted that owing to cultural differences, marketing brands
across countries was far more complex than within a
country.
The impact of culture varies depending on the product.
Some products are more culturally embedded than others.
Products such as computers, digital cameras, and cell
phones have few cultural connotations. On the other hand,
types of food, eating habits, and clothing are often29
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strongly associated with people's culture. The successful
export of products or services in the latter categories
will often be determined by the compatibility of the
product or service with the values and belief systems of
the export market (Rogers, 1995).
In 2005, Craig, Green, and Douglas used Hofstede's
dimensions to examine the acceptance of American films in
foreign markets. They found that consumer acceptance of
American films was dependent on the export markets culture.
Cultural similarity was found to be a better predictor of
the performance of a film at the box office than a common
language (i.e., English). According to King (1981), theme
parks are a cultural product; hence, one would expect to
observe culturally-related differences in consumer
preferences across countries.
Gupta (2003) argued that understanding the underlying
dimensions of culture can offer important guidance to
multinational marketers on how to assess which elements of
their marketing initiatives could be standardized and which
should be customized. In the mid-twentieth century post-war
globalization, several marketers argued that consumer needs
and tastes would converge, which would, in turn, facilitate
the standardization of marketing and advertising. Buzzell
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(1968) contended that societal and economic trends were
working in favor of more standardization of the marketing
process across countries. In his famous and somewhat
controversial article "The Globalization of Markets,"
Levitt 1983), asserted that globalization would result in a
world where customers' needs would be homogenized.
However, these expectations appear to have been
somewhat overstretched. In the latter part of the last
century, many scholars were arguing that marketers who
overlooked cultural differences between nations could be
losing out to those who took care to account for such
differences. Kotler (1986), Sheth (1986), Agrawal (1995),
and De Mooij (2000) all noted that in spite of
globalization, cultural influences nevertheless meant that
customization of marketing initiatives was still necessary
for the success of multinational marketing initiatives.
There are many definitions in literature for the term
"culture." A common theme in many definitions of culture is
that it influences the behavior of members of a given
society in a specific and predictable direction. For
example, Etzel, Walker, and Stanton (2004) defined culture
as,
A set of symbols and artifacts created by a society and handed down from generation to generation as
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determinants of human behavior. The symbols may be intangible (attitudes, beliefs, values, language) or tangible (tools, housing, products, works of art).(Etzel, Walker, and Stanton, 2004:99)
Etzel et al. (2004) argued that cultures do change
over time as lifestyle changes take place, and marketing
executives should adjust their strategies and plans to be
in tune with these changes. Howard and Sheth (1969), in
their classic book The Theory of Buyer Behavior, explained
that culture is a set of social influences that provide the
buyer with socially appropriate motives for his/her
behavior, including the reassurance that a particular
purchase decision was a good one.
Various researchers have conducted studies in which
they measured similarities and differences in cultural
values. Rokeach (1973) developed a model to measure
cultural values using respondents' rank-ordering on an
agree/disagree scale for each item. Rokeach's value
inventory was based on two types of cultural values—
terminal values and instrumental values. "Terminal values"
described the individual's desired state and existence and
included such conditions as an exiting life, a comfortable
life, and a sense of accomplishment. "Instrumental values"
were the modes of conduct that people might follow to reach
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the terminal values and included honesty, courage,
ambition, and independence.
Various researchers have used Rokeach's value survey
to compare cultural values among national subgroups in the
United States. In their study of Black and White middle
class consumers, Ness and Stith (1984) found several
similarities in terms of demographic profiles. However,
Blacks showed small but statistically significant
differences in their consideration of a sense of
accomplishment and family security as more important than
did Whites. In 2002, Lindridge and Dibb reported that
British Indians and British Caucasians showed significant
differences in their buying behavior patterns for
televisions, video equipment, and music systems. Milman, in
2001, proposed that theme park managers in the United
States needed to understand the implications of the rapid
increase of the Hispanic portion of the teenage and youth
segments of the market.
Another instrument was developed by Kahl (1983) based
on a "List of Values," inspired by the earlier work of
Rokeach and Maslow. Kahl's list consisted of nine values,
including sense of belonging, fun and enjoyment, warm
relationships with others, self-fulfillment, being well
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respected, sense of accomplishment, security, self-respect,
and excitement.
Grunert, Grunert, and Beatty (1989) used Kahl's "List
of Values" to conduct a cross-cultural study among students
and parents in Denmark, Germany, and the United States. The
authors found some similarities and differences among the
three cultures. They found that students value fun,
enjoyment, and self-fulfillment higher than their parents
in all three countries, while parents selected security as
their most important value. However, Danish respondents
across both categories rated fun and enjoyment much higher
than either German or American respondents did, while
American respondents rated self-fulfillment higher than
both Danes and Germans.
These previous studies suggest that marketers of theme
park brands need to account for both similarities and
differences in consumer behavior from one country to the
other. This would allow them to leverage significant
relationships in consumer behavior across various markets
to develop a global brand, while addressing significant
differences to optimize unique opportunities in each
market. Previous research done on theme and amusement park
attributes preferred by patrons, however, has focused on
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comparing consumer preferences within a domestic context,
and there is a gap in the literature on international
cross-cultural study of theme park consumers.
Some of these previous studies include one by Blazey
(1984), which investigated theme park visits by persons 55
years or older and found that moderate thrill rides, live
animal shows, and stage shows were more highly valued than
more modern, higher technology shows. Themed areas with
historical and educational significance also were valued
highly, while souvenirs were considered better value than
arcade games of chance.
In their study of amusement park visitors in a major
American metropolis, Thach and Axinn (1994) observed that
scenery, simulated fantasy adventure, line control,
pricing, and roller coaster rides were highly valued
attributes. Factors such as proximity, comedy shows, music
shows, and animal shows were medium value attributes, while
children's rides and educational value were considered
lower value attributes. Meanwhile, a study by Keng (1994)
conducted in Singapore found that there were significant
differences between locals and tourists in theme park
attributes preferred. Tourists valued Chinese cultural
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shows higher than locals, while the latter valued rides and
high tech amusement more than tourists did.
There are two well-established models of national
culture that are currently used by marketers to design
strategies for targeting consumers in different countries.
Hofstede developed the first in 1983, while Schwartz, in
1994, developed the second. These models are attractive to
marketers because they provide country scores that can be
used for analysis of consumption data.
Schwartz's model includes seven cultural dimensions,
namely conservatism, hierarchy, mastery, egalitarian
commitment, intellectual autonomy, affective autonomy, and
harmony (Schwartz and Bardi, 2001). A brief description of
each of these dimensions follows.
Schwartz (1994) wrote that conservatism refers to
emphasis on maintenance of the status guo. Concern for
tradition, conformity, and family security are important
elements. In a hierarchical society, class and societal
position are important elements. "Mastery" emphasizes the
pursuit of personal interest, while "egalitarianism"
emphasizes social justice and equality. "Harmony"
emphasizes respect for peaceful coexistence with nature and
other societies. Finally, "intellectual autonomy"
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emphasizes curiosity, creativity, and broadmindedness,
while "affective autonomy" emphasizes variety and the
pursuit of pleasure.
Hofstede's model (2001) consists of five cultural
dimensions, including individualism and collectivism, power
distance, masculinity and femininity, uncertainty
avoidance, and long-term/short-term orientation. A brief
description of each of these dimensions, as elaborated on
by Hofstede, follows.
"Individualism" is a tendency within a culture to
focus on the individual rather than on the group, and
"collectivism" is a tendency within a culture toward
gregariousness and group orientation. "Power distance"
refers to the extent to which less powerful members of a
society consider and accept that power is distributed
unequally. "Femininity" emphasizes caring for others and
quality of life, while "masculinity" emphasizes achievement
and success. "Uncertainty avoidance" refers to the extent
to which people feel threatened by ambiguity and try to
avoid these situations. In countries of strong uncertainty
avoidance, there is a need for rules and customs to
structure life. Long-term orientation was a dimension added
to the original 1983 dimensions following collaboration
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between Hofstede and Michael Bond (Hofstede, 2001). "Long
term orientation" refers to an emphasis on values of thrift
and perseverance, while "short-term orientation" refers to
high consumption, low savings values.
Most applications of cultural dimensions to marketing
have used Hofstede's dimensions because they are fewer and,
therefore, more practical, have been found to be relatively
independent of each other, and cover most countries of the
world. De Mooij (2004) wrote that together with income and
level of development, Hofstede's cultural dimensions could
explain more than half of the differences in consumer
behavior. For these reasons, this study also will make use
of Hofstede's dimensions to investigate the role of
cultural differences in attributes motivating frequency of
attendance at theme parks.
Hofstede found that developed Western countries were
highly individualist, whereas developing nations were more
collectivist. Based on the index developed by Hofstede
(1983), the U. S. is among the most individualistic
societies, with an Individualism index of 91. On the other
hand, Triandis, McCusker, and Hui (1990) observed that
African societies are collectivist. A study by Eaton and
Louw (2000) supported the position that South Africa was
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largely a collectivist society. However, Eaton and Louw
also cautioned that there were important differences within
South Africa primarily based on race. Hofstede's 1983
index, based on studies conducted among International
Business Machines (IBM) employees, found that South Africa
had a medium Individualism score of 65. According to Mbeki
(2001), owing to South Africa's political system at that
time, Hofstede's (1983) study surveyed Caucasian IBM
employees. Hassan and Kaynak (1994) wrote that Hofstede
later studied East Africa and West Africa and found that
they had Individualism scores of 27 and 20, respectively.
Since there are well-documented cultural similarities among
indigenous Africans, these data suggest that the aggregate
Individualism score for South Africa is lower than 65 but
higher than the scores for East and West Africa. This
argument also is applicable to scores for the rest of
Hofstede's cultural dimensions.
Standardization Versus Adaptation of Theme Parks
In 1994, Hassan and Blackwell observed that the
marketing of brands internationally may be standardized or
adapted to local needs. Jain (1989) wrote that the main
considerations that influence standardization of marketing39
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strategy are culture, level of economic development, and
psychological perception. Proponents of standardization
argue that owing to education, travel, technology, and
communication, consumers across the world are more alike
than they are different. The arguments for adaptation or
localization are founded on the view that consumers have
different tastes and needs based on nationality, culture,
age, ethnicity, income, and psychological factors. Hence,
products should be adapted to each market to cater to these
differences.
Adapting a product or its marketing for each country
may be too costly and may not necessarily be the right
thing to do. Often the challenge is to determine the
optimum level of adaptation that allows international
brands to leverage their multinational appeal while
recognizing local differences that are critical for
success.
Theme shows may be classified into the several
categories. Some of the main categories common across most
parks include animal shows, history shows, cultural shows,
science fiction shows, and cartoon character shows. There
are several elements of theme shows that may be
standardized on account of their international nature. The
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successful use of world famous cartoon characters such as
Mickey Mouse, Bugs Bunny, Superman, Nickelodeon, and Donald
Duck in other markets is understandable, given the
universal nature of television shows that have made these
characters instantly recognizable to kids around the globe.
