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Application of Superhydrophobic Coatings as a Corrosion Barrier: A Review
E. Vazirinasab*, R. Jafari, G. Momen
Department of Applied Sciences, University of Québec in Chicoutimi (UQAC)
555, boul. de l'université, Chicoutimi, Québec, G7H 2B1 Canada
* E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
This review provides an overview of recent advances in the application of superhydrophobic
surfaces to act as corrosion barriers. The adverse consequences of corrosion are a serious and
widespread problem resulting in industrial plant shutdowns, waste of valuable resources, reduction
in efficiency, loss or contamination of products, and damage to the environment.
Superhydrophobic surfaces, inspired by nature, can be considered as an alternative means for
improving the protection of metals against corrosion. Due to the possibility of minimizing the
contact area between liquids and a surface, superhydrophobic surfaces can offer great resistance
to corrosion. Artificial superhydrophobic surfaces have been developed with the potential of being
applied in numerous settings including self-cleaning, anti-icing, oil-water separation, and
especially anti-corrosion applications. In this paper, we review the concept of superhydrophobicity
through presentation of different theoretical models. The fabrication and application of
superhydrophobic surfaces are presented and we then discuss the use of superhydrophobic coatings
as barriers against the corrosion of metals.
Keywords: Corrosion resistance, superhydrophobic, contact angle, metal.
1. Introduction
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Metals and their alloys are engineered materials that are central to numerous industrial fields.
Aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), magnesium (Mg), steel, and their alloys are common metals used in
a wide range of industrial, construction, marine, and aeronautical applications. Although many
physical characteristics of metals, such as ductility, stiffness, and a high strength to weight ratio
make these materials very useful, they do have limitations. Corrosion of metals in aggressive
environments is one of these [1]. The corrosion of metals can produce a premature failure of
metallic components, resulting in financial losses, environmental contamination, and injury or
death [2, 3]. Corrosion is one of the main causes of energy and material loss, accounting for 20%
of global energy use. An average of 4.2% of the gross national product (GNP) is lost each year
because of corrosion-related issues [4]. The majority of this cost is allocated to the examination of
corroded parts of the structures, the repair of the structures using various methods including
protective coatings (paints, surface treatments, etc.), and discarding the potentially hazardous
waste materials [5].
There are different techniques for preventing the corrosion of metals. One is the coating of a metal
surface with an anti-corrosive layer to provide a barrier between the metal surface and the corrosive
environment [6-8]. However, contact between the corrosive solution and the metal/coating
interface will corrode the metal surface [9, 10]. Therefore, reduced interfacial tension or an
increased water proofing of the surface can be a more effective protective coating. Use of good
quality corrosion resistant coatings on heavy structures, e.g., bridges and industrial sheds, can help
prevent the weakening and collapse of these constructions [3].
Inspired by a vast number of natural phenomena, such as the self-cleaning characteristics of the
lotus leaf and the “anti-water” legs of a water strider, artificial superhydrophobic surfaces have
been developed [11-15]. Superhydrophobic surfaces with a water contact angle (WCA) greater
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than 150˚ and a water sliding angle (SA) or contact angle hysteresis (CAH) of less than 10˚ have
attracted tremendous attention due to their broad applications in scientific and industrial
applications, such as self-cleaning [16-20], anti-fouling [21-23], anti-icing [7, 24, 25] cases, as
well as for oil-water separation [26, 27], and drag reduction [28, 29]. Superhydrophobic coatings
have been successfully developed as corrosion protection for many metals and their alloys
surfaces, including aluminum [12, 30, 31], copper [32-34], magnesium [35-37], and steel [38, 39].
In this review, we first provide a brief introduction to natural superhydrophobic surfaces and
present the fundamental theories related to the wetting and non-wetting behavior of solid surfaces.
Then, we discuss the numerous methods for fabricating superhydrophobic surfaces and diverse
application of these coatings. Finally, we outline the use of superhydrophobic coatings as corrosion
protection for aluminum, copper, magnesium, and steel, and present a brief conclusion.
