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An Introduction to the Major World Religions of India
(A twelve-week outline of a prospective course on Major World Religions of India)
Robert R. Wadholm
Week One: Introducing the Topic
I. Introduction
A. The text that will be utilized in this twelve week teaching module on world
religions is Lewis M. Hopfe and Mark R. Woodwards (2005)Religions of the
World, 9th
Ed.: Media and Research Update.
1. It includes the history of each major world religion, its founders and
central contributors, sample texts from the religions, spotlights on the
present state of each religion, and major doctrines, divisions, and holy
days of each major world religion.
2. Hopfe and Woodward include several religions that are not covered in
other introductory texts on religion (Fisher 1999; Hume 1959). The text is
very basic and general in its analyses (making it ideal for use in an
introductory course) .
3. The textbook comes with additional digital research material provided
online and in CD-ROM format, and includes color and black and white
pictures of rituals, statues, buildings, and sacred texts of many of the
world religions.
4. The textbook contains short excerpts of primary sources on major world
religions, including sacred scriptures, stories, myths, and creeds.
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5. The text is not written from a single religious perspective, but instead
offers an objective approach to each religion, recognizing each religions
contributions within its own contexts.
B. The major world religions of India that will be introduced are: Basic Religions,
Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism.
1. Islam has not been included in our discussion of Indian religions
because although it is a major force in Indian religion today, it is usually
classified with other religions that arose in the Middle East (i.e. Judaism,
Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Bahai).
2. Buddhism is no longer a strong force in modern Indian religion, but it
originated in India and retains many distinctive Indian traits (at one time in
its history it dominated Indian religion and nearly forced Vedic and
Upanishadic Hinduism into nonexistence).
3. Basic religions, while they are not unique to India, do appear to have
arisen and have been developed all over the world throughout the several
millennia of human history, and they existed in India prior to the other
major world religions and greatly influenced these later religions.
a) In many cases basic religions have been extensively syncretized
with the later religions. Basic religions continue to influence the
beliefs and practices of the other major world religions of India.
b) Very little objective historical information exists concerning the
development of basic religions in India, however, so we will
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limit our discussion of basic religions to the presentation of a few
general characteristics and the value of the basic religions of India.
C. Each of the five major world religions of India will be analyzed separately.
1. Each religions basic background will be explored.
2. Each religions central doctrines will be examined.
3. Each religions values will be assessed.
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Week 2: Introducing the Topic (Continued)
D. Discuss the meaning of the term Major World Religions of India.
1. Major refers both to the number of adherents and to the impact of the
religion on the present world scene.
2. World refers to the global impact or universal scope of the religion.
3. Religion is a notoriously hard-to-define word (Tillich 1969).
a) It refers to a commonly held set of beliefs concerning ultimate
reality (metaphysics, god, life after death, etc.), ultimate values,
and the ultimate concerns of societies.
b) It refers to a system of ethics, myths, rituals, scriptures,
and doctrines of the afterlife that have been adhered to by large
groups of people (Hopfe and Woodward 2005).
c) It refers to human action in relationship to the supernatural.
d) It refers to a mystical and subjective feeling of worship and
union with the Ultimate (Hall, Pilgrim, and Cavanagh 1985).
4. Of India refers to the Indian origination of the religions that will be
explored.
E. Discuss why it is important to understand the major world religions.
1. In order to communicate with people, we need to understand where they
come from (e.g. their worldviews, first languages, cultures, and religions).
2. Understanding peoples beliefs concerning ultimate reality helps us
understand better why the world is the way it is.
a) Discuss the importance of religion to politics.
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b) Discuss the importance of religion to technology, science, and
economics.
c) Discuss the importance of religion to media, art, economics, and
ecology.
3. Understanding the major world religions allows meaningful dialogue to
occur between adherents of different religions (in an exclusivist context,
dialogue is necessary before an effective apologetic can be constructed).
F. Discuss why it is important to understand the major world religions of India.
1. India has nearly a billion people in it.
2. India is increasingly important in the world political and economic
scenes.
3. India is a hotbed for religious synthesis and formation.
4. Western religious life is increasingly saturated with practices and
beliefs of Indian religions (e.g. yogic practices, mystical monism, and
pantheism).
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Week Three: Basic Religions
II. Basic Religions
A. Discuss the background of basic religions.
1. Basic religions represent the majority of the total religious experience
of humankind (Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 14). Basic religions have
taken on many forms throughout history.
2. There are two primary sources of basic religions.
a. Contemporary basic religions can be examined for common
characteristics. Also, various aspects of basic religions that have
been syncretized into the major world religions of India may be
identified and assessed.
b. The findings of archaeology may also be assessed in order to
understand characteristics of prehistoric religions, and religions
that are now nonexistent.
3. Little is known about the early basic religions of India (Hopfe and
Woodward 2005, 73). However, from archaeological evidence it may be
argued that the pre-Aryan inhabitants of India had already formed a
complex civilization by 2500 B.C.E. Amulets, idols, prayer, meditation,
sacrifices, and devotion to fertility gods and goddesses seem to have
characterized these early forms of Indian religion (75).
4. It is important to understand the general characteristics, strengths, and
weaknesses of basic religions in order to appreciate the uniqueness of the
other major world religions of India and to valuate aspects that have been
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borrowed from basic religious belief and practice by the other major world
religions of India.
B. Define and discuss several general characteristics of basic religions (1928).
1.Animism is the belief that nature is alive with spirits that have feelings
and can be communicated with (19).
2.Magic is the belief that formulas, dancing, incantations, and imitation
can be used by humans to manipulate the spiritual and physical world.
3.Divination is the belief that humans can obtain knowledge of the future
through various means.
4. Taboo is the belief that certain actions have negative impacts on society
and that certain holy persons, places, and objects must be left alone by
common people (23).
5. Sacrifice is the offering of material objects to some entity in the
spiritual world. Animals, man-made items, agricultural items, and even
other humans have been used as sacrifices. Sometimes sacrifices are
destroyed or killed, while at other times sacrifices are viewed as gifts.