Theme parks, however, may wish to adapt history and
cultural shows and attractions to suit local visitors,
owing to national pride and ethnocentrism. According to
Wang and Chen (2004), when consumers prefer products or
brands from their own country instead of brands from other
countries, they are displaying consumer ethnocentrism and
national pride. The 2001 World Values Survey shows
Americans, Greeks, and Irish have high patriotism scores,
while Germans and Belgians have very low scores. According
to De Mooij (2004), patriotism was measured based on the
percentage of respondents who said they were proud of their
nationality.
Cultural Dimensions and Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance
A review of the major theme park attributes where
cultural factors have implications for repeat attendance
follows. These attributes form the basis of the Research
Questions on cultural dimensions motivating attendance.41
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Theme Park Rides
There are two main types of rides offered at theme
parks; these are high-thrill giant roller coaster rides and
moderate-thrill rides. Thrill rides have been associated
with amusement parks for more than a century. King (1981)
pointed out that the original Disney Park did not feature
rides when it first opened. King added that their
subsequent inclusion is testimony to their ability to
attract visitors. High- and moderate-thrill rides are now
a key ingredient of most theme parks. Many of these rides,
particularly the moderate-thrill rides, now incorporate
themes based on history, science fiction, or other types of
adventure.
Greenfield et al. (1999) argued that individualism is
closely associated with risk taking and thrill seeking. In
recent years, there has been a big rise in extreme sports
in the United States, which indicates an eagerness on the
part of millions of Americans to participate in activities
closer to the metaphorical edge. Roberts (1994) wrote that
Americans are bigger risk takers than the more collectivist
Japanese and hence their greater love for extreme sports.
Newman (2004) observed that theme park managers often cite
the ongoing competition between venues to design taller and
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faster rides as testimony to America's appetite for thrill.
The arguments above suggest that the relative importance of
high-thrill rides at theme parks would be higher in the
United States than in South Africa.
Water Rides
Many theme parks now also offer water rides. According
to De Mooij (2004), low power distance and weak uncertainty
avoidance cultures attach more importance to sports as a
leisure activity. The similarity between water sports and
water rides suggests that a low power distance, weak
uncertainty avoidance culture such as the United States
would attach greater importance to water rides as a
motivation for repeat attendance than would a higher power
distance, strong uncertainty avoidance culture such as
South Africa.
Theme Shows
The two main activities that theme parks offer are
theme shows and rides. Rides are skewed toward provision of
entertainment, while theme shows provide both education and
entertainment. King (1991:26) stated that "Theming is a
way of collecting information or knowledge in an inviting
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way. Theme parks successfully connect entertainment and
enlightenment." According to John Jakobson, President and
General Manager, Legoland California, as cited by Lucas
(2004), balancing education with entertainment is one of
the major marketing objectives for the Lego brand.
Milman (2001) wrote that theme shows could be
classified into interactive and passive categories. Passive
shows are those with little or no active involvement by the
audience in the performance of the show. These shows
typically include historical attractions and stage plays
such as cultural or musical shows. On the other hand,
shows featuring science fiction and animal tricks typically
involve more interaction with the audience. Milman found
that American managers of theme parks anticipated that
theme shows would need to be more interactive in the future
in order to attract visitors. In 2001, Hofstede wrote that
consumers from high individualism environments exhibit
extroverted and more active behavior in group situations
than those from collective cultures. Speaking up or
volunteering for attention-attracting roles in group
situations also was more common in high individualism
societies. This is an indicator toward a higher preference
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for interactive theme shows in high individualism cultures
than in lower individualism cultures.
Park Image
According to Kotler (1984), "image" is a set of
beliefs, ideas, and impressions a person holds of an
entity. In the marketing realm, that entity is normally a
product or service. He argued that the more favorable the
image, the more likely the consumer was to make a repeat
purchase. Zikmund and D'Amico (2003) argued that the
product or brand image is an individual's impression of
what that product or brand represents. They asserted that
consumers frequently prefer one brand to another because of
its image, and that products are purchased or avoided not
because of what they cost or how they work but rather
because of what they say about the buyer or the user. In
1994, Thach and Axinn found that American consumers related
park image to attributes such as cleanliness, scenery, and
park prestige. Earlier, McClung, in 1991, had identified
crowds as an important factor in the consumer's perception
of theme park image.
In 2004, De Mooij wrote that people in high power
distance cultures seek to demonstrate their position in
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society by showing that they have sophisticated tastes.
Such behavior is evidenced by social-status-reinforcing
habits such as expensive dressing and the patronizing of
prestigious places. Status was also important in masculine
cultures. Those cultures that score highly on both high
power distance and masculinity would have consumers who are
highly motivated by status. Such countries include South
Africa, Italy, and East Asian countries. Countries that
score low on both counts, such as the Scandinavian
territories, would have a low status need. Consumers in the
United States, which has a low power distance score and a
high masculine score, would be expected to have a moderate
need for status and prestige.
Waiting Time on Lines
In 2002, Hightower, Brady, and Baker found that
waiting time on lines was related to perceived service
quality at sporting venues in the U. S. This implies that
theme parks and other leisure entertainment venues need to
be aware of the effect waiting times have on consumer
behavioral intentions.
In low power distance cultures, there is a greater
respect for individual equality, while in high power
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distance cultures, national elites hold relatively
authoritarian values (Hofstede, 2001). Theme parks are part
of the leisure and entertainment industry targeted at the
middle and upper income groups. The United States has a
large middle class, a relatively low power distance score.
It is therefore expected that respect for individual
equality translates to a greater tolerance for waiting
one's turn in a queue. On the other hand, South Africa has
a higher power distance index and a smaller middle class.
One might therefore expect less tolerance for waiting in
line by theme park visitors in the latter culture.
Media Advertising and Culture
Etzel et al. (2004) observed that the goal of
advertising is to sell goods, services, or ideas. This
goal is reached by communicating with a target audience
using advertising messages relayed through various media
including television, radio, newspapers, magazines, direct
mail, billboards, and the Internet. Etzel et al. added that
the goal of advertising was to change consumer behavior by
effectively informing and persuading the target prospect.
In 2003, Gupta contended that culture plays a role in
how information is scanned, selected, validated, and
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prioritized by consumers. He argued that prior
understanding of the extent to which marketing
communication efforts should be customized was an important
competitive advantage for multinational marketers. Chen and
Allmon (1998) argued that consumer perceptions of the media
in different cultures influence the effectiveness of these
media. For example, television was found to be a more
entertaining and informative media in Australia than in
Taiwan, suggesting that television may be a more effective
media in the former culture.
In 1991, McClung wrote that in the United States,
children's desire to visit a park and media advertising are
important factors in the decision of household heads to
attend a particular theme park. Specifically, children's
desire was rated higher than the effect of media
advertising by American household heads. These studies
suggest that theme parks' advertising strategies should
account for cultural differences in various international
markets in selecting the appropriate media to influence
attendance.
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Hedonism and Alternative Attractions
According to the United States Amusement Industry
Consumer Survey of 2000, conducted by the International
Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA), the
attractions that theme park visitors consider as substitute
venues include museums, zoos, miniature golf courses,
shopping arcade family entertainment centers, and water
parks. Museums and zoos have a considerable educational
emphasis, while the other attractions have an emphasis on
play and pleasure. There is evidence that individualist and
short-term orientation cultures prefer to spend their
leisure time on hedonistic activities. For example, Li and
Wong (1998) examined the effects of hedonism and
intellectualism on leisure time consumption in Australia
and Singapore and found that consumers who value hedonism
more than intellectualism are likely to spend more time on
entertainment activities than on self-improvement
activities. The United States has a similar culture to
Australia, and it was expected that American respondents
would have a stronger preference for hedonistic attractions
than South Africans.
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Demographic Variables and Theme Park Attendance
A review of the major theme park attributes where
demographic characteristics have implications for repeat
attendance follows. These attributes form the basis of the
Research Questions on demographic factors motivating
attendance.
Globalized Youth
Theme parks are targeted at the middle class income
segment. In 1994, Hassan and Blackwell contended that
across the globe, the middle class teenage and youth
markets (13-25) are becoming increasingly similar because
of intense exposure to western television programming. In
2004, De Mooij noted that in Japan, the 18-25 age group
exhibits very similar consumer behavior characteristics to
Western counterparts. However, once they enter the job
market, they begin to conform more to typical Japanese
behavior. It is therefore expected that there will be a
greater degree of similarity in factors motivating
attendance at theme parks among the teenage and youth age
groups than among older consumers in the two markets.
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Income and Frequency of Attendance
According to Lamb, Hair, and McDaniel (1999), while
the overall income of a country is important for marketers,
the distribution of this income within the population is
just as critical. In 2003, Silverstein and Fiske wrote that
dual incomes, smaller families, and better education had
led to a 50 percent increase in real household income
between 1970 and 2000 in the United States. They further
noted that about two thirds of American households had
middle class incomes of at least $25,000. The distribution
of income in South Africa is more skewed than that in the
United States (C.I.A. World Fact Book, 2005). The living
standards measure (LSM) is an internationally used rating
to determine lifestyles based on income and psychographics
profile. According to the South African Advertising and
Research Foundation available at
www.eighty20.co.za/databases/examples.cgi (accessed 11
April 2005), 22 percent of South Africans fall within LSM
groups 7-10 that can be described as middle-middle class or
better. If the lower middle class, or LSM 6, is included,
then about one third of South Africans can be described as
enjoying at least a lower middle class standard of living
by international standards.
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In 2002, Hightower, Brady, and Baker wrote that
although Americans were spending more on leisure
activities, relatively little was known about which factors
influence consumers' behavioral intentions in this area.
There are many competing leisure alternatives to theme
parks. This is attested to by the flattening out of growth
in attendance since the early 1990s. It is expected that
there would be a direct relationship between income and
repeat attendance. However, the strength of this
relationship may differ from one country to the next, based
on factors such as available leisure alternatives and
cultural related preferences.
Family Make-Up and Disposable Income
Family sociologists often define a nuclear family as
one consisting of one or two generations of immediate
family members living in the same household, including
parents and their non-adult children. The extended family,
by contrast, may include three or more generations of a
family living in the same household, parents, non-adult
children, grandparents, and even occasionally, great-
grandparents (Ketzer, 1991) . This particular form is common
in many Asian and African households. Another version of
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the extended family is where the two-generation nuclear
family invites cousins or other close relatives into their
household. This form of extended family is very common in
middle class African households, where wealthier relatives
often take in less endowed relatives whom they help to
educate, usually in exchange for help with domestic chores
(Mungai, 2001).
Family households in African societies are documented
as being on average larger than Western families, owing
partly to the extended family phenomenon and also partly to
the historical tendency to have more children, because
those children who survived and became relatively well off
financially traditionally looked after their parents in
their old age (Mungai, 2001; Siquana-Ndulo, 1998). Prior to
the industrial revolution, families in Europe were
predominantly large for reasons similar to those advanced
for the relatively large size of present-day African
families, according to arguments made by scholars, and
urbanization and capitalism resulted in smaller nuclear
families in latter-day western societies (Ziehl, 2002).
One other important difference between White families which
constitute the bulk of the population in the United States
and Black families which constitute the bulk of the
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population in South Africa is that single-parent families
are more prevalent among Black families in both countries
(Zein and Eitzen, 1990; Ziehl, 2001).