2. Superhydrophobicity
Surface wettability is one of the most important properties of solid surfaces and plays a significant
role in a wide range of practical applications in daily life, industry, and agriculture [12]. The WCA
is defined as the angle where a liquid-vapor interface meets a solid surface. Hydrophilicity and
hydrophobicity are the most common terms introduced to describe the relative affinity of water
droplets on solid surfaces. As shown in Figure 1, if the WCA is smaller than 90˚, the solid surface
is defined as hydrophilic, and greater than 90˚, the surface is considered as hydrophobic. On a
hydrophilic surface, a water droplet wets as large a surface as possible, likely entering the pores of
the material and completely saturating it. On the other hand, a water droplet is repelled by a
hydrophobic surface and takes on a near spherical shape. Superhydrophilicity is characterized by
a WCA less than 10˚ that describes a complete spreading of water on the substrate. In contrast,
superhydrophobicity, defined as a surface having a WCA larger than 150˚, describes an almost
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non-wetting state [40]. Besides static contact angle considerations, CAH and SA are other
important criteria for studying the surface behavior of various materials. The water SA is defined
as the critical angle at which a water droplet of a certain weight begins a downward slide. CAH
represents the difference between advancing and receding contact angles. Both are criteria of
dynamic hydrophobicity. Generally, superhydrophobic surfaces are defined as any surface for
which the static contact angle is more than 150˚ and the SA or CAH is less than 10˚ [41, 42].
Figure 1: Schematic of the shape of a water drop and the water contact angle (WCA) for solid
surfaces along a hydrophobicity-hydrophilicity gradient [43]
2.1. Superhydrophobic surfaces in nature
A wide variety of superhydrophobic surfaces can be found in nature. Excellent capacities for water
repellency are demonstrated by many plants and animals including lotus leaves [44, 45], rose petals
[46], taro leaves [44], rice leaves [47], water strider legs [48], cicada wings [49, 50], butterfly
wings [51], body feathers of penguins [52], and numerous other examples [14, 46, 53, 54]. Lotus
(Nelumbo nucifera) leaves are one of the most prominent instances among naturally occurring
superhydrophobic surfaces. The rolling and bouncing of liquid droplets on the surface of lotus
leaves removes contaminants and thus acts as a self-cleaning property [28]. This self-cleaning
effect is due to a high WCA of 161 ± 2˚ and low SA of 2˚. This effect has made this plant a symbol
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of purity [19, 44, 49, 55]. Electron microscopy indicates that a combination of hierarchical surface
roughness and low surface energy wax-like materials are the principal reasons for this
superhydrophobicity. Its hierarchical rough structure is comprised of a two-level roughness of an
initial micro-sized (3–10 µm) roughness having protrusions and valleys covered by a second
epicuticular waxy layer of hydrophobic crystalloids having nano-sized (70–100 nm) roughness
[49, 56-58]. Water strider legs, rice, and taro leaves are other examples of hierarchical
superhydrophobic structures [48, 58]. In addition to this “lotus effect”, there is a “petal effect”
referencing the high contact angle of 152.4˚ for rose petal surfaces on which a water droplet cannot
roll or slide even when the surface is turned upside down. This demonstrates a distinct type of
superhydrophobicity, one marked by high adhesion [46, 59]. The micro- and nano-textures of the
lotus leaf and rose petal are observed in Figure 2. The diversity of micro- and nano-structures on
the surface of the lotus leaf and rose petals lead to differences in dynamic wetting. On the surface
of the rose petal, there are cuticular nanofolds positioned on top of an array of hierarchical
micropapillae having an average diameter of 16 µm [46]. In addition to a hierarchical structure,
some surfaces in nature benefit from a fibrous structure to obtain superhydrophobicity and self-
cleaning properties [47, 60-62]. Silver ragwort leaves (Senecio cineraria), Chinese watermelon,
the carnivorous plant Drosera burmanni and Ramee leaves are some examples of
superhydrophobic fibrous leaves [47, 62]. For instance, silver ragwort leaves have closely
compacted fibers, ca. 6 µm in diameter, that cover the leaf surface and lead to superhydrophobic
surfaces with a WCA of 147˚ (Figure 2 (e) and (f)) [60, 61].
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Figure 2: SEM images of superhydrophobic surfaces at low and high magnifications. (a) and (b)
lotus leaf with a 162˚ water contact angle; (c) and (d) rose petal with a 152.4˚ water contact angle;
(e) and (f) silver ragwort leaf with a 147˚ water contact angle [46, 47, 61].
