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ANALYSING AND
INTERPDFJFRETING
QUALITATIVE DATA
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Analysing qualitative data requires understandinghow to make sense of text and images so that youcan form answers to your research questions.
6 steps involved in analysing and interpreting
qualitative data,1) preparing and organising the data
2) exploring and coding the database
3) describing findings and forming themes
4) representing and reporting findings5) interpreting the meaning of the findings
6) validating the accuracy of the finding
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Objectives Name the steps involved in conducting an analysis of
qualitative data
Describe how to organise and transcribe qualitative
data
Read through and form initial impressions of text data Conduct coding of a transcript or text file
Develop a detailed qualitative description
Generate a qualitative theme
Create a visual image that represents your data Write a paragraph describing a theme
Make qualitative interpretation from your data
Check the accuracy of your findings and interpretation
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HOWDO YOU ANALYSE
QUALITATIVE DATA? It is inductive in form, going from particular
the detailed data (transcriptions or typed
notes from interviews) to the general codes
and themes.
It involves a simultaneous process of
analysing while you are also collecting data
The phases are also iterative, in which youcycle back and forth between data collection
and analysis.
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Qualitative researchers analyse their data byreading it several times and conducting ananalysis each time
There is no single, accepted approach to
analysing qualitative data, although severalguidelines exist for this process. It is aneclectic process
Qualitative research is interpretive reseach
in which you make a personal assessment asto a description that fits the situation orthemes that capture the major categories ofinformation
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HOWDO YOU PREPARE AND ORGANISE
THE DATA FOR ANALYSIS
Organise Data
- organise data into file folders, index cards or
computer files- one half hour interview -> 20 pages of
single space transcription
-> develop a matrix or a table
-> organise the materials by type
-> keeping duplicate copies of all form of data
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Transcribe Data
General rule of thumb 4 hours to transcribe 1 hourof tape -> labour intensive (Time)
Transcription = the process of converting audiotaperecording of fieldnotes into text data
Guidelines to facilitate transcription,
- 2 inches margin on each side- leave extra space on the page
- highlight or mark in some way the questions askedby the interviewer
- use complete, detailed header-transcribe all words, and type the word [pause] toindicate when interviewee take a lengthy break intheir comments
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ANALYSE BYHAND OR COMPUTER
Hand analysis of qualitative data = researcher read
the data, mark it by hand, and divide it into parts.
Traditionally, analysing text using color coding to
mark parts of the text or cutting and pasting textsentences onto cards.
A hand analysis may be preferred when you
- are analysing a small database (
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Computer analysis of qualitative data
Researcher use a qualitative computerprogram to facilitate the process of storing,analysing, and sorting the data
Use a computer program when you,\- are analysing a large database
- are adequately trained in using the program
- have resources to purchase a program- need a close inspection of every word andsentence
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Use qualitative Computer Programs
Procedures for using software programs
Basic features of software programs
- 8 major dimensions,
1) ease of integration in using the program2) type of Data Program will accept
3) reading and reviewing text
4) memo writing
5) categorisation
6) analysis inventory and assessment
7) quantitative data
8) Merging project
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Specific Programs Available
Altas.ti
Ethnograph Version 5.0
HyperRESEARCH WinMAX
QSR N6, QSR NVivo, N6
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HOWDO YOU EXPLORE AND
CODE TH
E DATA IN ANALYSIS? Exploring the data and developing codes as first
analysis steps
A preliminary exploratory analysis in qualitative
research consists of exploring the data to obtain ageneral sense of the data, memoing ideas, thinkingabout the organisation of the data, and consideringwhether you need more data
Writing memo is the initial process of exploring the
data Memos are short phrases, ideas, concepts, or
hunches that occur
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Codethe Data
Coding is the process of segmenting and
labeling text to form description and broad
themes in the data
No set guidelines of coding data
The coding process is to make sense out of
text data, divide it into text or image
segments, label the segments with codes,examine codes for overlap and redundancy,
and collapse these codes into broad themes
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Tesch (1990) and Creswell (1994)
recommend, Get a sense of the whole
Pick one document (interview, fieldnote), choose the
most interesting
Begin the process of coding the document
text segment sentences or paragraph that all
relate to a single code
codes labels used to describe a segment of text or
an image, codes can address many different topics,
setting and context, participants ways of thinking,
processes, activities, strategies, relationship
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After coding an entire text, make a list of allcode words.
Take this list and go back to the data
Reduce the list of codes to get five to seven
themes or descriptions of the settings orparticipants. Themes (categories) are similarcodes aggregated together to form a majoridea in the database.