In light of the preceding observations, family make-up
very probably has implications for consumer behavior. This
is because a larger African family with the same annual
household income will have more members sharing this income
than is the case for a smaller family in the United States.
One therefore might expect annual income to be a stronger
predictor of the amount of money available for leisure
consumption in a developing country with a higher
prevalence of larger families that in the U. S., where
family sizes are on average smaller.
Race Demographics and Subcultures
Both the United States and South Africa are multi
racial societies. In the U. S., the main racial groups are
Caucasians, Hispanics, and African Americans. There is
also an increasing number of Americans of Asian descent.
South Africa has citizens of African, European, and Asian
origin. South Africa also has a sizable population of
mixed race inhabitants. The demographic compositions of
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American and South African populations are indicated in
Table 1 on this page and Table 2 on page 56.
Because of the high pricing level of tickets, theme
parks essentially are targeted at the middle classes and
upper income groups. Silverstein and Fiske (2003) noted
that in the United States, the majority of the population
belongs to these categories. In South Africa, only 35
percent of the population qualifies as members of the
leisure-consuming middle class. The ethnic and cultural
composition of this population is, therefore, of interest
to marketers of theme parks, as is illustrated in Table 3
on page 56.
Table 1
Demographic Composition of the United States Population
Race/ EthnicityPopulation
(mil.) PercentageCaucasians 199 67Hispanics 38 13African Americans 35 12Asian Americans 12 4Others 12 4Totals 296 100
Source: U. S. Census Bureau, 2004(http://www.census.gov/population (accessed 11 April 2005)
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Table 2
Demographic Composition of the South African Population
Race/Ethnicity
Population (mil.) Percentage
Blacks 33. 0 76.8Whites 5.0 12 .1Coloreds 3.5 8 . 5Indians 1.0 2.5Others 0.5 0.1Totals 43.0 100.0
Source: http://www.eiqhty2 0 .c o .za/databases/examples.cgi (accessed 11 April 2005)
Table 3
Demographic Composition of the Top 35 Percent of the South African Population
Race/EthnicityPopulation
(mil.) PercentageBlacks 6. 5 44Whites 5.0 34Coloreds 2.4 16Indians 0.9 6Totals 14.8 100
Source: http://w w w .eighty2 0 .c o .za/databases/examples.cgi (accessed 11 April 2005)
Every country has cultural attributes that are common
to that particular nation. In the United States, for
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example, the dominant culture is the Anglo Saxon culture o
the majority Caucasian ethnic group. As a result, English
is the common language in the United States. The
distinction between ethnic subcultural boundaries may be
less pronounced in the United States than in South Africa,
since the latter's middle classes do not have a dominant
culture due to a more diverse ethnic composition. However
there is evidence of distinct cultural assimilation in
South Africa in spite of its political history. For
example, De Mooij (2004) found that the values of white
English and Afrikaans-speaking South Africans were more
similar to the values of black South Africans than they
were to English and Dutch values.
While aggregate cultural dimensions are of importance
to marketers because they can take advantage of economies
of scale, the distinct sub cultural differences also are
important for more precise segmentation. Milman (2001)
wrote that the number of Hispanic teens was growing six
times as fast as the rest of the teen-aged population, and
the theme park and attraction industry needed to develop
products that will take into consideration these
demographic changes. The differences in ethnic preferences
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within each country in this study, therefore, are examined
and reported.
SummaryIn this chapter, the researcher has reviewed selected
literature relevant to the present study. The purpose of
this review was to provide a background to the research
questions and hypotheses that form the basis of this study.
The researcher reviewed the literature in three major
areas, beginning with the definition and history of theme
parks. This was followed by a section on the
internationalization of theme parks and a discussion of
current international issues pertaining to the industry. In
the final section, the researcher discussed the influence
of culture and demographics on consumer preferences that
have a bearing on theme park attendance in the United
States and South Africa.
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Chapter 3
RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Introduction
In this chapter, the researcher discusses the research
methods employed in conducting the study. These methods
include research design, research questions, dependent and
independent variables, sources of data, sampling
techniques, collection of data, validity and reliability,
research assumptions, limitations and delimitations of the
study, and a summary of the methods and procedures.
Research Design
This study involved the use of descriptive methods to
measure differences and correlational methods to measure
relationships between theme park patrons in the United
States and South Africa. The author measured differences
in the characteristics of the two populations using
independent sample t tests, while differences among
multiple variables were measured using one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA). Relationships were measured using
Pearson's correlation coefficient.
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The researcher designed questionnaires that were
administered to theme park patrons in the Gauteng Province
of South Africa and in the Southern California area of the
United States as they exited the theme parks. The
respondents were nationals of South Africa and the United
States, respectively. The dependent variable was frequency
of attendance at theme parks. The independent variables
were the following:
1. Country Culture
For the United States, the cultural variables
were:
Individualist
Low Power Distance
Short-term Orientation
Weak Uncertainty Avoidance
For South Africa, the cultural variables were:
Collectivist
High Power Distance
Long-term Orientation
Strong Uncertainty Avoidance
For both countries, the quasi-independent
variables were:
1. Rides
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High thrill rides
Moderate thrill rides
Water rides
2. Theme Shows
Interactive theme shows
3. Park Image
Cleanliness
Staff service level
Scenery
Quality/value ratio
4. Time Spent Waiting in Lines
Lines at ride locations
Lines at park entrance
5. Advertising Media
Television
Radio
Newspapers
Direct mail
Web sites
6. Alternative Attractions
Zoos/animal parks
Museums
Arcade games
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Miniature golf
Water parks
Frequency of attendance at theme parks was determined
by respondents' reported choices of different levels of
motivation by factors that influenced attendance. Personnel
trained in data collection and administration of surveys
administered questionnaires to respondents. All respondents
understood and spoke English.
Research Questions
There were 13 research questions in this study:
Ql: Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance to experience high thrill
rides between attendees from an individualist culture, the
United States, and attendees from a collectivist culture,
South Africa?
Q 2 : Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance to experience moderate
thrill rides between attendees from a collectivist culture,
South Africa, and attendees from an individualistic
culture, the United States?
Q 3 : Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance to experience water rides
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between attendees from a low power distance, high
uncertainty avoidance culture, the United States, and
attendees from a high power distance, high uncertainty
avoidance culture, South Africa?
Q 4 : Is there a significant difference in the level of
willingness to volunteer to take part in the execution of
theme shows between attendees from an individualist
culture, the United States, and attendees from a
collectivist culture, South Africa?
Q5: Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance due to the image of a
theme park between attendees from a high power distance
culture, South Africa, and attendees from a low power
distance culture, the United States?
Q6: Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance as a result of having to
wait in line between attendees from a high power distance
culture, South Africa, and attendees from a low power
distance culture, the United States?
Q 7 : What are the significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the 15-24-year-old age
group compared to older age groups (25-44, 45-59) in both
countries?
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Q 8 : What are the significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
South Africa?
Q9: What are the significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
the United States?
Q10: Is there a significant relationship between
frequency of attendance at theme parks and family income in
South Africa?
Qll: Is there a significant relationship between
frequency of attendance at theme parks and family income in
the United States?
Q12: What are the differences in the level of
influence that different types of advertising media have on
attendance in the United States and South Africa?
Q13: What are the differences in the rating of
alternative attractions to theme parks between attendees
from an individualist, short-term orientation culture, the
United States, and attendees from a collectivist, long-term
orientation culture, South Africa?
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Data Collection
The population of the study was theme park visitors
who were nationals of their respective countries. The
sampling frames were visitors to theme parks in the Gauteng
Province in South Africa and in the Southern California
area in the United States during the period of data
collection in each country. The researcher used a non
probability convenience design for data collection. As
there are many theme parks in Southern California in the
United States, the researcher selected two for the purpose
of this study. Participation in the survey was voluntary,
and the results of the survey were anonymous and strictly
confidential. Personnel trained in data collection and
administration of survey instruments administered
questionnaires at random to respondents as they exited the
theme parks. Personnel interviewed a total of 250
respondents in each country. Eighteen invalid
questionnaires were returned from the United States,
leaving a total of 232 valid respondents. In South Africa,
27 invalid questionnaires were returned, leaving a total of
223 valid respondents. The purpose of the questionnaire was
to collect statistical measurements of vital information on
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consumer preferences that may have a direct relationship to
frequency of attendance at theme parks.
Data Sources
The study focused on theme park visitors who were 15
years or older in the United States and South Africa. In
the United States, visitors to Disney's two theme parks in
Anaheim were interviewed at various public locations within
Anaheim. In South Africa, respondents were drawn from
visitors to Gold Reef City in Johannesburg. A total of 250
respondents from each country completed the survey
questionnaire.
Instrumentation
The instrument in this study was a questionnaire
developed by the researcher to collect responses that
measured levels of motivation from various factors that
have a bearing on frequency of attendance at theme parks.
The researcher developed a total of 23 measurement
questions with 133 choices resulting in 31 answers per
questionnaire from the 13 research questions of this study.
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Scoring-Measurement Strength
The researcher used nominal and interval data
measurements to achieve the scoring. Seventeen of the 23
questions used a five-point interval scale.
Questions 2-7 used a Likert scale to measure the
levels of consumer motivation for repeat attendance to
experience various categories of rides including high
thrill rides, moderate thrill rides, and water rides. The
scales in questions 2-4 were assigned numerical values
ranging from not important = 1, slightly important = 2,
somewhat important = 3, important = 4, and very important =
5. Scales in questions 5-7 were assigned percentage values
ranging from less than 10 percent = 1, between 10 percent
and 30 percent = 2, between 30 percent and 50 percent = 3,
between 50 percent and 75 percent = 4, and over 75 percent
= 5.
Question 9 used a Likert scale to measure the level of
preference to watch theme shows in which the audiences are
active participants. The scale was assigned numerical
values ranging from strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2,
neutral = 3, agree = 4, and strongly agree = 5.
Questions 10-13 used a Likert scale to measure the
levels of consumer motivation for repeat attendance due to
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the image of a theme park based on various image attributes
including park cleanliness, staff service level, park
scenery, and quality value ratio. The scale was assigned
numerical values ranging from not important = 1, slightly
important = 2, somewhat important = 3, important = 4, and
very important = 5.
Questions 14 and 15 used a Likert scale to measure the
levels of consumer motivation for repeat attendance based
on short waiting time in lines at the park entrance and at
ride locations. The scale was assigned numerical values
ranging from strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2, neutral =
3, agree = 4, and strongly agree = 5.
Question 17 used a Likert scale to measure the
likelihood of choosing to visit alternative family
entertainment attractions by consumers. The alternative
attractions included zoos/animal parks, museums, arcade
parks, miniature golf, and water parks. The scale was
assigned numerical values ranging from not at all likely =
1, slightly likely = 2, somewhat likely = 3, likely = 4,
and very likely = 5.
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Research Procedures
The research procedures consisted of three steps. The
first step was the questionnaire development, and the
second step was the pilot study. The third step was the
administration of the survey instrument.
Questionnaire Development
The researcher developed the questionnaire and
submitted it to the chairperson and committee supervising
the study. This group examined the questionnaire for
content and reliability. The researcher then made
corrections and changes. Finally, the Internal Review Board
(IRB) approved the questionnaire.