6.Myths are stories about the dealings of the gods with humans (25).
7.Idolatry is the use of images in the worship of supernatural entities.
Usually the idol is made to look like (or represent) a holy person, animal,
or god. Shrines and monuments are also used to venerate gods, holy
places, sacred objects, holy people, and ancestors. Ancestor veneration
continues to play a vital role in the religious life of Asia.
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8. Syncretism (e.g., with Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and other basic
religions) has affected many (if not all) of the worlds basic religions.
C. Discuss the value of basic religions.
1. Assess the strengths of basic religions.
a) They have a long history.
b) They often embrace every part of a peoples culture.
c) They help to explain the origin and nature of the material world.
2. Assess the weaknesses of traditional religions.
a) They are so numerous, varied, and subjective that it is
impossible to pin down specific common beliefs and rituals (so
that we cannot consider any of them to be a major world religion).
b) They are pre-scientific or anti-scientific.
c) They often feed on personal fears, lust for power, or feelings of
powerlessness.
d) They lack any absolute moral standards and often fail to provide
any bases for intrinsic ethical formulation.
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Week Four: Hinduism
III. Hinduism
A. Discuss the background of Hinduism.
1. Hinduism has gone through six major periods of development.
a) Early Vedic Hinduism, characterized by ritual worship of the
gods.
b) Late Vedic Hinduism, characterized by fire sacrifices.
c) Upanishadic Hinduism, characterized by philosophical inquiry
and development.
d) Legalistic Hinduism, characterized by the codification of
various laws for ethical and religious life.
e) Brahmanical Hinduism, characterized by pragmatic forms of
worship.
f) Modern Hinduism, characterized by revivals of older forms of
Hinduism and a new focus on Hinduisms universalism.
2. The history of Early Vedic Hinduism is intimately tied to the coming of
the Aryans (an Indo-European group of immigrants and conquerors from
northern Iran) to India from 1750 to 1200 B.C.E. (Hopfe and Woodward
2005, 76).
a) The Aryans developed a basic caste system.
b) They developed a religion based on sacrifice and worship.
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c) They borrowed extensively from early Aryan religion and mixed
in indigenous Indian elements (from the basic religions that existed
there before their arrival).
d) They composed and collected hymns (Vedas) praising their
deities and setting forth proper rules for ritual sacrifices.
1) The earliest of the veda (body of knowledge)
collections was theRig Veda (the body of knowledge
concerning verses of praise) (Hopkins 1971, 11).
2) The Vedas worshiped gods called devas. The most
important deva was Varunna, who guarded cosmic order,
ruled by righteousness, and who was the standard for
cosmic, moral, and liturgical order (12). Other important
deities were Vishnu (who later grew to a more prominent
position in Hindu theology), Indra the thunder god, Rundra
the god of healing and destruction, and Indra the
atmospheric god of war (1214).
3) Fire sacrifice dominated the rituals of Vedic Hinduism.
Priests performed rites and composed and sang the Vedas.
Wealthy patrons often supported their own priests (1415).
3. In the late Vedic period (between the 10th
and 7th
centuries B.C.E.), the
fire sacrifice became all-important in Hindu worship, and this marked a
decline in the importance of most of the major Vedic gods in favor of
rituals and the more popular gods specifically associated with the
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performance of sacrifices (especially the god of fire) (Hopkins 1971, 17).
This period saw the composition of the Brahamanas, religious documents
composed by Hindu priests that dealt with sacrifices (Hume 1959, 24).
a) Consequently, magic found a greater role in sacrifice (Hopkins
1971, 27).
b) A deterministic view of nature developed.
c) Knowledge was all-important in unlocking the power of rituals
(31).
d) Creation was thought to exist and be sustained by sacrifice.
Humans (through priests) fulfilled a vital role and obtained
immortality in the afterlife through the performance of proper
rituals (34).
e) Later, fear arose that even this state (of immortality in paradise)
was not free from death, due to the finite nature of the rituals
performed (34).
f) The concept of redeath arose, and the cyclical view of time
was developed): A new understanding of man was needed (34).
(34). The Upanishads (a collection of the teachings of late ancient
Vedic Hindu philosopher-priests) were composed in this
inquisitive context.
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Week Five: Hinduism (Continued)
4. During the transitional Upanishadic period, it was reasoned that the
ritual sacrifices were the universe. Brahman (the Ultimate Supreme Being)
sustains the power of the sacrifices, and thus sustains the universe
(Hopkins 1971, 38). The self (atman) of humans are to be identified with
the Brahman (39).
a) If humans can know themselves as the Brahman, they can be
complete in themselves, self-existent, wise, and immortal (38;
Atharva Veda 10.8.44).
b) The Upanishads established several new (or newly synthesized)
doctrines.
1) Self is essentially free of the body.
2) It is desire that leads to birth and rebirth.
3) The elimination of desire eliminates rebirth.
4) The means of eliminating desire (and rebirth) is
knowledge: knowledge that the self and Brahman are one
(Hopkins 1971, 4042). Read the Katha Upanishad, part 6
(trans. Mascaro 1965, 6566).
5) Knowledge that is true knowledge will transform the
behavior and mindset of an individual (i.e. it is not merely
theoretical knowledge that is necessary) (48;
Brihadaranyaka 4.4.2428).
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6) Release from samsara (passage, the transient and
cyclical karma-produced nature of the universe) became
the central goal.
c) The shift in ideology from Vedic to Upanishadic Hinduism led
to some amount of despair among the common people in the 6th
century B.C.E.
1) Upanishadic wisdom generally was above the ability of
the common people to follow. Read and discuss the
Mundaka Upanishad, part three, chapter one (Mascaro
1965, 8081).
2) New ways of thinking and acting within the general
Hindu worldview were sought in this time of change, and
this resulted in the creation of two new world religions
(Buddhism and Jainism) (Hopkins 1971, 5051).
d) Major political and social changes from the 4 th to 3rd centuries
B.C.E. (most significantly the rule of Candragupta Maurya and his
descendants) gave rise to the popularity and the increasingly
missionary nature of Jainism and Buddhism, and the near
abandonment of Vedic and Upanishadic Hinduism (5859).