2.2. Wettability and superhydrophobicity
Over the last few decades, the wettability of solid surfaces and solid-liquid physical interactions
have been intensely studied. Young, Wenzel, and Cassie-Baxter are the principal equations for
explaining surface wettability. Young’s equation is the starting point for wetting models that result
from the equilibrium of interaction forces along the triple line. It determines the static contact angle
of a sessile drop on an ideal smooth, homogenous, rigid, and insoluble solid surface (Figure 3 (a)).
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As shown in Eq. 1, according to the Young’s equation, the static contact angle depends only on
the thermodynamic equilibrium of the interfacial tension of the solid-liquid-vapor interfaces [63,
64]:
cos 𝜃 =𝛾𝑆𝑉 − 𝛾𝑆𝐿
𝛾𝐿𝑉 𝐸𝑞. 1
where θ is the contact angle, and γSV, γSL, and γLV are the interfacial tension of the solid-vapor,
solid-liquid, and liquid-vapor interfaces respectively. It is clearly understood from Eq. 1 that
forasmuch as the surface tension of water and its surroundings (usually air) are fixed, a decrease
in the surface tension of a solid material leads to an increase in the static contact angle. Although
the order of the surface energies of the chemical groups are known as CH2 > CH3 > CF2 > CH2F
> CF3, the highest reached static contact angle of a smooth surface using CF3, as a chemical groups
with lowest surface energy, is about 120˚, which does not fulfill the requirement for
superhydrophobicity [65, 66].
Surface roughness is, therefore, the second critical factor for obtaining a superhydrophobic surface.
Higher surface roughness, combined with a lower surface energy are required to achieve a superior
contact angle and superhydrophobicity. Many researchers, in particular Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter,
endeavored to formulate a relationship between surface tension, roughness, and contact angle [67].
Based on Wenzel’s studies of the wettability of porous surfaces, the roughness of a surface
dramatically affects the contact angle on the surface. As shown in Figure 3(b), the liquid
penetration into the rough grooves and the increase in the interfacial area for the spreading liquid
are the main assumptions in Wenzel’s theory [68, 69]. At thermodynamic equilibrium, Wenzel’s
homogeneous wetting state proposed a linear relationship between the apparent contact angle and
the roughness factor of the surface [70]:
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cos 𝜃𝑊 =𝑟(𝛾𝑆𝑉 − 𝛾𝑆𝐿)
𝛾𝐿𝑉= r cos 𝜃 𝐸𝑞. 2
where θw is the apparent contact angle on the rough surface, θ is Young’s contact angle on a similar
smooth surface, and r is the surface roughness factor. The surface roughness factor is defined as
the ratio between the actual surface area and the geometrical projected surface area. Therefore, for
a rough surface, r is >1. According to Wenzel’s equation, creating roughness increases both the
hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity, taking into consideration the prior nature of the surface. Thus,
if the contact angle of the surface is >90˚, hydrophobicity is improved by roughness whereas if the
contact angle is <90˚, hydrophilicity is enhanced[71].
Young and Wenzel’s theory, known as the homogeneous wetting state, occurs when a drop of
liquid fills up the roughness grooves. A heterogeneous wetting state like Cassie-Baxter has air (or
another fluids) trapped in the roughness grooves underneath the liquid and thus the liquid is
prevented from penetrating into the pores (Figure 3 (c)) [72]. In practical terms, the Cassie-Baxter
equation applies only when the liquid is in contact with the solid surface at the top of the
protrusions (Eq. 3) [56, 73, 74]:
cos 𝜃𝐶𝐵 = 𝑓𝑠 cos 𝜃 − (1 − 𝑓𝑠) = 𝑓𝑠 cos 𝜃 + 𝑓𝑠 − 1 𝐸𝑞. 3
where θCB, θ, and fs are the Cassie-Baxter contact angle, the Young’s contact angle, and the ratio
between the total area of solid-liquid interface and the total area of solid-liquid and liquid-air
interface of the projected area, respectively. In addition, by the inclusion of the roughness factor
of the wetted surface area, rf, the Cassie-Baxter equation will be modified to this equation (Eq. 4)
[56, 75]:
cos 𝜃𝐶𝐵 = 𝑟𝑓𝑓𝑠 cos 𝜃 + 𝑓𝑠 − 1 𝐸𝑞. 4
Where fs=1 and rf=r, the Cassie-Baxter equation converts to the Wenzel equation. According to
the Cassie-Baxter model, an increase in surface roughness leads to an increase in the amount of
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air trapped in the grooves. Consequently fs decreases and the contact angle increases [67]. These
theories explain the impact of surface roughness on the static contact angle and how
hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity may be enhanced. Due to the great mobility of droplets on
surfaces having an ultra-high roughness, the dynamic of the droplet on the surface must be taken
into consideration [70, 76].
