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Nanotechnology has been a technology buzzword for the last decade: Its
revolutionary potential is enormous, yet the range of technologies and applications
that are classed as nano can make it hard for the nonexpert to get an
understanding of what nanotechnology is and how it could benefit them. Read on
for a beginner’s guide to nanotechnology:
Getting Started in Nanotechnology
What is Nanotechnology?
Nanotechnology is the catchall term for
technical solutions that rely on structures
that are below 100 nanometers in size
and the special phenomena that arise at
this scale. It also encompasses
technology for imaging, measuring,
modelling and manipulating matter at
this scale.
Why now?
Nanotechnology has risen to
prominence over the last 30 years on
the back of significant developments in
microscopy which have enabled
scientists and technologists to observe
and manipulate things at the
nanoscale.
Why is it so exciting?
Nanomaterials and structures exhibit very different characteristics to larger things
and have unusual properties and functionality as a result. Two phenomena are
responsible for these unusual properties:
• The isolation of quantum effects resulting in changes to optical, magnetic and
electrical properties.
• The presence of disproportionately large surface areas resulting in greater
chemical reactivity and changes to strength, electrical and thermal properties.
Consequently metals can be made transparent, stable materials become catalytic,
materials can become superstrong and insulators can become superconductive
(to give just a few examples).
Jargon Buster
Nano
Nano refers to the nanometre scale. There are 1 billion nanometres (nm) in a
metre, and the average human hair is about 100,000 nm wide. A good way of
conceptualising this scale is provided by the US Government’s National
Nanotechnology Initiative.
Graphene
Graphene is a twodimensional
material (only one atom thick) which
was first isolated in a lab in 2004. It is
over 200 times stronger than steel,
ultra heat and electrically conductive,
virtually transparent, flexible and only
permeable to water. These properties
mean it could be integral to a huge
variety of revolutionary applications.
Graphene was the first 2Dcrystalline
structure identified, but various others
have been proposed by researchers
(e.g. silicone, germanene, stanene,
and phosphorene) which may also
have various superproperties which
would be of particular interest because
they could behave as semiconductors.
Carbon Nano-Tubes (CNTs)
Carbon NanoTubes are tubular
carbonallotrope based materials (in
fact made from rolled graphene) where
the diameter of the tubes is
nanoscale. They were first identified
in 1991. They can be single walled or
multiwalled tubes with varying length
scales. They are extremely strong,
highly electrically conductive (being
either metallic or a semiconductor)
and are very flexible. They also have
unique chemical properties which can
be tuned according to use.
CNTs are already available in bulk
quantities, although it is still not
possible to manufacture tubes of a
highly consistent size which limits their
application.
Various other inorganic nanotubes
have also been identified which have
different enhanced properties.
Nano-particles
Nanoparticles are generally defined
as being particles less than 100nm in
diameter and they exhibit different
properties to larger particles of the
same material. By mixing
nanoparticles into other conventional
bulk materials, new improved
properties can be conferred upon the
bulk material. In this way
nanoparticulates are already in quite
widespread use in various
applications.
Quantum (or nano-) dots
A quantum dot (or nanodot) is a
crystal particle of a semiconductor
material generally only a few
nanometers in diameter which owing
to its tiny scale is strongly influenced
by quantum effects determining its
electrical and optical properties.
These properties could make them
useful for screen, imaging and
anticounterfeiting technologies.
Nanodots and nanoparticles can
assemble into socalled nanowires
which can also confer special
properties to materials.
Some nanotechnology applications and products have been on the market for some
time but the truly revolutionary stuff is still in the future. Some people predict that
nanomaterials such as graphene will unleash a new industrial revolution, but with
many challenges still to overcome before these technologies become mainstream
this revolution is still a long way off.
When will nanotechnology change the world?
First wave
Existing products and applications usually rely on nanocomposites and are first
wave nanotechnology. By mixing nanoparticles into conventional bulk materials
(such as polymers or metals) it is possible to dramatically change the bulk
material’s properties. Sometimes these materials are used as thin coatings. For
example titanium dioxide nanoparticles are routinely put into sunscreen emulsions
to provide a transparent UV barrier. Other widely used nanoparticulates include
nanoclays, metals such as gold and silver as well as the slightly less widely used
quantum dots and Carbon NanoTubes (CNTs). A handful of products have also
been launched which use graphene based particles.
More first wave products are likely to emerge when the quality of nanoparticles
(which act as fillers) can be made more consistently and at a much lower cost than
today.