Pilot Study
The researcher submitted the questionnaire to eight
doctoral students at Alliant International University, who
examined it for its validity and reliability. The
researcher used the feedback from these students to make
provisional improvements to the instrument. The professor
in charge of measurement statistics at the College of
Business at Alliant International University then examined
the questionnaire for validity and reliability in
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conjunction with the chairperson in charge of the study.
The researcher made the necessary corrections and changes
based on their recommendations. Thereafter, the researcher
tested the questionnaire among 30 San Diego residents who
had visited either Disneyland or Sea World within the
previous three months. The researcher made further
revisions to the questionnaire based on this pilot test and
in conjunction with the advice of the chairperson in charge
of the study.
Data Collection
Field personnel trained in data collection conducted
the data collection under the supervision of the
researcher. All respondents completed the questionnaire in
the presence of the field personnel at the theme park
venues pre-selected by the researcher for data collection.
The field personnel approached park visitors as they left
the parks and explained the purpose of the survey. Willing
participants 15 years and older then were issued the survey
instrument accompanied by an introductory letter from the
chairperson in charge of the study. Respondents completed
the questionnaires and handed them back to the field
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personnel. The researcher then collected the
questionnaires for data analysis.
Data Analysis
The type of data collected included nominal and
interval data. The interval data was based on a five-point
Likert scale. Descriptive statistics were utilized for
reporting frequencies, means, and standard deviations. The
following statistical measures were used in the study:
independent sample t-tests, ANOVA, and Pearson's
correlation coefficient. Independent sample t-tests were
used to determine differences between two subgroup means,
while ANOVA was used to determine differences between
multiple subgroup means. Pearson's correlation coefficient
was used to determine relationships between variables.
Relationships and differences between variables were tested
at a 0.01 statistical significance level.
Research Hypotheses
Thirteen hypotheses were formulated for the purpose of
the study. These hypotheses are as follows:
HI: Attendees from an individualistic culture, the
United States, will have a significantly higher level of
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motivation for repeat attendance to experience high thrill
rides than attendees from a collectivist culture, South
Africa.
H 2 : Attendees from a collectivist culture, South
Africa, will have a significantly higher level of
motivation for repeat attendance to experience moderate
thrill rides than attendees from an individualistic
culture, the United States.
H3: Attendees from a low power distance, high
uncertainty avoidance culture, the United States, will have
a significantly higher level of motivation for repeat
attendance to experience water rides than attendees from a
high power distance, high uncertainty avoidance culture,
South Africa.
H 4 : Attendees from an individualist culture, the
United States, will have a significantly higher level of
willingness to volunteer to participate in the execution of
theme shows than attendees from a collective culture, South
Africa.
H5: Attendees from a high power distance culture,
South Africa, will have a significantly higher level of
motivation for repeat attendance to theme parks with a
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prestigious image than attendees from a lower power
distance culture, the United States.
H6: Attendees from a high power distance culture,
South Africa, will have a significantly lower level of
motivation for repeat attendance as a result of having to
wait in line than attendees from a lower power distance
culture, the United States.
H 7 : There are fewer significant differences in
factors motivating repeat attendance among 15-24-year-olds
than there are among the older age groups, 25-44- and 45-
59-year-olds, in both countries.
H 8 : There are significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
South Africa.
H9: There are significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
the United States.
H10: There is a positive relationship between
freguency of attendance at theme parks and family income i
South Africa.
Hll: There is a positive relationship between
freguency of attendance at theme parks and family income i
the United States.
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H12: There are significant differences in the level of
influence that different types of advertising media have on
attendance in the United States and South Africa.
H13. Attendees from an individualist, short-term
orientation culture, the United States, are more likely to
favor hedonistic alternative attractions such as arcade
games, water parks, and miniature golf courses than
attendees from a collectivist, long-term orientation
culture, South Africa.
Assumptions of the Study
There were six major assumptions made while conducting
the study. The assumptions must be accepted if the
findings of the study are to be regarded as reliable. The
study assumed the following:
1. All the questionnaire items in this study were
clearly understood by the respondents.
2. The respondents answered all the questions in the
survey instrument truthfully.
3. The instrument was appropriate for collecting
data related to the study and adequate for measuring all
that it was intended to measure. The instrument had been
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pilot tested before use to check for its reliability and
validity.
4. The statistical tests used were the most
appropriate for the research questions in the study.
5. Theme parks in South Africa and the United States
are sufficiently similar to allow a meaningful comparison
between park visitors in the two markets to be made.
6. Hofstede's cultural dimensions, as discussed in
the literature review section of the study, adequately
reflect the aggregate cultural differences between the
United States and South Africa.
Limitations of the Study
There were three major limitations in the current
study:
1. The study was limited to Southern California in
the United States and to Gauteng Province in South Africa.
Any attempt to generalize the results of this study to
reflect similarities and differences between the United
States and South African consumers must, therefore, be made
with caution.
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2. A non-probability sampling technique was used.
This should be borne in mind when generalizing results to
the rest of the population in each country.
3. The study examined similarities and differences
between theme park visitors in the United States and South
Africa from a cultural perspective. Other perspectives such
as level of economic and technological development were not
investigated in the current study.
Summary
In this chapter, a detailed review of the research
methodology employed in the study to answer the research
questions was undertaken. A descriptive, correlational
design was used in the study. Primary data were collected
through questionnaires completed by theme park visitors in
the United States and South Africa. Field researchers with
prior training administered the questionnaires to visitors
15 years and older as they exited the theme parks. The
data were analyzed using independent sample t tests, one
way analysis of variance, and Pearson's correlation
coefficient. Finally, limitations and assumptions of the
research were listed and discussed.
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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Introduction
The objective of this chapter is to present and
explain the data gathered rather than draw interpretations
or conclusions. The purpose of this study was to determine
the role of cultural and demographic differences on factors
that motivate frequency of attendance at theme parks in the
United States and South Africa. The statistical tests used
in this study were independent sample t-Test, Pearson's
correlation coefficient, and one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA). Owing to the large number of tests run, in order
to ensure reliability of results, in all cases statistical
significance-- the probability (p) that a result was not
obtained by chance-- was set at the 0.01 level. The
findings are presented and analyzed according to the
research questions. The data are presented in the form of
tables followed by a brief description in words of the
notable information in each table. A summary of the results
and findings of the study is provided at the end of the
77
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chapter. An asterisk (*) is used to denote all values of p
that are statistically significant.
Table 4
Importance Attached to High Thrill Rides
Country N Mean SDReliability t Significance
(Alpha) value (p)
UnitedStates 232 4.14 1.28
0.86 4.35 < 0 .01*SouthAfrica 223 3.63 1.23
Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviationAlpha = Reliability of the instrument questions for
this variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient* = statistically significant
Table 4 shows that attendees from the United States
attached significantly more importance to high thrill rides
than did attendees from South Africa. The results of the
level of importance attached to moderate thrill rides are
illustrated in Table 5.
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Table 5
Importance Attached to Moderate Thrill Rides
Country N Mean SDReliability
(Alpha)t
valueSignificance
(p)
UnitedStates 232 2.85 1.01
SouthAfrica 223 3.81 1.05 0.79 -9.91 <0.01*
Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviationAlpha = Reliability of the instrument questions for
this variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient * = statistically significant
Table 5 clearly demonstrates that attendees from the
United States attached significantly less importance to
moderate thrill rides than did attendees from South Africa.
The results of the level of importance attached to water
rides are illustrated in Table 6, page 80.
One sees from Table 6 that there was no significant
difference in the importance attached to water rides
between attendees from the United States and attendees from
South Africa. The results of the level of willingness to
participate in interactive theme shows are illustrated in
Table 7, page 80.
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Table 6
Importance Attached to Water Rides
Country N Mean SDReliability t
(Alpha) valueSignificance
(P)
UnitedStates 232 3.34 1.20
SouthAfrica 223 3.15 1.09
0.79 1.72 0.09
Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviationAlpha = Reliability of the instrument questions for
this variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient
Table 7
Willingness to Volunteer to Participate inInteractive Theme Shows
Country N Mean SDt
valueSignificance
(P)
UnitedStates 232 1.59 0.55
SouthAfrica 223 1. 65 0. 60
1 o UD 0 . 35
Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviation
80
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Table 7 shows that there is no significant difference
in level of willingness to volunteer to participate in
interactive theme shows between attendees from the United
States and attendees from South Africa. The results of the
level of importance attached to the image of a theme park
are illustrated in Table 8.
Table 8
Importance Attached to the Image of a Theme Park
Country N Mean SDReliability
(Alpha)t
ValueSignificance
(p)
UnitedStates 232 3.91 0.70
SouthAfrica 223 4 . 68 0.45
0.84 -13.84 <0.01*
Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviationAlpha = Reliability of the instrument guestions for
this variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient * = statistically significant
Table 8 demonstrates that attendees from the United
States attached significantly less importance to the image
of a theme park than did attendees from South Africa. The
81
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results of the level of willingness to wait in line are
illustrated in Table 9.
Table 9
Willingness to Wait in Line
^ ^ Reliability t SignificanceCountry N Mean SD »1 Alpha value p
United 232 3 ^71 Q ^94States
S°uth 223 3.65 1.21 0.64 0.71 0.4*Africa
Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviationAlpha = Reliability of the instrument questions for
this variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient
Table 9 reveals that there is no significant
difference in the level of motivation for repeat attendance
due to having to wait in line between attendees from the
United States and attendees from South Africa. The results
of the level of reliance by attendees on the various media
are illustrated in Table 10, page 83, and Table 11, page
84 .
82
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Table 10
Level of Reliance on Radio, Television, and the Internet
„ t SignificanceCountry Medium N Mean SD n , ,J value_________ p
U.S. 232 2.13 0.77Radio 0.34 0.73
S .A. 223 2.11 0 . 84
U.S. 232 2.38 0. 69Television -8 . 48 <0 .01*
S.A. 223 2.86 0. 51
U.S. 232 2.42 0.72The Internet 5.48 <0.01*
S .A. 223 2.00 0. 90
Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviation U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa * = statistically significant
Table 10 reveals the following:
1. There was no significant difference in the level
of reliance on radio as a source of information on theme
parks between attendees from the United States and
attendees from South Africa.
2. Attendees from South Africa relied significantly
more on television as a source of information on theme
parks than did attendees from the United States.
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3. Attendees from the United States relied
significantly more on the Internet as a source of
information on theme parks than attendees from South Africa
did.
Table 11
Media and Attendance (Direct Mail and Print)
Country Medium N Mean SDt
valueSignificance
(P)U.S. 232 2.01 0.80
S.A.Print
223 2.42 0.79-4 .40 <0.01*
U.S.
S.A.Directmail
232
223
1. 72
1.74
0.76
0.84-0.15 0.88
Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviation U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa * = statistically significant
Table 11 demonstrates the following:
1. Attendees from South Africa relied significantly
more on the print media as a source of information on theme
parks than attendees from the United States did.
2. There was no significant difference in the level
of reliance on direct mail as a source of information on84
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theme parks between attendees from the United States and
attendees from South Africa.