Figure 3: A liquid droplet on different surfaces: (a) Young’s model; (b) Wenzel’s model; (c) the
Cassie-Baxter model [77].
The ability of a surface to shed water is defined as dynamic hydrophobicity. The molecular
interactions between the liquid and the solid surface or irregularities, such as roughness or
heterogeneities, can lead to hysteresis [40, 67, 78, 79]. Wenzel’s and Cassie-Baxter’s models are
the dominant regimes in small and high roughness situations, respectively. Surfaces of the Wenzel
model demonstrate high static and advancing contact angles but low receding contact angles. This
leads to the high hysteresis and stiction of the water droplets to the surface. Highly mobile drops
having a high contact angle and low hysteresis on superhydrophobic surfaces are in accordance
with the Cassie-Baxter state [76, 80].
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2.3. Fabrication of superhydrophobic surfaces
As previously discussed, surface chemical composition and surface roughness are the key factors
contributing in the formation of superhydrophobic surfaces. Over the recent decades, researchers
have fabricated superhydrophobic surfaces mainly by the combination of: (i) roughening the
surface of low surface energy material or (ii) modifying a rough surface by depositing low surface
energy materials [81, 82]. In the first approach, numerous methods are employed to create
roughness on low surface energy materials or inherently hydrophobic surfaces, such as silicones,
fluorocarbons, and long chain fatty acids [83]. The second approach is applied where it is not
possible to use hydrophobic materials. For hydrophilic materials, creating surface roughness
should be performed prior to the surface modification by a low surface energy material. Long alkyl
chain thiols, alkyl or fluorinated organic silanes, perfluorinated alkyl agents, long alkyl chain fatty
acids, PDMS-based polymers, or their combinations are the main reactive molecules used for low
surface energy modification [84]. There are many methods and techniques to create roughness
followed by modification to achieve superhydrophobic surfaces, such as templating [85, 86],
etching [87-89], hydrothermal synthesis [90-92], anodization [93-97], electrodeposition [34, 98-
100], sol-gel [33, 37, 101], nanocomposite coating [102-105], and spray coating [106-108]. We
provide a brief description of some of these important techniques in the following subsections.
2.3.1 Templating
Template-based methods prepare superhydrophobic surfaces using an intermediate surface termed
as master template. Master templates can be divided into two major groups: polymers and metals.
Natural surfaces, such as leaves, insect wings, and reptile skins, are typically used as prototypes to
produce polymeric master templates [55, 109-111]. The desired micro- and nano-scale surface
roughness of the metals master templates can be created through other methods, such as etching
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[112]. The templating process includes the use of a master template having the desired
specifications, then molding to replicate these specifications. Templates are subsequently removed
by either lifting the replica off the template or by dissolving the templates. This is a widely used
method for preparing polymeric surfaces due to it being a low cost, rapid, and repeatable
procedure. The main advantage of this method is that natural surfaces can be replicated. Peng et
al. [113] prepared a PDMS master template by casting the liquid PDMS directly onto a natural,
fresh Xanthosoma sagittifolium leaf and curing it at 50 ˚C for 4 hr, then removing the hardened
PDMS template (Figure 4). Subsequently, this master template was used for preparation of a
replica composed of polyaniline on cold rolled steel. The superhydrophobic polyaniline film had
almost the identical micro- and nano-scale surface morphology as the natural Xanthosoma leaf.
Figure 4: The preparation scheme of the superhydrophobic polyaniline (PANI) film through the
templating replication process [113].