Second wave
The next generation of nanotechnology applications will see more revolutionary
functionality which will rely on components made directly from nanomaterials
(rather than mixing nanoparticulates or nanotubes into bulk materials). For
example these applications might use sheets of graphene (perhaps bound within
other laminate materials) or organised Carbon NanoTubes bound to a surface or
woven into a yarn or sheet. These components will offer new enhanced properties
and revolutionary applications.
CNTs might be designed to give them specific functionality. For example, other
functionalised molecules (such as drugs) could be encapsulated within or bonded
to the tubes and delivered to highly targeted sites.
Scientists are also predicting the existence of 2dimensional materials other than
graphene. These alternative materials are currently being researched and include
for example; silicone; germanene; stanene and phosphorene. If it is possible to
manufacture these materials consistently and cost effectively they might unlock
more revolutionary applications.
There are many second wave applications being researched in laboratories
around the world, but as yet no commercially available second wave products.
Before second wave products can truly breakthrough, bulk production processes
will need to improve, manufacturing supply chains will need to develop capabilities
to handle and manipulate the new materials and costs will need to align with
market requirements. Significant research and development efforts are being
made to address all these challenges. The proliferation of second wave products
and applications could be the start of the forecast nanotechnology industrial
revolution. Based on current progress it seems likely that this is at least 10 years
away.
Third wave
In the future, a third generation of nanotechnology is forecast which will emerge
based on highly controlled manipulation of materials at the nanoscale. In this
scenario devices might be designed from molecular scale building blocks creating
nanoscale devices. This may be considered an evolution of the emergence of
MEMs (MicroElectromechanical systems) which are miniaturised devices that
feature tiny sensors, valves, gears and actuators integrated into single computer
chips. The new devices will be known as NEMs (NanoElectromechanical
systems). More complex devices are sometimes conceptualised as nanorobots
which might be used in all manner of ways. In a more futuristic scenario
components of or even whole devices might be capable of selfassembly. This
possibility is currently known as Molecular Manufacturing and is a growing field of
research alongside molecular electronics.
The list of potential applications is infinitely long as nanotechnology super materials
might eventually be incorporated into virtually any object or product. Below we
identify some of the existing applications of nanotechnology and show some of the
more exciting potential applications expected to appear in the future.
Applications
Nanoparticles of
Titanium Dioxide are
regularly used in
sunscreen to provide
transparent UV
protection.
Personal Care
Silver nanoparticles are
being used in soaps,
lipsticks and other beauty
products to provide
antibacterial properties.
Toothpastes are on sale in various countries containing a
variety of nanoparticles which confer antibacterial,
whitening and sensitivity reduction benefits.
Moisturisers boasting liposomes are effectively benefiting from
nanoingredients. They are usually used to encapsulate
moisture and to penetrate deeper within skin tissue. Nanogold
is reportedly being used in moisturisers for its alleged
antioxidant and healing properties.
Household Care
Various antibacterial
cleaning products are
emerging which contain
nanoparticles.
Various surface coatings
containing
nanoparticulates and
CNTs give products
water repellancy and
selfcleaning properties.
Antimicrobial coatings
featuring silver
nanoparticles are already in
use on food contact
surfaces such as chopping
boards.
Food & Nutrition
Nanoparticles are starting to be used in various plastic food packaging
materials to extend product life by improving barrier and antimicrobial
properties.
In future, simple low cost nanosensors will be used to monitor
exposure conditions (temperature and humidity) and detect when food
is rotten.
Nanoadditives are already
being used in various
products to improve
emulsification and as
flavour enhancers.
In future
nanoingredients
might provide healthy
replacements to
traditional
ingredients.
Researchers propose that
in future
nanoencapsulation of
nutrients and additives
might improve biological
takeup within the body.
Advanced Materials
Nanocomposites (based on particles and fibres) are already being
used to coat materials to give them water or dirtrepellancy and
flame or chemical retardency and antibacterial properties. In the
future more sophisticated materials should facilitate other smart
fabrics.
Ultrastrong, lightweight components made
from nanocomposites are already appearing
in vehicles and aircraft (in polymers, steels
and glass) and as second wave materials
become commercially viable, we can expect
to see more and more components made
from nanomaterials.
Low energy water purification: Various nanocomposites and
nanomaterials make particularly effective water purification membranes
(e.g. graphene is only permeable to water) suggesting there will be many
novel water purification technologies and new desalination systems.
Environmental Protection
Functionalised nanoparticles and materials can be tuned to attract specific
compounds and might be used for environmental remediation for example
mopping up oil and other pollutant spills.
Various nanomaterials
might be used to capture
carbon and pollution.
The same types of devices could also be used for air purification and
pollution capture.