Table 12
Rating of Alternative "Self-Improvement" Attractions
Reliability t SignificanceCountry N Mean SD (Alpha) value (p)
U.S. 232 3.58 0.940.71 -2.95 <0.01*
S.A. 223 3.89 1.31
Note: N = number of respondent SD = standard deviationAlpha = Reliability of instrument questions for this
variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa* = statistically significant
Table 12 shows that attendees from South Africa rated
self-improvement attractions (zoos, animal parks, and
museums) as significantly preferred alternative
entertainment attractions to theme parks than attendees
from the United States. The results of the relative rating
of hedonistic attractions are illustrated in Table 13.
85
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Table 13
Rating of Alternative "Hedonistic" Attractions
Country N Mean SD Reliability t(Alpha) value
Significance(P)
U.S. 232 3.25 1.080.57 2.19 0 .13
S.A. 223 3.46 0.95
Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviationAlpha = Reliability of instrument questions for this
variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa
Table 13 shows that there was no significant
difference in the rating of "hedonistic" attractions
(arcade games, miniature golf, and water parks) as
alternative entertainment attractions to theme parks
between attendees from the United States and attendees from
South Africa. The results of the relationship between
frequency of attendance and family income in South Africa
are illustrated in Table 14.
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Table 14
Frequency of Attendance and Family Income in South Africa
Pearson'sN Correlation Significance
223 R = 0.44 p < 0.01*
Note: N = number of respondents* = statistically significant
Table 14 makes clear the finding that there was a
significant and positive relationship between household
income and frequency of attendance at theme parks in South
Africa. The results of the relationship between frequency
of attendance and family income in the United States are
illustrated in Table 15.
Table 15
Relationship between Frequency of Attendance and Family Income in the United States
NPearson's
Correlation Significance
232 R = 0.05 p = 0.43
Note: N = number of respondents
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Table 15 makes clear that there was no significant
relationship between household income and frequency of
attendance at theme parks in the United States. The results
of the similarities and differences in factors motivating
repeat attendance among the 15-24 year olds are illustrated
in Table 16, page 89.
Table 16 reveals that there were 5 of 13 significant
differences in factors motivating repeat attendance among
theme park visitors aged 15 to 24 years old between
attendees from the United States and attendees from South
Africa. These factors are summarized as follows:
1. Attendees from the United States rated high
thrill rides as a significantly higher motivating factor
for repeat attendance than did attendees from South Africa.
2. Attendees from South Africa rated moderate thrill
rides as a significantly higher motivating factor for
repeat attendance than attendees from the United States
did.
3. Attendees from the United States rated water
rides as a significantly higher motivating factor for
repeat attendance than did attendees from South Africa.
88
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Table 16
Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among 15-24 Year Olds
Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance Nt
valueP
value
Importance of high thrill rides 3.22 <0.01*
Importance of moderate thrill ridesU.S.
-3.28 <0.01*
Importance of water rides = 75 2. 68 0.01*
Willingness to volunteer for shows S . A. 1. 01 0.32
Importance of park image= 71 -7 . 01 <0.01*
Willingness to wait in line 1.71 0.09
Reliance on radio for info on parks 0.07 0 . 95
Reliance on direct mail for info on parks 0 . 70 0.48
Reliance on television for info on parks -0.75 0.46
Reliance on the Internet for info on parks 3.36 <0.01*
Reliance on print media for info on parks -1. 95 0.05
Preference for self-improvement attractions 0. 33 0.74
Preference for hedonistic attractions 1.48 0.14
Note: N = number of respondents U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa * = statistically significant
4. Attendees from the United States relied
significantly more on the Internet as a source of informa
tion on theme parks than attendees from South Africa did.
89
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5. Attendees from the United States attached
significantly less importance to the image of a theme park
than did attendees from South Africa.
Table 17
Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among 25-44 Year Olds
Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance
t Pvalue value
Importance of high thrill rides
Importance of moderate thrill rides
Importance of water rides
Willingness to volunteer for shows
Importance of park image
Willingness to wait in line
Reliance on radio for info on parks
Reliance on direct mail for info on parks
Reliance on television for info on parks
Reliance on Internet for info on parks
Reliance on print media for info on parks
Preference for self-improvement attractions
Preference for hedonistic attractions
U.S.= 116
S.A.= 120
3. 65 <0., 01*
-8 . 85 <0.. 01*
0 . 73 <0 . 47
-2 .16 0 .. 03
-11 .46 <0. -X \—1
o
-1 . 05 0.. 30
1 . 11 0 . .27
-0 . 63 0 .. 52
-8 . 12 <0.. 01*
3. 35 <0.. 01*
-4 . 31 <0.. 01*
-3 . 75 <0.. 01*
-2 . 50 0 .
-X 1—1
o
Note: N = number of respondents U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa* = statistically significant
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One can see from Table 17 that there are 8 of 13
significant differences in factors motivating repeat
attendance among theme park visitors aged 25 to 44 years
old between attendees from the United States and attendees
from South Africa. These factors are summarized as follows:
1. Attendees from the United States rated high
thrill rides as a significantly higher motivating factor
for repeat attendance than did attendees from South Africa.
2. Attendees from South Africa rated moderate thrill
rides as a significantly higher motivating factor for
repeat attendance than attendees from the United States
did.
3. Attendees from the United States attached
significantly less importance to the image of a theme park
than attendees from South Africa.
4. Attendees from South Africa relied significantly
more on television as a source of information on theme
parks than did attendees from the United States.
5. Attendees from the United States relied
significantly more on the Internet as a source of
information on theme parks than attendees from South Africa
did.
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6. Attendees from South Africa relied significantly
more on the print media as a source of information on theme
parks than did attendees from the United States.
7. Attendees from South Africa rated "self-
improvement attractions," i.e., zoos, animal parks, and
museums, as significantly preferred alternative attractions
to theme parks than did attendees from the United States.
8. Attendees from South Africa rated "hedonistic
attractions," i.e., arcade games, miniature golf, and water
parks, as significantly preferred alternative attractions
to theme parks than attendees from the United States did.
One notes in Table 18, page 93, that there were 6 of
13 significant differences in factors motivating repeat
attendance among theme park visitors aged 45-59 years old
between attendees from the United States and attendees from
South Africa. These factors are summarized as follows:
1. Attendees from South Africa rated moderate thrill
rides as a significantly higher motivating factor for
repeat attendance than attendees from the United States.
2. Attendees from the United States attached
significantly less importance to the image of a theme park
than attendees from South Africa.
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Table 18
Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among 45-59 Year Olds
Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance N
tvalue
Pvalue
Importance of high thrill ridesU.S.
0.72 0.47
Importance of moderate thrill rides = 38 -5.00 <0.01*
Importance of water ridesS.A.
-0.03 0. 98
Willingness to volunteer for shows = 31 -0.24 0.81
Importance of park image -4.79 <0.01*
Willingness to wait in line 0.89 0.38
Reliance on radio for info on parks -1.12 0.27
Reliance on direct mail for info on parks -0. 14 0.89
Reliance on television for info on parks -7 .1 <0.01*
Reliance on the Internet for info on parks 2 . 88 <0.01*
Reliance on print media for info on parks -0 . 99 0.32
Preference for self-improvement attractions -2 . 78 <0.01*
Preference for hedonistic attractions -2 . 84 <0.01*
Note: N = number of respondents U.S. = United StatesS.A. = South Africa * = statistically significant
3. Attendees from South Africa relied significantly
more on television as a source of information on theme
parks than attendees from the United States did.
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4. Attendees from the United States relied
significantly more on the Internet as a source of
information on theme parks than did attendees from South
Africa.
5. Attendees from South Africa rated "self-
improvement attractions," i.e., zoos, animal parks, and
museums, as significantly preferred alternative attractions
to theme parks than attendees from the United States did.
6. Attendees from South Africa rated "hedonistic
attractions," i.e., water parks, miniature golf, and arcade
games, as significantly preferred alternative attractions
to theme parks than did attendees from the United States.
Table 19, on page 95, demonstrates that there was only
1 of 13 significant differences in factors motivating
repeat attendance among attendees of different ethnic
groups in the United States. There are significant
differences in the preferences for high thrill rides among
the various ethnic/racial groups in the United States.
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Table 19
Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among the Different Races in the United States
Factors motivating frequency of attendance N
Fvalue
Pvalue
Importance of high thrill rides 4 . 55 <0.01*
Importance of moderate thrill rides 1.28 0.29
Importance of water rides Caucasians = 145
0. 90 0.48
Willingness to volunteer for showsHispanics
1.77 0.12
Importance of park image = 38 2 . 34 0.04
Willingness to wait in line African Americans
= 290. 34 0.89
Reliance on radio for info on parksAsian
1.46 0.20
Reliance on direct mail for info on parks Americans = 7
Others
-0.80 0.50
Reliance on television for info on parks 1.41 <0.22
Reliance on the Internet for info on parks = 12 1.46 0.20
Reliance on print media for info on parks 1.29 0.27
Preference for self-improvement attractions 2. 65 0.02
Preference for hedonistic attractions 0.52 0 .76
Note: N = number of respondents* = statistically significant
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Table 20
Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among the Different Races in South Africa
Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance N
Fvalue
Pvalue
Importance of high thrill rides 0 . 61 0.72
Importance of moderate thrill rides 2 .71 0.01*
Importance of water rides 2 . 63 0.02
Willingness to volunteer for shows Blacks = 151
0.43 0.86
Importance of park imageWhites
0 . 69 0. 66
Willingness to wait in line = 43 0. 69 0. 66
Reliance on radio for info on parks Colored = 19 0 . 90 0.50
Reliance on direct mail for info on parks Indians 2 . 97 <0.01*
Reliance on television for info on parks= 8
0.89 0.50
Reliance on the Internet for info on parks 2 . 03 0.06
Reliance on print media for info on parks 2 . 7 *i—1Oo
Preference for self-improvement attractions 13. 41 <0.01*
Preference for hedonistic attractions 0.59 0.73
N o t e : N = number of respondents* = statistically significant
Table 20 shows that there were 4 of 13 significant
differences in factors motivating repeat attendance between
attendees of different races groups in South Africa. These
factors are summarized as follows:
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1. There are significant differences in the
preferences for moderate thrill rides among the different
races in South Africa.
2. There are significant differences in the reliance
on direct mail as a source of information among the
different races in South Africa.
3. There are significant differences in the reliance
on print media as a source of information among the
different races in South Africa.
4. There are significant differences in the
preferences for self-improvement attractions among the
different races in South Africa.
Table 21
Age of Respondents
Country- Mean Age N SD MinimumAge
MaximumAge
UnitedStates 31. 9 232 10. 65 15 64
SouthAfrica 31.5 223 10.20 14 70
Total 455
Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviation
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Table 21 displays the information showing that the
mean and standard deviation of the ages of respondents in
South Africa and the United States were similar. The
relative sizes of the respondents' households are
illustrated in Table 22.
Table 22
Household Size by Country
tCountry N SD Mean Median Value Significance
UnitedStates 232 1.6 3.2 3.0
SouthAfrica 223 1.2 4.5 5.0 1 00 00 N) p <0.01
Total 455
Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviation
Table 22 indicates that the average household size
among attendees was significantly smaller in the United
States than it was in South Africa. The relative
representation of males and females among the respondents
is illustrated in Table 23.