2.3.2 Etching
A surface roughening method by simple etching was developed for the fabrication of
superhydrophobic surfaces for various materials [114]. Different relative etching rates of crystal
planes and/or that of matrix in comparison to crystalline areas is the reason for the increase in the
surface roughness. Depending on the method used, the surface roughness falls in the crystallite-
size range or smaller. After the surface roughness is created, a low surface energy material is then
grafted to the surface to acquire superhydrophobicity [115]. Etching can be divided into two main
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categories: i) dry etching, such as plasma and reactive ion etching [25, 67, 93, 116] in which
generation of reactive atoms or ions in a gas discharge leads to the anisotropic etching of the
surface, and ii) wet chemical etching [88, 117, 118] using acid or base solutions that etch
dislocations or impurities on metal substrates by acid or base solutions. Immersion in chemical
etchants destroys many of the high energy dislocation sites that exist in crystalline metals. The
destruction of these sites leads to the formation of micro- and nano-scale surface roughness [119].
There are advantages and disadvantages for the chemical etching method. Chemical etching is an
inexpensive and relatively simple approach that can be easily scaled-up. However, due to the use
of various corrosive acids, such as sulfuric, oxalic, and phosphoric acids, this method is hazardous
and is not an environmentally friendly procedure [12, 120].
2.3.3 Hydrothermal synthesis
Hydrothermal synthesis is a versatile method for the fabrication of micro- and nano-scale
materials, such as powdered nanomaterials, that have novel and interesting morphologies [121,
122]. The hydrothermal method synthesizes the micro- and nano-structures of the surface using an
aqueous media under raised heat and/or pressure. As the main chemical materials are H2O or dilute
H2O2, this method is considered as being environmentally friendly [123, 124]. Jun Cho et al. [90]
achieved a superhydrophobic surface through use of the hydrothermal method to create cerium
oxide nanorod-shaped nano-structures on diverse substrates. The diverse substrates were placed in
a growth solution of cerium nitrate hexahydrate and urea with deionized water and then heated up
to 95 ˚C for 24 h to create superhydrophobic surfaces (Figure 5).
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Figure 5: Preparation scheme using the hydrothermal method to create cerium oxide nanorods
[90].
2.3.4 Anodization
The anodization method is one of the well-established approaches for generating micro- and nano-
scale roughness with an oxide layer at the surface of metals through use of an electrochemical cell.
In this technique, the reaction between metal ions and water in the presence of protons leads to
metal oxidation. This method has the advantages of low cost, easy and rapid fabrication, easy
scale-up, and precise control of surface roughness and nano-structures [95, 125]. Furthermore,
anodic films, in comparison with oxide layers developed from chemical etching, are less inclined
to crack and peel from age or wear due to a greater force and adhesion [126]. After creating surface
roughness, the grafting of low surface energy materials is necessary to develop superhydrophobic
surfaces. Zhang et al. [97] used aluminum foil and a graphite plate as an anode and cathode,
respectively, in an oxalic acid aqueous solution having a magnetic stirrer surrounded by ice-water
(Figure 6). The process was accomplished by using different currents at a specific time with
subsequent modification of the surface to create superhydrophobic surfaces.
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Figure 6: Schematic of electrochemical anodization [97].
2.3.5 Electrodeposition
Electrodeposition is an effective technique for fabricating superhydrophobic coatings on various
substrates due to its low cost, reproducible process, scalability, and simplicity that permit its use
for a range of applications [34, 100, 127]. Furthermore, control of the formation of micro- and
nano-structures can be easily obtained by adjusting the electrodeposition parameters [34, 127]. For
instance, a pine cone-like hierarchical structure was electrodeposited onto a copper surface by
using a traditional Watts’ bath and a platinum anode. In this technique, a thin coating is deposited
onto a conductive substrate from a solution containing ions or charged micro/nanoparticles [128,
129]. Figure 7 shows the electrodeposition process using magnesium as the cathode and platinum
as an anode. The electrolyte solution consists of a blend of cerium nitrate hexahydrate and myristic
acid in ethanol. The reaction between Ce3+ ions near the cathode with myristic acid occurs due to
the DC voltage leading to the formation of cerium myristate. Meanwhile, free H+ ions in the
solution increase, some of them obtaining an electron to form H2 [130].