A description is a detailed rendering ofpeople, places, or events in a setting inqualitative research
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HOWDO YOU USE CODES TO BUILD
DESCRIPTION AND THEMES?
Describing and developing themes from the
data consists of answering the major
research questions and forming an in-depth
understanding of the central phenomenon.
Provide detailed information -> can transport
the reader to a research site or help the
reader to visualise a person. It takes experience and practice
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Themes
The use of themes is another way to analysequalitative data.
Similar codes aggregated together to form major
idea in the database -> form a major core element in
qualitative data analysis Consist no more than two to four words
Several types of themes,
- ordinary themes = expected themes
- unexpected themes = suprises
- hard-to-classify themes = do not easily fit
- major and minor themes
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Analysing data for multiple perspective.(Multiple perspective = provide severalviewpoint from different individuals andsources of data as evidence for a theme)
Contrary evidence = information that doesnot support or confirm the themes andprovides contradictory information about atheme
Will reach a point where themes are fullydeveloped and new evidence will not provideadditional themes = saturation
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Layering and Interrelating Themes
Layering Themes
- build on the idea of major and minor
themes, but organise the themes into layers
from basic elementary themes to more
sophisticated one.
Layering the analysis (first- and second-order
abstraction) = representing the data usinginter connected levels of themes
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Interrelating Themes
- the researcher connect the themes to
display a chronology or sequence of events
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HOWDO YOU REPRESENT AND
REPORT FINDINGS? Representing Findings
- displaying findings in tables and figures andconstructing a narrative to explain what you have
found in response to the research question Qualitative researchers often display their findings
visually. Different ways to display data,
- create comparison table
- develop a hierarchical tree diagram
- present figure
- draw a map
- develop a demographic table
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Reporting Findings
- the primary form for representing and reporting findings inqualitative research is a narrative discussion (a written passagein a qualitative study in which authors summarise in detail thefinding from their data analysis)
- varies from one study to another
- hints
* include dialogue that support for themes
* use metaphors and analogies
* report quotes from interview data or fromobservation of individuals
* report multiple perspectives and contrary evidence
* write in vivid detail
* specify tensions and contradictions in individualexperience
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HOWDO YOU INTERPRET
FINDINGS? Interpretation involves making sense of the data, or the lesson
learned (Guba, 1985). Interpretation = the researcher stepsback and forms some larger meaning about the phenomenonbased on personal views and/or comparisons with past studies
Qualitative research is interpretative research- review of the major findings and how the research questions
were answered
- personal reflections of the researcher about the meaning of thedata
- personal views compared or contrasted with the literature
- limitation of the study
- suggestion for future study
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Summarize Findings
- general recap of the major findings
- state each individual research questionagain and provide findings for each question
- overview of the findings to complement the
more detailed results in the description and
theme passage
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OfferPersonal Reflection
- personal views can never be kept separate
from interpretations, personal reflections
about the meaning of the data
- the personal interpretation on hunches,
insights and intuition.
- have been in the field and visited personally-> good position to reflect and remark on the
larger meaning of the data
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Make comparison to the Literature
- may also contain references to the literature
and past studies
- interpret the data in view of the past
research, showing how the findings may
support and/or contradict prior studies
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Offer limitation and Suggestions for Future
Research
- suggest possible limitation or weaknesses
of the study and make recommendations for
future research
- may include problem in data collection,
unanswered questions by participants, orbetter selection of purposeful sampling of
individual or site
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- implication may include the use of the
finding in practice, or the need for further
research. Can also state implication for
decisions making, such as planning fornew practices
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HOWDO YOU VALIDATE THE
ACCURACYOF YOUR FINDINGS? Findings and interpretation = correct
Validating findings = determine the accuracyor credibility of the findings through strategies
such as member checking or triangulations 3 primary forms for validation
I Triangulation
- the process if corroborating evidence fromdifferent individuals, type of data or method ofdata collection
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II Member checking
- a process in which the researcher asks one
or more participants in the study to check the
accuracy of the account. Taking the findings
back to participants and ask them about the
accuracy of the report
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III External Audit
- a person outside the project conduct a thoroughreview of the study and report back, in writing thestrengths and weaknesses of the project
- may occur both during and at the conclusion of a
study- Are the findings grounded in the data?
- Are inferences logical?
- Are the themes appropriate?
- Can inquiry decisions and methodological
shifts be justified?- What is the degree of research bias?
- What strategies are used for increasingcredibility?
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REEXAMINING QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS IN THE GUNMAN CASE STUDY
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