5. From 300 B.C.E. to 300 C.E. the religious legalism of Indian culture
and early Vedic Hinduism was codified in The Law of Manu. The
codification of rules for society and religion arose from a renewed
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emphasis on law in Hinduism. This period has thus been called the period
of legalistic Hinduism (Hume 1959, 28).
a) The Law of Manu stressed the importance and religious
significance of the caste system, and codified a clear-cut dharma
for each caste.
1) In legalistic Hinduism, dharma referred to rules
that support or maintain a proper society (Hopfe and
Woodward 2005, 85).
2) One new development ofThe Law of Manu was its
delineation of the four stages of the life of an upper-caste
man. Men were expected to be youthful students, married
householders, retired hermits, and then religious
mendicants (Hume 1959, 29).
b) In addition to codifying rules for social behavior in Indian
society, legalistic Hinduism emphasized the superiority of men
over women (Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 8687), even to the
point of allowing wife-beating within certain limits (The Law of
Manu 8:299300; Hume 1959, 29).
c) The moral aims of the era are summed up in the following ten
characteristics: pleasantness, patience, control of the mind, non-
stealing, purity, control of the senses, intelligence, knowledge,
truthfulness, and non-irritability (Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 87;
The Law of Manu 6:92).
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6. In the early centuries of the 1st
millennium A.D., Hindus began to
develop further the practical method ofyoga (religious meditation and
action) in response to the more pragmatic and popular nature of non-vedic
movements in India (mainly Jainism and Buddhism), and the importance
of theism reemerged (Hopkins 1971, 64). This new, more popular form of
Hinduism became identified as Brahmanical Hinduism.
a) Several general characteristics of Brahmanical Hinduism were
image worship, mantras, and the internalization and the
individualization of religion.
b) A synthesis was arrived at which brought together certain
ancient Hindu doctrines (worship of the gods, introspective
meditation, reincarnation, karma, etc.) with the pragmatism of the
non-vedic Indian religions.
c) The syllable om became the centerpiece of meditationthe
sound essence of the Vedic sacrificeand the image worship of
the gods became the visual essence of worship (73).
d) TheBhagavad Gita was composed in this context (Hopfe and
Woodward 2005, 9092).
e) The revival of Hindu theism in the form of Brahmanical
Hinduism brought with it greater focus on the gods Sira and
Vishnu than had previously been given in Vedic Hinduism. Other
popular gods were worshiped as well. Images of the gods were
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seen as divine power made manifest in form (Hopkins 1971,
113).
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Week Six: Hinduism (Continued)
7. Five main forms of modern Hinduism have developed over the last
millennium. The fifth form is the most modern of the five.
a) Brahmanical Hinduism focuses on intellectualism and
pragmatism.
b) Various devotional and Vedic theistic sects focus on reviving
ancient rites, mysticism, and asceticism.
c) Popular devotionalism focuses on individualistic forms of
worship and belief, and on the mystical experiences of poet-saints
(Hopkins 1971, 119).
d) Tantric systems focus on the worship of the goddess Devi in her
many forms (often with corresponding sex rites) (119130).
e) Modern universalistic Hinduism focuses on the synthesis of
various aspects of Indian religions into a monolithic structure
called Hinduism. It is modern universalistic Hinduism that is
responsible for Hinduisms status as a major world religion
(instead of being seen as a diverse set of major Indian religions).
1) The rise of a Hindu Renaissance was closely tied to
the growing Indian nationalism of the past two centuries.
2) This Hindu revivalism is an attempt to universalize
Hinduism, and bring many different Indian religious
traditions under one banner. Rituals and idolatry are at a
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popular level, and above that we find the ethical spirituality
of the Upanishads and Gita (Flood 1996, 250).
3) Several important features of the modern revival of
Hinduism are an emphasis on reason to establish the truth
of the Veda; the rejection of icon worship, regarded as
idolatry; the rejection of caste (or some elements of it),
child-marriage and the practice of widow-burning (sati);
the construction of Hinduism as an ethical spirituality,
equal, or superior, to Christianity and Islam (250251).
4) Two major proponents of modern universalistic
Hinduism were the Hindu mystic Paramahamsa
Ramakrishna, and his disciple Vivekananda.
i. Ramakrishna taught that all religions are
different paths to the One . . . . Different religions
cannot express the totality of this One, but each
manifests an aspect of it (256257).
ii. Vivekananda was probably the first person to
clearly articulate the idea of Hinduism as a world
religion, alongside Christianity, Islam, Judaism
and Buddhism (258259). Vivekananda emphasized
Hinduisms pluralism, rejected Christianitys
exclusivism (258), and asserted that Buddhism was
the fulfillment, the logical conclusion, and the
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logical development of the religion of the Hindus
(Walker 1968a, 186).
B. Discuss the major doctrines of Hinduism.
1. Early Aryan Vedic Hinduism (Hinduism that found expression in the
ancient Vedic hymn collections) centered on gods called devas (Hopkins
1971, 11). The three realms of divine activity were the sky, the
atmosphere, and the earth (11). The powers of nature controlled the lives
of humans, and devas controlled the powers of nature.