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Figure 7: The schematic diagram of the electrodeposition process [130].
2.4. Application of superhydrophobic surfaces
The superhydrophobic surfaces have recently attracted great attention due to their unique water
repellency, self-cleaning, and anti-contamination properties [44, 49, 131]. These surfaces are used
across a wide range of application areas, including self-cleaning [72, 129, 132], corrosion
resistance [39, 133-135], anti-icing [7, 24, 25, 136-140], the separation of water and oil [26, 27,
87, 141, 142], the drag reduction of flowing fluids [28, 29, 143], anti-fouling paints for boats [144,
145], anti-bacterial adhesion [146], windshields and architecture coatings [16, 147], and so on [19,
148-151]. In addition to the broad range of applications, there are many other advantages including
a reduction in maintenance costs, elimination of monotonous manual effort, and also a reduction
in the time spent in cleaning the final product [152].
Trapped air in cavities can reduce heat transfer between the droplet and solid surface leading to a
delay in the time required for freezing. The progression of anti-icing properties with a delay in
freezing on superhydrophobic surfaces offers practical solutions for eliminating the
aforementioned issues [7, 24, 153, 154]. Oil-water separation is another application of
superhydrophobic surfaces. The noticeable difference between water surface tension (72 mN/m)
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and oil surface tension (ca. 30 mN/m) produces the oleophilic or superoleophilic properties of
superhydrophobic surfaces. Consequently, superhydrophobic surfaces can be considered as
favorable options for the cleanup of oil spills [27, 87]. The significant drag reduction of fluid flow
over superhydrophobic surfaces is useful for decreasing the required pumping power [29]. The
anti-contamination properties of superhydrophobic surfaces in solar cells prevents reductions in
their efficiency [16, 17].
Finally, superhydrophobic surfaces hinder the corrosion of metals and alloy surfaces. The
formation of a layer of air as a barrier between a superhydrophobic metal substrate and a liquid
provides remarkable opportunities in the anti-corrosion of metal compounds [39]. This subject will
be discussed profoundly in the following section.
3. Corrosion
Corrosion is defined as “the physico-chemical interaction between a metal and its environment,
which results in changes in the properties of the metal and which may often lead to impairment of
the function of the metal, the environment, or the technical system of which these form a part”
[155]. Under normal environmental conditions, corrosive reactions progressively deteriorate
surfaces, particularly the surfaces of reactive metals, surfaces that are used extensively in industrial
applications. Globally, annual costs related to infrastructure corrosion are at least $1.8 trillion US.
This represents 3–4% of the gross domestic product of industrialized countries [156]. Figure 8
illustrates damage associated with highly corroded surfaces. In addition to pollution, humidity,
salt, acids, and bases are the main corrosive environments that severely corrode metal and/or alloy
surfaces [157]. Corrosion involves two different processes. At active areas (anodes), the movement
of metal ions into solution produces an ionic current in the solution. At less active areas (cathodes),
passage of electrons from a metal to an acceptor such as oxygen, another oxidizing agent, or
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hydrogen ions creates an electronic current in the metal [158]. Most of the time, the formation of
pits or cracks in the surface is a sign of corrosion inception. This pitting of the surface continues
to spread throughout the material as long as the material is in contact with the corrosive
environment. This scenario results in extensive damage to surfaces [159].
Figure 8: Images of corroded surfaces of ships and outdoor artworks [160].
Numerous techniques have been used to inhibit the corrosion of the metallic surfaces including
chemical conversion coatings, sacrificial anodic coatings or metal painting, and cathodic
protection [161-164]. Chemical conversion coatings include simple chemical treatments to create
protective coatings. The painting of metals or use of sacrificial coatings can be used for aesthetic
reasons and to also act as a barrier against corrosive elements. The widespread application of anti-
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corrosive layers, such as painting and chemical conversion coating using chromium compounds,
is, however, highly restricted considering their detrimental effects on human health and the
environment [165-167]. Cathodic protection of a metal surface is useful and environmental
friendly. Nevertheless, this method is impracticable for industrial applications as it is too expensive
to apply to large exposed surfaces. The high cost of cathodic protection, environmental restrictions
related to the waste and disposal of heavy metals, and the toxic effects of chromium species have
fostered a search for effective and more environmental friendly alternatives to combat the
corrosion of surfaces [101, 168, 169]. Superhydrophobic surfaces are one suitable candidates for
improving the corrosion resistance of metal substrates.