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Table 23
Gender of Respondents by Country
Country N Male Percentage Female Percentage
UnitedStates 232 120 51.7 112 48.3
SouthAfrica 223 96 43.0 127 57.0
455 216 47 . 4 239 52 . 6
Note: N = number of respondents
Table 23 indicates that both males and females were
well represented in the study in each country. The
distribution of the respondents' income in both countries
is illustrated in Table 24.
Table 24
Respondents' Income by Country
Annual Income(000s USD) <3° 30-45 45-60 60-75 >75
United States 35 43 41 48 66
South Africa 99 44 30 26 23
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Table 24 shows that the frequency spread of the
respondents' incomes was skewed toward the lower end of the
income brackets for South African respondents. In the
United States, income distribution was more evenly spread
among respondents, although there was a slight skewing
toward the upper end income bracket.
Table 25 on page 101 indicates that there are 3 of 13
significant differences between males and females in terms
of factors motivating frequency of attendance in South
Africa. These factors are summarized as follows:
1. Males rated high thrill rides as a significantly
higher motivator to attend theme parks than did females.
2. Females rated moderate thrill rides as a
significantly higher motivator to attend theme parks than
did males.
3. Females rated "self-improvement attractions,"
i.e., zoos, animal parks, and museums, as significantly
preferred alternative attractions to theme parks than males
d i d .
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Table 25
Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance between Males and Females in South Africa
Factors motivating frequency of attendance N
tvalue
Pvalue
Importance of high thrill rides 2 . 90 <0.01*
Importance of moderate thrill rides
Importance of water rides
Males = 96
-4 .20
1.01
<0.01*
0.31
Willingness to volunteer for shows Females = 127 1.12 0.26
Importance of park image -1. 60 0 .11
Willingness to wait in line -1.82 0.70
Reliance on radio for info on parks 0 .84 0.40
Reliance on direct mail for info on parks -0.26 0.80
Reliance on television for info on parks -2 . 30 0.02
Reliance on the Internet for info on parks -0.82 0.42
Reliance on print media for info on parks -0.14 0.15
Preference for self-improvement attractions -2.85 <0.01*
Preference for hedonistic attractions 0.89 0.37
Note: N = number of respondents* = statistically significant
Table 26 shows that there is only 1 of 13 significant
differences between males and females in terms of factors
motivating freguency of attendance in the United States.
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Males rated high thrill rides as a significantly higher
motivator to attend theme parks than females did.
Table 26
Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance between Males and Females in the United States
Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance N
tvalue p value
Importance of high thrill rides 2 . 63 <0.01*
Importance of moderate thrill rides Males = 120 -1.58 0.16
Importance of water rides Females 0.34 0.73
Wil/lingness to volunteer for shows= 112
0.15 0.88
Importance of park image -1.34 0.18
Willingness to wait in line 1.43 0.15
Reliance on radio for info on parks -0.09 0 . 95
Reliance on direct mail for info on parks 0.71 0.48
Reliance on television for info on parks 0.75 0.45
Reliance on the Internet for info on parks 0.05 0. 95
Reliance on print media for info on parks 0.27 0.79
Preference for self-improvement attractions -1.16 0.25
Preference for hedonistic attractions 0.21 0.84
Note: N = number of respondents* = statistically significant
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Chapter Summary
In this chapter, the objective was to present and
explain the data gathered rather than to draw
interpretations or conclusions. The findings were presented
and analyzed based on the research questions. The data were
presented in the form of tables followed by a brief
description in words of what information was worth noting
in each table. In summary, the major findings presented
were the following:
Attendees from the United States attached
significantly more importance to high thrill rides than did
attendees from South Africa.
Attendees from the United States attached
significantly less importance to moderate thrill rides than
did attendees from South Africa.
There was no significant difference in the importance
attached to water rides between attendees from the United
States and attendees from South Africa.
Attendees from the United States attached
significantly less importance to the image of a theme park
than attendees from South Africa did.
There was no significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance due to having to wait in
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line between attendees from the United States and attendees
from South Africa.
There was no significant difference in the level of
reliance on radio and direct mail as sources of information
on theme parks between attendees from the United States and
attendees from South Africa.
Attendees from South Africa showed significantly more
reliance on television and print media as sources of
information on theme parks than attendees from the United
States did.
Attendees from the United relied significantly more on
the Internet as a source of information on theme parks.
Attendees from South Africa rated "self-improvement"
attractions (zoos, animal parks, and museums) as
significantly preferred alternative entertainment
attractions to theme parks than did attendees from the
United States.
There was no significant difference in the rating of
"hedonistic" attractions (arcade games, miniature golf, and
water parks) as alternative entertainment attractions to
theme parks between attendees from the United States and
attendees from South Africa
104
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There was a significant and positive relationship
between household income and frequency of attendance at
theme parks in South Africa
There was no significant relationship between
household income and frequency of attendance at theme parks
in the United States
There were only five significant differences in
factors motivating repeat attendance among theme park
visitors aged 15-24 years compared to eight significant
differences for respondents aged between 25-44 years and
six for respondents aged 45-59 years between attendees from
South Africa and the United States.
In the present study, there was only one significant
difference in factors motivating repeat attendance between
attendees of different ethnic groups in the United States.
However, there were 4 of 13 significant differences in
factors motivating repeat attendance between attendees of
different ethnic groups in the South Africa.
The average household size among attendees was
significantly smaller in the United States than in South
Africa.
The implications of these findings are discussed in
the following and final chapter. This is followed by
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conclusions from the study and recommendations for future
research.
106
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This chapter presents a summary of the important
elements of the previous sections of the study followed by
a discussion on the findings of the study. The author
presents summary tables of the key findings detailed in
Chapter 4 for ease of reference. The researcher discusses
the conclusions and recommendations drawn from the research
findings.
According to recent literature on theme parks in
academic journals, the failure to account for cultural
differences has been a contributing factor to the mixed
success in the export of theme park brands. As American and
European theme park brands are focusing now on expanding
into emerging markets such as China, Mexico, and South
Africa, this study aimed to examine the role of cultural
and demographic differences in factors motivating frequency
of attendance at theme parks in the United States, a
developed country, and in South Africa, an emerging market.
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The purpose of this study was to determine the role of
cultural and demographic differences on factors that
motivate frequency of attendance at theme parks in the
United States and South Africa. The findings of the study
should assist managers of theme park brands expanding
internationally in their decisions on standardization
versus adaptation of attractions offered at theme parks.
The study sought to test hypotheses on consumer
preferences based on differences in cultural and
demographic attributes. The study used Hofstede's (2001)
dimensions to investigate the role of cultural differences
in factors motivating frequency of attendance at theme
parks. Hofstede's model consists of five cultural
dimensions including individualism and collectivism, power
distance, masculinity and femininity, uncertainty
avoidance, and long-term/short-term orientation. A brief
description of these dimensions as described by Hofstede
follows.
According to Hofstede (2001), individualism is a
tendency within a culture to focus on the individual rather
than on the group, and collectivism is a tendency within a
culture toward gregariousness and group orientation. Power
distance refers to the extent to which less powerful
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members of a society consider and accept that power is
distributed unequally. Femininity emphasizes caring for
others and quality of life, while masculinity emphasizes
achievement and success. Uncertainty avoidance refers to
the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguity and
try to avoid these situations. In countries of strong
uncertainty avoidance, there is a need for rules and
customs to structure life. Long-term orientation refers to
an emphasis on values of thrift and perseverance, while
short-term orientation refers to high consumption, low
savings values.
The study utilized a descriptive, correlational
design. Primary data were collected through questionnaires
completed by theme park visitors in the United States and
South Africa. There were 232 respondents in the United
States and 223 respondents in South Africa. Questionnaires
were administered randomly by trained field researchers to
visitors 15 years and older as they entered or exited the
theme parks.
The data were analyzed using independent sample t-
tests, ANOVA, and Pearson's correlation coefficient.
Relationships and differences between variables were tested
at a 0.01 statistical significance level.
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The major findings of the study included the
following:
1. Attendees from the United States attached
significantly more importance to high thrill rides than did
attendees from South Africa.
2. Attendees from the United States attached
significantly less importance to moderate thrill rides than
attendees from South Africa.
Table 27
Summary of the Differences in the Importance Attached to Various Types of Rides
t, • j ^ t SignificanceType of Ride Country N Mean . , .value p)
High thrill rides
U.S. 232 4.134.2 <0.01*
S.A. 223 3. 64
Moderate thrill rides
U.S. 232 2.84-10.14 <0.01*
S.A. 223 3.82
Note: N = number of respondentsU.S. = United StatesS.A. = South Africa* = statistically significant
3. Attendees from the United States attached
significantly less importance to the image of a theme park
than did attendees from South Africa.
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Table 28
Summary of the Differences in the Importance Attached to Park Image
Country N Mean t value Significance
United States 232 3.91-13.84 p<0.01*
South Africa 223 4.68
Note: N = number of respondents* = statistically significant
4. Attendees from South Africa showed significantly
more reliance on television and print media as sources of
information on theme parks than did attendees from the
United States, while attendees from the United States
relied significantly more on the Internet as a source of
information on theme parks.
Ill
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Table 29
Summary of the Significant Differences in the Level of Reliance on Various
Media by Attendees
Country Medium Respondents Mean t value Significance
U.S. Print 232 1.95-6.61 p<0.01*
S.A. 223 2.41
U.S. Television 232 2.38
00001 P<0.01*S.A. 223 2.86
U.S. Internet 232 2.425.48 P< 0.01*
S.A. 223 2.00
Note: U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa * = statistically significant
5. A significant and positive relationship between
household income and frequency of attendance at theme parks
existed in South Africa, but none existed in the United
States.
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Table 30
Summary of the Relationship between Household Income and Frequency
of Attendance
Pearson'sCountry N Correlation Significance
South Africa 223 0 .44 p< 0.01*
United States 232 0.05 p= 0.43
Note: N = no of respondents* = statistically significant
6. Only 5 of 13 significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among theme park visitors 15-
24 years old between attendees from the United States and
attendees from South Africa are evident compared to eight
significant differences for respondents between 25-44 years
old and six for respondents 45-59 years old.
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Table 31
Summary of Significant Differences in Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance
among Various Age Groups
Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance15-24
t25-44
t45-59
t
Importance of high thrill rides 3.22* 3. 65* NSImportance of moderate thrill rides -3.28* -8.85* -5.00*
Importance of water rides 2. 68* NS NS
Willingness to volunteer for shows NS -2 .16 NS
Importance of park image -7.01* -11.46* -4.79*
Reliance on television for info on parks NS -8. 12* -7.1*
Reliance on the Internet for info on parks 3.36* 3.35* 2 .88*
Reliance on print media for info on parks NS -4.31* NS
Preference for self-improvement attractions NS -3.75* -2.78*
Preference for hedonistic attractions NS -2.50* -2.84*
Note: * denotes significance at p = 0.01 NS = not significant
7. There was only one significant difference in
factors motivating repeat attendance between attendees of
different ethnic groups in the United States. However,
there were 4 of 13 significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance between attendees of different
ethnic groups in South Africa.
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Table 32
Summary of the Significant Differences in Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance
among Various Races
Factors Motivating Frequency of AttendanceU.S.