2. Late Vedic Hinduism developed the idea ofsamsara. Samsara is the
cycle of birth, death, and rebirth of humans and the universe. Rebirth in
good or bad conditions depends on previous actions (in prior lives) in a
cyclical cause and effect relationship (Hopkins 1971, 44; Chandogya
5.10.7). Samsara and reincarnation are key themes in all the major world
religions originating in India.
a. The belief in reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul are
by no means an exclusively Eastern idea. Walker (1968a) and
Bouquet (1948) suggest that the doctrine of divine reincarnation
in human form originated somewhere outside India, perhaps in the
northwest of Iran, and became diffused eastward and westward
from this area (72).
b. In Platos Phaedo (set at the end of the 4th century B.C.E.),
Socrates refers to the ideas of reincarnation and transmigration as
an ancient doctrine (trans. Jowett 1992, 67). In Greek thought
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reincarnation is referred to as metempsychosis, and finds as its
proof the idea of recollection (6873). In Socrates schema, as in
Hinduism, reincarnation is dependant upon a cyclical view of time
(7073).
c. The Greeks and Aryans probably share a common ancestry in
the Indo-European tribes of Eastern Europe in the 2nd
millennium
B.C.E. (Hopkins 1971, 10).
d. The Aryans that left Iran and in the end settled in India
composed the Veda, while the Aryans that stayed in Iran
eventually composed a series of hymns entitled Gathas. By the
time of Zoroaster (the traditional founder of the major world
religion Zoroastrianism that began in Iran in 14001000 B.C.E.),
the idea of the transmigration of the soul based on a cyclical view
of time had already been established as a doctrine in Iranian Aryan
religion and was further developed by Zoroaster (Hopfe and
Woodward 2005, 222224).
e. Plato and other Greek philosophers had a strong affinity for
Zoroastrianism (223).
f. Zoroasters religion came to India (in Zoroasters own lifetime)
about the same time that the idea of reincarnation entered into
late Vedic thought (224).
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g. The idea that a similar formulation of reincarnation based on a
cyclical view of time would arise independently in three different
cultures in the ancient world is highly improbable.
h. The two most probable scenarios for the creation and spread of
the cyclical view of time, reincarnation, and transmigration in the
ancient world are:
1) The ideas were developed by early Indo-Europeans in
northern Iran in the 2nd century.
2) The ideas were developed by Iranian Aryans and spread
with the Zoroastrian religion both East to India and West to
Greece.
i. The later of the two scenarios seems the most reasonable
because early Aryan Vedic Hinduism had no known traces of the
ideas of reincarnation or a cyclical view of time.
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Week Seven: Hinduism (Continued)
3. Karma is based on the premise that the whole world order rests on
rigid principles dominated by the immutable law of cause of effect
(Walker 1968a, 529). Karma is the sum total of a persons willed
thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions, from this and past lives, and makes
up the chain of his existence (530). A person is punished by his or her
sins, not for them (530).
4.Dharma is right conduct, teaching and order.Dharma is related to
karma and the caste system. It is only within the caste framework that the
obligations ofdharma may be best observed (275), and nowhere is this
idea more clearly portrayed than in the The Law of Manu.
a. Read The Law of Manu 1:8891 (qtd. in Hopfe and Woodward
2005, 85).
b. Discuss how a persons dharma affects their karma and vice
versa, then read The Law of Manu 12:9 (qtd. in Hopfe and
Woodward 2005, 86).
5. Brahmanical Hinduism refined the idea and practice ofyoga (while
yoga existed in earlier forms of Hinduism, it never enjoyed as much
prominence as it does in Brahmanical Hinduism). Yoga is a form of
mental and physical disciplines and ascetic practices (Walker 1968b, 616).
Yoga is ultimately a practical method to obtain salvation from samsara.
There are various forms ofyoga, each of which includes several steps.
a. Karma yoga is salvation through works.
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b.Bhakti yoga is salvation through faith.
c.Jnana yoga is salvation through knowledge.
d.Mantra yoga is salvation through the use of mantras and spells.
e.Laya yoga is salvation through the activation of spiritual centers
in the body.
f.Hatha yoga is salvation through ritual action.
g.Raja yoga is salvation through spiritual ritual action (617).
6.Bhakti is faith, attachment, or devotion to a god which procures divine
favor and salvation (Walker 1968a, 138). Personal gods are worshipped,
and religious individualism is embraced.
7.Maya is the doctrine (explored in depth in the BrahmanicalBhagavad
Gita) that proclaims the illusory nature of the whole manifold world of
nature (135).Maya is similar to Western philosophical monism, which
denies the reality of all particulars in the phenoumenal world and affirms
the ultimate unity of all reality (Joad 1965, 97). Discuss some implications
of this idea, and read theBhagavad Gita chapter 2, verses 1124 (trans.
Mascaro 1962).
C. Discuss the value of Hinduism.
1. Assess the strengths of Hinduism.
a. There is a strong sense of social solidarity.
b. It forms the basis of an ethical system that encourages personal
responsibility for actions done.
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c. Religion often permeates the lives of its followers (Hume 1959,
41).
d. Some forms of Hinduism emphasize the importance of faith and
grace in receiving salvation.
e. It represents a wide variety of religious concepts and practices
borrowed from diverse backgrounds (i.e. it is a powerful
synthesis).
2. Assess the weaknesses of Hinduism.
a. The wide variety of forms are disparate and at times
contradictory in presuppositions and conclusions.
b. It is questionable whether Hinduism can even be viewed as one
continuous, monolithic religious development. It could be argued
that it is not a single religion.
c. The caste system (an important aspect of most of the earlier
forms of Hinduism) is divisive and fatalistic.
d. In popular practice is often no more that pantheistic idolatry.
e. Adherents can never know if they have achieved freedom from
samsara.
f. The Supreme Being is impersonal, and is a mere philosophical
absolute (Hume 1959, 39). The gods, while personal and
sometimes helpful to humans, in no way represent moral ideals.
g. It generally takes a low view of women and poor people, and
often ignores practical actions of charity, personal forgiveness, and
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community building. Discuss whether or not Hinduism can form
the basis of a just and equitable society.
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Week Eight: Jainism
IV. Jainism
A. Discuss the background of Jainism.
1. The origins of Jainism are difficult to determine . . . although
Nataputta Vardhamana, who became known to his followers as Mahavira
(great hero), has traditionally been identified as its founder (Hopfe and
Woodward 2005, 116).
2. Legends are the only remaining sources of information about
Mahaviras life. He was probably a contemporary of Gautama (Buddha),
Confucius, Lao-tzu (the traditional founder of Taoism), and the Jewish
prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel (116).
a) Mahavira was born to a wealthy family. He was unhappy and
left his luxury to become a wandering ascetic. Mahavira developed
an extremely severe form of asceticism, which included ahimsa
(non-injury to life) (117).
b) Mahavira developed five vows that Jain monks must follow to
achieve release from reincarnation.