Themoelectric
nanomaterials might
faciliate waste heat
regeneration in industrial
processes.
Buildings & Construction
Nanoparticulates are already widely used in paints and surface coatings
to provide selfcleaning and biocidal properties. As costs come down,
and more sophisticated nanomaterials become commercially viable
more widespread use in construction materials is expected for improved
strength, crack resistance, and durability and to confer selfhealing and
insulation properties. It should also be possible to reduce the amount of
raw material required for a given application and reduce energy required
for production.
Researchers have demonstrated that various nanomaterials (e.g. CNTs,
nanodots and graphene) could improve the performance of solar cells in a
variety of ways. For example by improved electrode conductivity,
transparent electrode designs in polymer cells, trapping more sunlight and
as photoelectric materials.
Energy Systems
CNTs are already being used on a limited scale to
enable faster charging and improved battery life.
It is forecast that using nanomaterials and
composites in batteries could deliver breathroughs in
size, weight and performance to enable the widescale
take up of electric cars and dramatically improve
battery performance in general.
Nanomaterials could be used to make fuel cells more viable by improving
electrode and membrane performance, making containing walls more
gastight, storing hydrogen and improving catalysts used for fuel production.
Electronics
CNTs are already being used to increase the energy storage capacity of
capacitors. Further improvements are predicted as nanomaterials mature.
Nanomaterials are expected to be widely used in screen technology. CNTs
are already being used within ultrathin, low power OLED displays, but a
whole new class of displays known as Field Emission Displays could be the
future for large area, high definition, low cost screens. They capitalise on the
photoluminescent properties of CNTs. Nanomaterials could also replace
INT currently used as the transparent electrodes for touch screens.
Nanoparticulates are already
used to reduce the size and
improve the performance of
various computer chips and
components. In future a variety of
nanomaterials will yield yet more
improvements facilitating
extremely small, high power
devices.
Nanowires and
materials are being
demonstrated as part of
thin, flexible electronic
components.
Nanoscale barcodes can be printed on bank notes (and other items) to
create a covert authentication mark.
Anti-Counterfeit Solutions
Nano fingerprinting is already possible by creating unique markers
using nanoparticulate based coatings.
Individual RFID tags have nanoscale variations which could be
detected and identified during data reading tasks.
Laser surface authentication allows objects/materials to be
recognised by scanning their unique nanosurface structures.
Sensors
Various nanomaterials change their properties in the presence of very small
quantities of other molecules. This, combined with nanoinnovation in
electronics, should lead to a profusion of small, lowcost, ultrasensitive
sensors tuned to detect all manner of different substances.
In the future, specialised drugs could be encapsulated or attached to
nanocarriers which are designed to travel to specifically targeted cells and
are unloaded by a controlled trigger.
Medical Technology
Nanosctructured scaffolds show promise for better and faster bone
and tissue regeneration.
Extremely small and highly sensitive sensors based on many different
functionalised nanoparticles could be tuned to respond to the presence
of specific biomolecules as part of smallscale diagnostic devices used
in surgeries or even within the body.
Nano-robots (NEMS)
High resolution imaging should be possible by deploying highly
targeted nanocompounds to act as tracers within the body.
Much further in the future, ultra small robotic devices which might
selfassemble or be made from ultra small components could be
used in a huge variety of ways which would need to be carefully
controlled from an ethical standpoint. For example, invivo medical
robots might be a good thing but similar robots deployed as part of
biological warfare could be extremely problematic.
At the current time the major barriers to uptake of nanotechnology are an absence
of manufacturing capability and prohibitively high costs. Some nanomaterials such
as Carbon NanoTubes are available in bulk already, but they remain expensive
and more research and development is required to develop capabilities for
manufacturingscale manipulation to make the most of their potential in realworld
products. Furthermore, manufacturers still find it difficult to control the quality of
CNTs which also restricts their application. Meanwhile no costeffective industrial
scale graphene production method has yet been implemented.
A further barrier is the safety risks inherent in handling the materials. This could
further limit the emergence of nanoapplications and products. The mobility and
reactivity of nanomaterials means their free release into the environment or
people’s bodies can be extremely hazardous. Regulations and protocols to mitigate
these risks will be needed.
Barriers to adoption of nanotechnology
Here are a few websites which provide easily accessible further reading:
http://www.nano.gov
http://www.nanowerk.com
http://www.understandingnano.com/introduction.html
More in depth information from these publications:
http://www.azonano.com
ACS Nano (journal)
Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (journal)
Nanotechnology (journal)
Nano Letters (journal)
Further reading
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