F valueS.A.
F value
Importance of high thrill rides 4 . 55* 0.61
Importance of moderate thrill rides NS 2 .71*
Reliance on direct mail for info on parks NS 2.97*
Reliance on print media for info on parks NS 2.7*
Preference for self-improvement attractions NS 13.41*
Note: * denotes significance at p = 0.01 NS = not significant U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa
8. There were fewer differences between males and
females in factors motivating frequency of attendance at
theme parks in the United States than there were between
males and females in South Africa.
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Table 33
Summary of Results of the Differences in Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance
between Males and Females
U.S. S.A.Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance t value t value
Importance of high thrill rides 2.63* 2.90*
Importance of moderate thrill rides NS -4.20*
Preference for self-improvement attractions NS -2.85*
Note: * denotes significance at p = 0.01 NS = not significant U.S. = United StatesS.A. = South Africa
Conclusions
The conclusions are discussed in the order of the
research questions. Each research question and hypothesis
is restated for the convenience of the reader. A statement
on whether the findings supported the hypothesis follows.
The implications of the findings are discussed
subsequently.
Conclusions, Research Question 1
Q 1 : Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance to experience high thrill
rides between attendees from an individualist culture, the
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United States, and attendees from a collectivist culture,
South Africa?
HI: Attendees from an individualistic culture, the
United States, will have a significantly higher level of
motivation for repeat attendance to experience high thrill
rides than attendees from a collectivist culture, South
Africa.
The findings of the study support this hypothesis and
are consistent with earlier findings by Greenfield et al.
(1999) and Roberts (1994) that individualism is closely
associated with risk taking and thrill seeking. Marketers
of theme park brands should, therefore, place more emphasi
on the number or speed of high thrill rides in the United
States than they would in South Africa.
Conclusions, Research Question 2
Q 2 : Is there a significant difference in the level o
motivation for repeat attendance to experience moderate
thrill rides between attendees from a collectivist culture
South Africa, and attendees from an individualistic
culture, the United States?
H 2 : Attendees from a collectivist culture, South
Africa, will have a significantly higher level of
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motivation for repeat attendance to experience moderate
thrill rides than attendees from an individualistic
culture, the United States.
If individualistic Americans have a higher appetite
for extreme thrill than the more collectivist South
Africans, it is to be expected that the latter would
exhibit a higher appetite for moderate thrill rides than
the former. The finding that attendees from the United
States attached significantly less importance to moderate
thrill rides than attendees from South Africa did was,
therefore, consistent with the arguments advanced by
Roberts (1994) and Greenfield et al. (1999). Marketers of
theme park brands, therefore, should place more emphasis on
the number and variety of moderate thrill rides in South
Africa than they would in the United States.
Conclusions, Research Question 3
Q 3 : Original question reads: Is there a significant
difference in the level of motivation for repeat attendance
to experience water rides between attendees from a low
power distance, high uncertainty avoidance culture, the
United States, and attendees from a high power distance,
high uncertainty avoidance culture, South Africa?
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H3: Attendees from a low power distance, high
uncertainty avoidance culture, the United States, will have
a significantly higher level of motivation for repeat
attendance to experience water rides than attendees from a
high power distance, high uncertainty avoidance culture,
South Africa.
This hypothesis was not supported by the findings of
the study. It is worth noting that at a less rigorous
significance level such as 0.10, this hypothesis would have
been supported. However, it is possible that the assumption
made in the study that an affinity for water sports leads
to a similar affinity for water rides may be the reason
that this hypothesis is not supported by the findings.
Conclusions, Research Question 4
Q 4 : Is there a significant difference in the level of
willingness to volunteer to take part in the execution of
theme shows between attendees from an individualist
culture, the United States, and attendees from a
collectivist culture, South Africa?
H4 : Attendees from an individualist culture, the
United States, will have a significantly higher level of
willingness to volunteer to participate in the execution of
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theme shows than attendees from a collective culture, South
Africa.
This hypothesis was not supported by the findings of
the study. At face value, this finding departs from
Hofstede's (2001) view that individuals from collective
societies are less willing to volunteer for attention-
attracting roles in group situations. A possible
explanation for this is that South African respondents may
view the opportunity to participate in a theme show watched
by their friends as a prestigious or image boosting
opportunity.
Conclusions, Research Question 5
Q 5 : Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance due to the image of a
theme park between attendees from a high power distance
culture, South Africa, and attendees from a low power
distance culture, the United States?
H5: Attendees from a high power distance culture,
South Africa, will have a significantly higher level of
motivation for repeat attendance to theme parks with a
prestigious image than attendees from a lower power
distance culture, the United States.
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The findings of the study supported this hypothesis.
This is consistent with earlier work by De Mooij (2004),
who argued that people in high power distance cultures seek
to demonstrate their position in society by showing that
they have sophisticated tastes, and that such behavior is
evidenced by social-status-reinforcing habits such as
expensive dressing and patronizing prestigious places.
Conclusions, Research Question 6
Q6: Is there a significant difference in the level of
motivation for repeat attendance as a result of having to
wait in line between attendees from a high power distance
culture, South Africa, and attendees from a low power
distance culture, the United States?
H6: Attendees from a high power distance culture,
South Africa, will have a significantly lower level of
motivation for repeat attendance as a result of having to
wait in line than attendees from a lower power distance
culture, the United States.
The study found that there is no significant
difference in the level of motivation for repeat attendance
due to having to wait in line between attendees from the
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United States and attendees from South Africa. This means
that Hypothesis 6 was not supported.
A probable explanation for this finding may be a
result of using "willingness to pay extra money to avoid
waiting in line" as one of attributes to measure the extent
to which attendees disliked waiting in line at rides and
entrance gates. Although respondents in both countries
were drawn from corresponding income groups, the
distribution of these respondents' incomes within the range
was skewed toward the higher end in the United States and
the lower end in South Africa. This may have influenced the
findings, as higher income earners are more likely to be
willing to pay extra to avoid standing in line. Another
factor that should be examined is whether the waiting time
on lines at theme parks in the two markets is similar. It
also should be noted that most American theme parks offer
fast passes, while those in South Africa do not.
Conclusions, Research Question 7
Q 7 : What are the significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the 15-24-year-old age
group compared to older age groups (25-44, 45-59) in both
countries?
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H 7 : There are a fewer significant differences in
factors motivating repeat attendance among 15-24-year-olds
than there are among the older age groups, 25-44- and 45-
59-year-olds, in both countries.
The findings of the study show that this hypothesis
was supported. A closer look at the attendance factors in
which age group differences were reported reveals findings
of interest to marketers. The over-45 age groups in both
countries do not seem to value high thrill rides. With the
exception of the Internet, media habits of the under-25s
appear similar in both countries but clearly different
among older consumers. In South Africa, the older age
groups rely significantly more on traditional media such as
print and television for sources of information on theme
parks than do their counterparts from the United States.
The older age groups in South Africa also showed
significantly more inclination to visit alternative
entertainment attractions to theme parks than did their
American counterparts.
This corroborates previous findings by Hassan and
Blackwell (1994), who argued that the middle classes
teenage and youth markets (13-25) throughout the world are
becoming increasingly similar because of intense exposure
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to western television programming. The finding also
corroborates De Mooij's finding in 2004 that in Japan, the
18-25 age group exhibits very similar consumer behavior
characteristics to Western counterparts. However, once they
enter the job market and move into middle age, they begin
to conform more to typical Japanese behavior and therefore
exhibit more differences in consumer behavior compared to
their contemporaries in the West.
The implications of these findings are that there is
more latitude to standardized theme park attractions and
shows designed for the youth and teenage segments across
markets, while some degree of adaptation may be necessary
for attractions and shows targeted at older age groups.
Marketers also may need to investigate what needs to be
done to enhance the attractiveness of theme parks to the
over-25s in South Africa, as they currently exhibit a
preference for alternative family entertainment
attractions.
Conclusions, Research Questions 8 and 9
Q 8 : What are the significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
South Africa?
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H 8 : There are significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
South Africa.
Q9: What are the significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
the United States?
H9: There are significant differences in factors
motivating repeat attendance among the different races in
the United States.
Both South Africa and the United States are
multicultural societies, and any significant differences in
consumer preferences among the various races would be
useful to marketers. The findings of this study show that
while there was only one significant difference among
different ethnic groups in the United States, there were 4
of 13 significant differences among ethnic groups in South
Africa in terms of factors motivating frequency of
attendance at theme parks. A closer look at the United
States data reveals that the reported higher preference
among Hispanics for high thrill rides can be attributed to
their younger average age (Hispanic attendees had a mean
age of 28 versus 33 for the rest of the United States
respondents) . The lower preference for high thrill rides
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among Blacks can be explained largely by the larger
proportion of females among Black respondents in the study
sample. Hence, Hypothesis 8 was supported, while Hypothesis
9 was not.
A possible reason for this is that in the United
States, the dominant culture is the Anglo Saxon culture of
the majority Caucasian ethnic group. As a result, English
is the common language in the United States, while South
Africa has several official languages representing each
major ethnic group. The distinction between ethnic sub
cultural boundaries, therefore, may be less pronounced in
the United States than in South Africa.
Conclusions, Research Questions 10 and 11
Q10: Is there a significant relationship between
frequency of attendance at theme parks and family income in
South Africa?
H10: There is a positive relationship between
frequency of attendance at theme parks and family income in
South Africa.
Qll: Is there a significant relationship between
frequency of attendance at theme parks and family income in
the United States?
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HI1: There is a positive relationship between
frequency of attendance at theme parks and family income in
the United States.
Hypothesis 10 was supported by the findings of the
study, but Hypothesis 11 was not. A possible reason for
this may be that the United States has a more affluent
population than does South Africa. Many lower middle class
Americans have sufficient disposable income to afford
regular attendance at theme parks, while in South Africa,
only those in the upper middle classes can afford regular
attendance. It also may be possible that Americans have a
larger choice of alternative leisure entertainment venues
than do South Africans.
Family make up may be another explanation for the
findings. This is a possibility because a larger African
family with the same annual household income will have more
members sharing this income than is the case for a smaller
family in the United States. The average (mean) size of the
respondent's household in South Africa was 4.5 members
versus 3.2 members in the United State. One might,
therefore, expect annual household income to be a stronger
predictor of the amount of money available for leisure
consumption in South Africa than in the United States.
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Conclusions, Research Question 12
Q12: What are the significant differences in the level
of influence that different types of advertising media have
on attendance in the United States and South Africa?
H12: There are significant differences in the level of
influence that different types of advertising media have on
attendance in the United States and South Africa.
The findings of the study show that this hypothesis
was supported. Attendees from South Africa showed
significantly more reliance on television and print media
as sources of information on theme parks than did attendees
from the United States, while attendees from the United
States relied significantly more on the Internet as a
source of information on theme parks. This corroborates
previous findings by Chen and Allmon (1998), who found that
consumer perceptions of the media in different cultures
influence the effectiveness of these media. It is
possible, however, that the level of Internet penetration
may have influenced the findings of the study. Nonetheless,
it is important for marketers to take cognizance of these
differences in media habits when making advertising and
promotion decisions for theme park brands in different
countries.