1)Ahimsa (an extreme form of care for all life).
Discuss the traditional clothing of Jains during travel (118).
2) Truthfulness (although for the Jain, truth is relative).
Tell the Jain story of the blind men and the elephant (120).
3) Integrity. Honesty and propriety reach into every part of
a persons life. There should be no stealing or taking what
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is not given to you, for property and objects are not worth
evil actions to obtain.
4) Sexual chastity (all pleasures of the flesh are evil). Some
Jains not only renounce sex, but also regard women in
general as a temptation to sin (120).
5) Disattachment from family, possessions, and homes.
Absolute self-enforced poverty is the ideal.
3. Buddhism and Jainism were probably both developed in India at about
the same time (the sixth century B.C.E.). Both religions protested against
traditional Vedic Hinduism and the caste system, but retained many
elements of Hindu thought and religious action.
B. Discuss the central doctrines of Jainism.
1. Humans are born, live, die, and are reborn (reincarnation).
2. In Jainism, karma is built up in an individual as the result of activity
ofany sort (emphasis mine) (118). Discuss the differences ofkarma in
Hinduism and Jainism, and explore ramifications of the Jain idea.
3.Ahimsa (non-injury to life) requires constant attention to all forms of
life (from large animals to tiny bugs). Subsequently, most Jains avoid
agricultural work or even occupations of any kind (to avoid harming
living things) (119). Is this a logically sustainable position?
4. The focus onpersonal ethical purity brings to the forefront the
self-saving nature of Jainism (19). Read the Jain parable of the man in the
well (123124).
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5. The ideal ofdisattachmentfrom worldly life derives from Jainisms
philosophical duality (the soul is living, eternal, and valuable, while the
entire material universe is lifeless and evil) (118). Action and attachment
are the causes of rebirth.
6.Moksha (release from the cycles of life, death and rebirth) is a true
liberation of the soul from matter. It is attained by faithfully following the
five vows of the Jain monk.
C. Discuss the value of Jainism.
1. Assess the strengths of Jainism.
a) It regards all life as valuable.
b) It is centered on ethical action (or inaction).
c) It is mostly consistent in its dualism.
2. Assess the weaknesses of Jainism.
a) It denies the positive value of the material world.
b) Salvation is essentially self-centered.
c) A culture could not survive if it was made up entirely
of ideal Jains (because there would be no sex and little agricultural
work or work of any kind).
d) It has a low view of women and families (Hume 1959, 60).
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Week Nine: Buddhism
V. Buddhism
A. Discuss the background of Buddhism.
1. Buddha was probably born on the borderlands of modern-day Nepal and
Northern India in the sixth century B.C.E. with the name of Guatama
Siddartha (he who fulfills his purpose) of the Shakya clan (Mishra 2004,
95).
a. Legends surrounding Siddarthas life (written nearly four
hundred years after his death) reveal that he was the son of a
Kshatriya raja (an Indian ruler), and that his mother, Maya, died
when he was seven days old (Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 127;
Mishra 2004, 98).
b. Before Siddartha was born, it was predicted that when he grew
older he would either become a great king or a great teacher and
monk.
1) Siddarthas parents were told that if he saw four sights (a
dead person, an old person, an ill person, and an ascetic
monk) he would become a great teacher and monk.
2) Wanting better things for their son, Siddarthas father
attempted to keep his son secluded from the four sights by
surrounding him with only young, beautiful, healthy
people.
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3) His fathers plan failed when Siddartha left his fathers
palace one day and saw each of the four sights. After this,
Siddartha left his home and family behind (by this time,
Siddartha already had a wife and child) and became an
ascetic monk (Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 128).
c. After several years of self-mortification, starving, and solitary
meditation, Siddartha realized that he could find no satisfaction in
this way of life.
d. Siddartha sat for many days and meditated beneath a fig (bodhi)
tree in a hopeless state, when suddenly Siddartha found
enlightenment.
e. From that moment on, he was the Buddha, and his teachings on
enlightenment and suffering found a foothold in India (129130).
f. After teaching for forty-five years, Buddha reached the end of
his life in this world. Buddhas final words (according to tradition)
were: Subject to decay are all component things. Strive earnestly
to work out your own salvation (131).
2. Ultimately, Buddha (and his followers after him) sought liberation from
samsara (wandering).
a. Buddha taught that everyone is afraid of danger and death, and
everyone counts life dear (Dhammapada, vv. 129130). The mind
struggles to free itself from death like a fish striving for water
when thrown on dry land (v. 34).
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b. The key to escape from death (and consequently samsara) is
enlightenment to the unreality of the world. When a man
considers this world as a bubble of froth, and as the illusion of an
appearance, then the King of death has no power over him (v.
170).
c. If people can free themselves from desires, they will find
enlightenment, and rise above good and evil, dispelling all fear (v.
39). Infinite freedom is found when a person has no cravings or
desires for this world or for another world (v. 410).
3. Buddha claimed that he had brought his own mortal mind to the joy of
the immortal Nirvana through enlightenment (vv. 153154). He sought to
bring others to this same enlightenment through his teachings. His
teachings centered on escape from suffering and samsara.
a. Buddhists seek refuge from suffering in the three jewels,
which are the Buddha, the dharma (the teachings of Buddha), and
the sangha (the Buddhist community) (Lopez 2004, 556). A
traditional Buddhist conversion formula (to indicate adherence to
the religion) is: I take refuge in the Buddha. I take refuge in the
Dharma. I take refuge in the Community (Snellgrove 2002, 39).
b. The refuge that is safe and free from sorrow and suffering is the
Four Great Truths given by Buddha (Dhammapada, vv. 191
192).
1) Suffering exists.
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2) Suffering is caused by attachment and desire.
3) Salvation from suffering exists.
4) Salvation from suffering is found when a person follows
Buddhas Eightfold Path in order to get release from the
cycle ofsamsara.
c. The eightfold path to the elimination of suffering is: right
understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditation
(Fisher 1999, 44).
4. Shortly following Buddhas death conflicts arose over the role and
teachings of Buddha. At the present, there are two main groups within
BuddhismMahayana and Hinayana (Fisher 1999, 133), although
Snellgrove (2002) argues that Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism are not
two distinct phases, but are instead two fluctuating tendencies, usually
mingling together, and only kept strictly apart in certain philosophical
texts (32).
a. Most Buddhists in the world are Mahayana, a word that means
The Greater Vehicle (45).
1) Mahayana Buddhists are found in China, Japan,
Vietnam, and Korea (Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 148).
2) Within Mahayana Buddhism are several lesser
subgroups, among which are Tibetan Buddhism (in which
advanced meditation practices and rituals are performed to
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develop inner qualities), and Zen Buddhism (in which
discipline and meditation guided by a master help the
student to find the natural mind) (Fisher 1999, 45).
a) Tibetan Buddhists use magic, symbolism, and
sexual desire as means to enlightenment (Mishra
2004, 76). Gurus, or teachers, are important,
though monks are not elevated over laymen.
Tibetan Buddhists revere many types of Buddhas
and images of Bodhisattvas (76).
b) One important element of Zen Buddhism is the
koan. Koans are puzzles or riddles that are illogical
and that bring sudden enlightenment through
conundrum (Mascetti 1996, 14). The following is a
Zen Buddhist koan: A monk asked Ummon, What
is the teaching of the Buddhas lifetime? Ummon
said, Preaching facing oneness (50).
3) Mahayana are generally more liberal than Hinayana in
their interpretations of Buddhism.
b. Hinayana Buddhists are a minority conservative group, of which
the Theravada (meaning Teaching of the Elders) is the most
dominant (among many other subgroups) (Fisher 1999, 4445).
1. Theravada Buddhists are found in Sri Lanka, Burma,
Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos
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2. They are thought to mirror early Buddhism more closely
than does Mahayana.
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Week Ten: Buddhism (Continued)
c. Both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism center on Buddha, his
teaching, and the community of his followers, but view Buddha
and his mission in different ways. Mahayana Buddhists view
Buddha as a universal, eternal principle, while Theravada
Buddhists view Buddha as a teacher and example. Mahayana
Buddhists seek not only personal enlightenment, but other-
enlightenment as well (45; Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 137).
d. Within Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism two models of
enlightenment are espoused (both models are present in both
groups to some extent, further subdividing the groups) (Lopez
2004, 505).
1. In the recognition model, ignorance is suddenly dispelled
through an experience. People save themselves from within
(by introspection).
2. In the purification model, a person gradually comes to
understand and be enlightened through his or her own
works. People save themselves from without (by action).
e. Both models of enlightenment are present in the two types of
Theravada meditation: 1. Sammatta, intense concentration which
brings gradual progress toward enlightenment, and 2. Vipassana,
insight meditation which brings sudden enlightenment (Hopfe and
Woodward 2005, 136).
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B. Discuss the central doctrines of Buddhism.
1.Enlightenmentis the key concept of Buddhism, and centers on the
extinguishment of desire and salvation from samsara. Enlightenment is an
intellectual, spiritual, and ethical idea.
2. Samsara is the beginningless cycle of birth, death and rebirth,
composed of the realms of gods, demigods, humans, ghosts and hell
beings (Lopez 2004, 554). This had been a central concern of Hinduism,
and now became of utmost importance to Buddha and his followers. The
whole point of enlightenment is liberation from samsara.
3. The ideal Buddhist who receives salvation is known as a Bodhisattva
(future Buddha). In Theravada,Bodhisattvas are merely ideal pre-
enlightened individuals, whereas in Mahayana they are savior figures who
assist in the enlightenment of others (Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 137).
4.Introspection becomes the method of salvation through enlightenment.
A person must analyze his or her own sins, but not contemplate others
wrongdoings (Dhammapada, v. 50).
a. The person who does evil suffers in this world and in the next
world (v. 15), but the greatest of all sins is indeed the sin of
ignorance. Throw this sin away, O man, and become pure from
sin (v. 243).
b. Thus, knowledge is the key to liberation, and knowledge comes
through experience and meditation.
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5.Nirvana is the end result of true enlightenment. Nirvana means
extinguished like a candle (Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 132), and is the
extinguishing oftanha (desire, thirst, craving) (133). Nirvana is the end
ofsamsara. The illusion of the worlds reality is no longer felt, and
disattachment is complete.
6. Ethical action is of supreme importance in most forms of Buddhism.
Buddha summed up his teachings as Do not what is evil. Do what is
good. Keep your mind pure (Dhammapada, v. 183). Enlightenment and
action go hand in hand. Lay Buddhists and monks have various rules of
moral conduct that they must follow to attain enlightenment.
a. A sin, according to Buddha, is an action that a person has to
repent of (v. 67).
b. Humans are the root of their own evil. Any wrong or evil a man
does, is born in himself and is caused by himself; and this crushes
the foolish man as a hard stone grinds the weaker stone (v. 161).
If people sin, they are the only ones responsible for their sins.
c. For Buddhists there is no such thing as a small sin. A little evil
at a time builds up eventually into great evil. Therefore, all evil and
sin must be avoided (v. 121).
d. The wages of sin is karma, death, and rebirth in hell. When a
fool does evil work, he forgets that he is lighting a fire wherein he
must burn one day (Dhammapada, v. 136).
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1) There are no places a person can go to escape from evil
actions or death (vv. 127128).
2) The effects of purity or sin are not necessarily apparent
at first, but if a person is patient he or she will receive the
fruit of their actions (whether good or bad) (vv. 119120).
e. Some people are born on this earth; those who do evil are
reborn in hell; the righteous go to heaven; but those who are pure
reach Nirvana (v. 126). The liar (v. 306), the evil man (v. 307),
the hypocrite (v. 307), the adulterer (vv. 309310), the person who
imperfectly lives an ascetic life (v. 311), and those who carelessly
allow their life to pass by are all on the path of hell and are going
to suffer in hell in future lives (v. 315).