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Conclusions, Research Question 13
Q13: What are the significant differences in the
ratings of alternative attractions to theme parks between
attendees from an individualist, short-term orientation
culture, the United States, and attendees from a
collectivist, long-term orientation culture, South Africa?
H13: Attendees from an individualist, short-term
orientation culture, the United States, are more likely to
favor hedonistic alternative attractions such as arcade
games, water parks, and miniature golf than attendees from
a collectivist, long-term orientation culture, South
Africa.
This hypothesis was not supported by the findings of
the study. This contradicts earlier findings by Li and Wong
(1998), who examined the effects of hedonism and
intellectualism on leisure time consumption in Australia
and Singapore and found that consumers who value hedonism
more than intellectualism are likely to spend more time on
entertainment activities than on self-improvement
activities. Further investigation may be necessary to
determine why this hypothesis was not supported. A possible
contributing factor is the apparently secondary rating of
theme parks as preferred family entertainment attractions
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among South Africans over 25 years of age when presented
with alternative choices.
Conclusions on Other Findings
In both countries, males reported high thrill rides as
a significantly greater motivator to visit a theme park
than did females. Of perhaps greater interest, however, is
the fact that this was the only significant difference in
factors motivating attendance between males and females in
the United States, while in South Africa, there were two
more significant differences. Females reported moderate
thrill rides and self-improvement alternative attractions
(zoos, animal parks, and museums) as significantly more
important than was reported by their male counterparts.
This is a factor worthy of note by marketers.
Further investigation may be necessary to determine
why males and females exhibit a greater number of
differences in factors motivating attendance in South
Africa. It is possible that cultural factors such as the
greater power distance between males and females in South
Africa may be an underlying reason for this observation.
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Recommendations for Further Research
Some of the findings of this study warrant further
investigation. The large number of differences in factors
motivating attendance at theme parks among the different
races and genders in South Africa warrants further
investigation. This would enable theme park managers to
determine what they might need to do to make allowances for
some of these differences.
While the youth and young adults in both countries
displayed similar preferences in factors motivating
attendance, it would be interesting to do a series of
longitudinal studies to determine whether similar
preferences will continue as this age group enters the late
20s and early 30s. This would enable theme park managers to
determine whether a greater degree of standardization may
be possible as today's globalized youth mature.
This study investigated differences in factors
influencing attendance among domestic visitors to theme
parks in South Africa and the United States. A similar
study examining factors influencing attendance among
tourists visiting theme parks in both the United States and
South Africa is recommended, as foreign visitors constitute
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a sizable proportion of theme park attendees in both
countries.
Similar studies can be done regarding other countries
such as China, Brazil, India, South Asia, and Mexico that
are prime target markets for theme parks. Future studies
may include the role of other factors that influence
freguency of attendance, such as annual and seasonal
passes. Preferences for corporate versus indigenous
souvenirs and merchandise sold at theme parks may also be
included in future studies. Finally, cross-cultural
studies on factors motivating attendance for other types of
family entertainment centers can be conducted. Attractions
such as ice rinks, arcade games, and miniature golf are now
opening up in most large cities of the developing world.
Concluding Statement
This study reinforced previous work done on Hofstede's
hypothesis, particularly that by De Mooij (2000, 2004), who
showed that cultural and demographic variables explain most
differences in consumer preferences, particularly when
similar income groups are compared. The study also showed
that marketers of theme park brands in different markets
need to account for cultural differences when designing
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attractions such as high and moderate thrill rides,
selecting media for advertising and promotion purposes, and
positioning the theme park brand in terms of image and
prestige.
The study also showed that marketers can afford to
standardize theme park attractions targeted at the teenage
and youth markets, while some degree of differentiation is
necessary for older consumers. Finally, the study showed
that gender differences in factors motivating attendance at
theme parks are bigger in a high power distance culture
than in a low power distance culture.
These new insights should enable international
marketers of theme park brands to design strategies that
reflect the appropriate balance between standardization and
differentiation of theme park attractions. This will, in
turn, enhance the likelihood of successful entry into new
markets.
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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX A
THEME PARK SURVEY (UNITED STATES)
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Theme Park Survey (United States)
A university in California, U.S.A. is conducting research on cultural influences among theme park visitors in the United States and South Africa in terms of factors motivating frequency of attendance. This questionnaire is to be used in this research. Your answers w ill be held in strict confidence and w ill be used only for academic research. I f you have any questions, please call doctoral researcher John Muriithi at 858 231 2113 or [email protected]
1) How many visits have you made to theme parks in the last 12 months? Please mark only one X
One Two Three Four Five or more
How important are these rides in making your decision to visit a theme park? Please mark only one X in each line
Veryimportant Important
Somewhatimportant
Slightlyimportant
Notimportant
2) High thrill rides(Giant roller coasters & towerdrops)
3) Moderate thrill rides (Small roller coasters and adult merry- go-round rides)
4) Water rides
During a visit to a theme park, what percentage of your time do you allocate to the following types of rides? Please mark only one X in each line
75% or more
Between 50 and 75%
Between 30 and 50%
Between 10 and 30%
Less than 10%
5) High thrill rides(Giant roller coasters, towerdrops)
6) Moderate thrill rides (Small roller coasters, adult merry-go- round rides)
7) Water rides
8) “I prefer to watch theme shows where the audiences are active participants.’ only one X
’ Please mark
Strongly agree Agree Neutral DisagreeStronglyDisagree
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9) During interactive theme shows, if volunteers were needed, are you likely to volunteer to participate? Please mark only one X
Yes No
How important are these attributes in motivating your decision to visit a theme park? Please mark only one X in each line
VeryImportant Important
SomewhatImportant
SlightlyImportant
NotImportant
10) Neatness of the park11) A high standard of service by the staff12) Its scenery is pleasant? (Landscaping and design )13) A competitive ticket price.
“I would be willing to pay a few extra dollars to avoid long lines at the following locations.” Please mark only one X
StronglyAgree Agree Neutral Disagree
StronglyDisagree
14) At the park entrance
15) Inside the park at ride locations
16) What media sources mark only one X in eac
are you likely to use as sources of information about theme parks? Please a line
Most Likely Somewhat Likely Least Likely
a) Radio
b) Direct mail
c) Television
d) Web sites
e) Newspapers
149
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17) How likely are you to visit the following attractions as an alternative to theme parks? Please mark only one X in each line
Very likely LikelySomewhat
LikelySlightlyLikely Not Likely
a) Zoos/animal parks
b) Museums
c) Arcade games
d) Miniature golf
e) Water parks
18) In what range is the total household income of your family? Please mark only one X
Over $75,000 $60,000-75000 $45,000-60,000 $30,000-45000Less than $30,000
19) The number of members living in our household is. Please mark only one X
1 2 3 4 5 6 More than 6
20) What was your age at your last birthday? ________________yrs.
21) What ethnic group do you consider yourself a member of? Please mark only one X
Caucasian HispanicAfrican
American Asian American Other
22) What is your country o f birth? ___________________________________
23) What is your gender? Male Female
Thank you for taking time to fill out this questionnaire
150
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APPENDIX B
THEME PARK SURVEY (SOUTH AFRICA)
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Theme Park Survey (South Africa)
A university in California, U.S.A. is conducting research on cultural influences among theme park visitors in the United States and South Africa in terms of factors motivating frequency of attendance. This questionnaire is to be used in this research. Your answers w ill be held in strict confidence and w ill be used only for academic research. I f you have any questions, please call doctoral researcher John Muriithi at 858 231 2113 or [email protected]
1) How many visits have you made to theme parks in the last 12 months? Please mark only one X
One Two Three Four Five or more
How important are these rides in making your decision to visit a theme park? Please mark only one X in each line
Veryimportant Important
Somewhatimportant
SlightlyImportan
Notimportant
2) High thrill rides(Giant roller coasters & towerdrops)
3) Moderate thrill rides (Small roller coasters and adult merry- go-round rides)
4) Water rides
During a visit to a theme park, what percentage of your time do you allocate to the following types of rides? Please mark only one X in each line
75% or more
Between 50 and 75%
Between 30 and 50%
Between 10 and 30%
Less than 10%
5) High thrill rides(Giant roller coasters, towerdrops)
6) Moderate thrill rides (Small roller coasters, adult merry-go- round rides)
7) Water rides
8) “I prefer to wat only one X
:h theme shows wh<re the audiences are active participants.’’ Please mark
Strongly agree Agree Neutral DisagreeStronglyDisagree
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9) During interactive theme shows, if volunteers were needed, are you likely to volunteer to participate? Please mark only one X
Yes No
How important are these attributes in motivating your decision to visit a theme park? Please mark only one X in each line
VeryImportant Important
SomewhatImportant
SlightlyImportant
NotImportant
10) Neatness of the park
11) A high standard of service by the staff12) Its scenery is pleasant? (Landscaping and design )13) A competitive ticket price.
“I would be willing to pay a few extra dollars to avoid long lines at the following locations.” Please mark only one X
StronglyAgree Agree Neutral Disagree
StronglyDisagree
14) At the park entrance
15) Inside the park at ride locations
16) What media sources mark only one X in eac
are you likely to use as sources of information about theme parks? Please i line
Most likely Somewhat likely Least Likely
a) Radio
b) Direct mail
c) Television
d) Web sites
e) Newspapers
153
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17) How likely are you to visit the following attractions as an alternative to theme parks? Please mark only one X in each line
Very likely LikelySomewhat
LikelySlightlylikely Not likely
a) Zoos/animal parks
b) Museums
c) Arcade games
d) Miniature golf
e) Water parks
18) In what range is the total household income of your family? Please mark only one X
Over Rand 500,000
Rand 300,000- 500,000
Rand 180,000- 300,000
Rand 120,000- 180,000
Less than Rand 120,000
19) The number o f members living in our household is. Please mark only one X
1 2 3 4 5 6 More than 6
20) What was your age at your last birthday? ________________yrs.
21) What ethnic group do you consider yourself a member of? Please mark only one X
Black White Colored Indian Other
22) What is your country of birth? ___________________________________
23. What is your gender? Male Female
Thank you for taking time to fill out this questionnaire
154
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INSTRUCTIONS
APPENDIX C
TO SURVEY ADMINISTRATORS
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Administration of Questionnaires
To the field personnel administering the questionnaires: Please read the following instructions. Thank you for your assistance and cooperation.
If possible, questionnaires should be administered to respondents as they stand in line waiting to enter the theme park, as they are likely to be more attentive than when exiting the park.
Respondents should be approached on a random basis to ensure that the sample is representative with respect to age, gender, and race. Briefly explain the purpose of the survey as indicated at the top of page one. Let the respondents know that the survey should take approximately three minutes to complete.
When each respondent has completed the survey, please check that they have answered all questions.
Question 1 to 15: Respondents should mark one X perquestion.
Question 16: Respondents should mark one X per line,Total number of Xs marked = 5 (five)
Question 17: Respondents should mark one X per line,Total number of Xs = 5 (five)
Questions 18, 19 Respondents should mark one X per and 21: question.
Please return all completed questionnaires to:
John MuriithiCollege of Business Administration and Organization StudiesAlliant International University10455 Pomerado RoadSan Diego, CA 92131-1799
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