7. Buddha taught that humans are without souls (or true selves) because
souls do not exist; they are anatman (non-soul).
a. True personal identity is an illusion.What humans think of as
souls are actually a combination of the physical body, feelings,
understanding, will, and consciousness (Hopfe and Woodward
2005, 132).
b. This combination of non-soulness (anatman) is born, dies, and is
reborn in an endless cycle. Attachment to the world, anatman, and
samsara causes suffering.
8. The idea of suffering (dukkha) for Buddha is an all-encompassing
sense of life lived with perpetual loss (Zacharias 2001, 40). The Hindu
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Week Eleven: Buddhism (Continued) and Sikhism
C. Discuss the value of Buddhism.
1. Assess the strengths of Buddhism.
a. It emphasizes a persons inner attitude (Hume 1959, 87).
b. It presents the world with ethical absolutes.
c. Some of its adherents have sought to bring other people to
salvation.
d. In theory, all races, genders, and economic and political classes
are accepted into the community of Buddha to some degree.
e. It seeks to escape from suffering.
2. Assess the weaknesses of Buddhism.
a. It presents a fundamental impersonalism that is incompatible
with its own doctrines of self-salvation, the preexistence and
eternal existence of Buddhas soul in the world, and the idea of
compassion for other humans (if other peoples souls are not real,
they are not worth saving, for in the end nothing will be saved)
(87).
b. It is world-denying.
c. It excessively emphasizes self-salvation.
VI. Sikhism
A. Discuss the background of Sikhism.
1. Around 900 C.E. Muslims began to invade India, concentrating many of
their conquests on northwest India (Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 156).
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From that time onward Muslims and Hindus have had violent and hostile
interactions with each other.
2. Many reformers from within Islam and Hinduism sought to reconcile
the two groups and synthesize their religions. By the 15th
century
Hinduism and Islam had developed several similar practices, including the
veneration of shared holy men, shrines, and other places of religious
devotion (157). These similarities brought some religious leaders to
propose that Islam and Hinduism were in fact different aspects of the same
religion.
a. One such leader was a Muslim named Kabir. He worshipped the
Hindu deities, yet taught that God was one (157).
b. Kabir was later revered by both Muslims and Hindus in India,
and made a profound impression on the Sikhs and their literature
(157).
3. In the late 15th century, a Hindu man named Nanak (a contemporary of
Kabir) was born in the Indian region of Punjab. Nanak became the founder
of Sikhism.
a. While Nanaks family and neighbors were mostly Hindus, his
schoolteacher was a Muslim. From an early age, Nanak observed
that Muslims and Hindus had distinct beliefs and practices. But
Nanak stressed that before God all people are equal, and that
equality before God was the key to destroying barriers between
people (Singh 2000, 18).
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b. Nanak taught the unity of God. God created all, and pervades
the entire universe. God is unborn, timeless, eternal, self-existent,
and full of grace, enlightening those who earnestly seek him (23).
c. Nanak taught the Hindus that pilgrimages, penances,
compassion and alms-giving bring a little merit, the size of a
sesame seed. But he who hears and believes and loves the Name
shall bathe and be made clean in a place of pilgrimage with him
(20).
d. Nanak told the Muslims to let compassion be your mosque, let
faith be your prayer mat, let honest living be your Koran, let
modesty be the rules of observance, let piety be the fasts you keep;
In such wisdom try to become a Muslim: right conduct the Kaba;
truth the prophet; good deeds your prayer; submission to the
Lords will your rosary (20).
e. Nanaks position was that Hinduism stressed basic compassion
while Islam stressed essential brotherhood (27).
f. Nanak was succeeded by a line of gurus. In Sikhism, gurus are
guides to universal spiritual salvation, and as such are able to
discover and teach universal truth (the gurus composed, collected,
and edited the sacred scriptures of Sikhism) (Kalsi 1999, 13).
4. There were ten human gurus (including Nanak) in Sikhism.
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a. The third Sikh guru, Amardas, reasoned that castes were
false classifications because all men were equal before God, and
even the lowliest may know God and be a true Brahmin (3031).
b. The sixth guru, Har Govind, in obedience to the dying wishes of
his father, the fifth guru Arjan, transformed Sikhism from a
peaceful religion of religious reconciliation to a militaristic group
struggling with national Muslim rulers (although some minor sects
continue to follow Nanaks pacifistic tendencies) (Hume 1959,
105; Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 159, 161).
c. Seven of the first gurus contributed to the Adi Granth, the Sikhs
most important sacred scriptures. TheAdi Granth is written in six
different languages, and includes the works of thirty-seven authors,
including several Hindu and Muslim holy men. The last human
guru, Gobind Singh, proclaimed theAdi Granth to be his successor
as the living guru of Sikhs on earth. Since then, Sikhs have been
accused of committing idolatry because of their worship and
reverence for their scriptures (Hume 1959, 99).
d. TheDasam Granth is the poetry of Gobind Singh. It is an
important text to Sikhs, but is given less authority than theAdi
Granth (1999, 4356).
e. In order to emphasize the social solidarity and brotherhood of all
Sikhs and to disavow any remains of the caste system, Sikhs all
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followed the last guru in changing their last names to Singh
(lion) (Hume 1959, 106).
f. There are only about nineteen million Sikhs in the world today,
most of whom live in the Indian region of Punjab (Hopfe and
Woodward 2005, 156).
B. Discuss the central doctrines of Sikhism.
1. The unity of Godis the central doctrine of Sikhism (Kalsi 1999, 17).
Gobind Singh, the tenth guru, said the temple and the mosque are the
same. So are Hindu worship and Muslim prayer (22). Read and discuss
the Japji, which is memorized and recited every day by Sikhs (qtd. in
Hopfe and Woodward 2005, 163167).
2. The unity of humanity is embraced by Sikhs as a fundamental
presupposition. Communal worship, communal meals, community service,
community-centered work, and communal sharing are all important
actions of Sikhs (3242).
3. Submission to Gods sovereign will is taught in accordance with
Muslim belief (2425).
4.Active righteousness is the key to salvation from samsara (the cycle of
life, death, and rebirth). Believers must not be mere spectators, or live as
secluded monks, but must be actively involved in righteous thoughts,
words, and actions (2526). In order to escape from samsara, a person
must follow the guru and believe in Gods oneness and the equality of
humanity. When people escape the cycle, they attain spiritual liberation
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and merge with God. Thus, Sikhism embraces a form of eschatological
monism.
C. Discuss the value of Sikhism.
1. Assess the strengths of Sikhism.
a. It has a strong emphasis on ridding oneself of hypocrisy.
b. It embraces the brotherhood of humanity.
c. It has strong social solidarity.
d. It began as an attempt to reconcile two major world religions
with a single truth.
2. Assess the weaknesses of Sikhism.
a. The Supreme Being is sometimes thought of as personal,
sometimes as impersonal.
b. While the sacred writings are greatly revered as the great living
guru and guide to salvation on earth by Sikhs, very few adherents
know the content of their scriptures (Hume 1959, 98). This is not
an uncommon weakness in the major world religions.
c. There is an almost helpless submissive fatalism (110).
d. The synthesis of legalistic monotheism with Hinduism is at best
a questionable enterprise.
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Week Twelve: Conclusions
VII. Conclusions
A. Discuss several common features of the major world religions of India.
1. Reincarnation. Since the advent of the idea of reincarnation in India,
this theological and metaphysical idea has been the centerpiece of Indian
religion. Sikhs deny the reincarnation of deities, but accept the
reincarnation of humans (Kalsi 1999, 23).
2. Karma. All of the major world religions of India embrace the concept of
karma. Escape from both karma and reincarnation are central motivations
in Indian religions (Hume 1959, 108).
3. World denial. Each of the major world religions of India follows some
form of world denial. While Jains are perhaps the most extreme (and
consistent) of the major world religions of India in this regard, Hindus,
Buddhists and Sikhs embrace elements of asceticism, belief in the ultimate
unreality of the physical universe, and belief in transcendence above
physical reality through disattachment of some kind (Hume 1959, 102).
4. Temples. Hindus, Jains, and Sikhs all have some types of temples used
for worship and rituals and for ascetic practices. Some forms of Buddhism
are opposed to the use of temples (due to their rejection of the efficacy of
theism). Nevertheless, many Buddhists are very close to the other major
world religions of India in their forms of temple worship.
B. Discuss several points of dissimilarity between the major world religions of
India.
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1. Monism.
a. Hindus disagree among themselves as to the nature of ultimate
reality. Some hold to polytheism, while others hold to monistic
pantheism.
b. Jains do not embrace monism, and Buddhists are often
indifferent as to the ultimate nature of the universe.
c. Sikhs teach a form of eschatological monism (monotheism that
leads to monism at some point in the future) (Hume 1959, 57, 84).
2. Belief in a deity or in many deities.
a. Some forms of Hinduism are thoroughly polytheistic, and are
open to the admission of new gods or goddesses. Other forms of
Hinduism consider polytheism ignorant idolatry, and argue for
some form of pantheism.
b. Jains opposed any form of theism at the beginning of their
history, but now they often accept the belief in gods (58).
c. Buddhists are indifferent to the question of gods, although the
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas take the place of gods in some forms of
Buddhism (particularly in Tibetan Buddhism).
d. Sikhism emphasizes the unity of God, and opposes polytheism
on principle (though polytheistic worship may be accepted as
worshipping the one God in different manifestations) (57).
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3. The caste system.
a. Early Vedic Hinduism was developed alongside the caste system
of early Aryan civilization, and emphasized the importance of
castes in understanding ones duties and karma. Modern forms of
Hinduism have attempted to throw out the historical religious
significance of the caste system, and by emptying it of its religious
significance have been able to abandon the caste system to a large
degree.
b. Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism have all historically fought
against the caste system (based on the brotherhood and unity of
humanity), although Jainism has come to accept it (Hume 1959,
59; Kalsi 1999, 23).
4. Sacred scriptures.
a. All of the world religions of India have their own sacred
scriptures.
b. Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs reject most of the Hindu scriptures
in favor of their own scriptures.
c. Most of the adherents in all the major religions of India are not
able to read or understand their own sacred scriptures (Hume 1959,
58).
d. Some Buddhist groups emphasize the soteriological efficacy of
their scriptures, while other Buddhist groups deny the ultimate
value of any scriptures.
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e. None of the major world religions of India claim that their
scriptures are infallible, though Sikhs are taught to worship their
scriptures as the living guru of Sikhism.
5. Idolatry.
a. Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists are all divided as to this issue.
Some forms of each of these religions are thoroughly idolatrous,
while other (more philosophical) forms of these religions are anti-
idolatrous. Idolatry tends to flourish on the popular level.
b. Sikhs have consistently opposed idolatry, though they have been
charged with idolatrously worshiping their scriptures (Kalsi 1999,
23).
6. The reality of the individual soul.
a. Hindus and Jains embrace the reality of the individual soul,
which is born, dies, and is reborn in a cycle of lives.
b. However, in philosophical Hinduism, the soul (atman) is the one
eternal ultimate reality (a monistic view of the soul).
c. Jains believe in the importance of the soul of all creatures
(Hindus also believe this, but do not practice its implications as
consistently).
d. Buddhists deny the ultimate reality of the soul (anatman).
e. Sikhs affirm the present reality of the soul, assert that all souls
are kindred, and teach that at the end of time all souls will become
one with God (eschatological monism).
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C. Explore avenues of dialogue between the major world religions of India.
1. Discuss how the major world religions of India might dialogue with one
another, and ask What might be the results of such dialogue?
2. Discuss how the major world religions of the West might dialogue with
the major world religions of India, and ask What might be the results of
such dialogue?
a. What fundamental worldview differences are there?
b. What different emphases are there?
c. How might these differences have influenced the development
of the modern cultures of India and the West?
d. How have the major world religions of India affected the
religions of the West?
3. Discuss how Christian exclusivists might reach out and share the gospel
with adherents to one of the major world religions of India.
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Jowett, Benjamin, trans. 1992. Phaedo, In The Trial and Death of Socrates: FourDialogues. New York: Dover.
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