3.1. Corrosion resistance of superhydrophobic surfaces
Superhydrophobic surfaces are being investigated as a solution to reduce the corrosion of the metal
substrates like aluminum, copper, magnesium, and steel alloys. There are two main situations in
which the metal substrates can be corroded including immersion in corrosive solution and exposure
to the humid air. As shown in figure 9(a), the contact of the metal with the solution containing
corrosive ions could easily corrode the surface. Whilst the air trapped in the surface grooves of
superhydrophobic substrates could act as an inherent insulator and hinder direct contact between
the corrosive media and the material. It leads to the corrosion resistance of superhydrophobic
surfaces [77, 170-172]. Moreover, Wang et al claimed that for the superhydrophobic surfaces
immersed in corrosive solution medium, the surface chemical composition, especially the presence
of long-chain hydrophobic groups, plays more important role in corrosion resistance in comparison
to the surface morphology [173].
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Figure 9: Models for corrosion resistance of superhydrophobic surfaces (a) in corrosive solution;
(b) in humid air [171].
On the other hand, during exposure of the sample to the humid air, the electrolyte film would form
due to the change of temperature and condensation of water vapor (Figure 9(b)). As the electrolyte
film is the carrier of electron, oxygen and carbon dioxide, the formation of electrolyte film results
in a sudden increase in corrosive rates [173]. On the superhydrophobic surface, the droplets created
after the condensation are isolated from each other among the surface asperities and the electron
cannot move freely. Consequently, the electro chemical reaction is hindered and leads to a low
corrosive rate of superhydrophobic surfaces [171]. Furthermore, it is worthwhile to note that in
comparison to surface chemical composition, the surface morphology has more effect on corrosion
resistance of superhydrophobic surfaces in humid air [173].
In regard to the different types of applications, there are numerous options for evaluating
corrosivity such as using deionized water, hydrochloric acid (HC1), KCl, Na2HPO4, NaHCO3, etc.
Moreover, corrosion is assessed using weight loss measurements, neutron reflectivity,
potentiodynamic curves, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The latter two
methods are the most practical means recently being used [159].
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3.2. Corrosion issues on aluminum surfaces
Aluminum is one of the most abundant metallic elements in the Earth’s crust, used for its good
thermal and electrical conductivity, high-specific strength, low specific weight, and barrier
properties. More than 40 million metric tons of aluminum are produced annually [174-176]. The
applications of aluminum alloys vary from household items, packaging, electrical appliances,
shipping, and construction, to aerospace, aircraft, and national defense applications [12, 177-179].
The corrosion resistance of aluminum in oxidizing media (air or water) is attributed to its inherent
and continuous surface oxide layer (AlxOy) having a thickness of a few nanometers, which
dramatically prevents subsequent oxidation. However, in some cases, exposing aluminum to high
concentrations of acids or alkaline solutions dissolves this oxide layer making it extremely
vulnerable to corrosion. This stable layer can also be broken down by a localized attack in the
presence of aggressive anions—such as halides, especially chloride ions—in solutions having pH
values between 4 and 9 [180-183]. Consequently, many approaches have been used to improve the
corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys in different environments.
Fabrication of superhydrophobic coatings on aluminum surfaces is a promising technique to slow
down or even prevent the degradation of the aluminum oxide layer. The improved corrosion
resistance of superhydrophobic surfaces relative to bare substrate is due to the presence of “air
valleys” lying between the hierarchical structures of superhydrophobic surfaces and the corrosive
environment. The variety of methods that have been used to construct superhydrophobic surfaces
can be divided into two categories: one-step and two-step methods. One-step methods offer a
simple way for the scaled-up production and industrial application of superhydrophobic surfaces
in which roughening the surface and its modification occurs in a single step [184]. Jafari and
Farzaneh [84] prepared a superhydrophobic surface using an environmental friendly and
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inexpensive method of spray coating of SiO2 or CaCO3 nanoparticles in stearic acid. A
nanocomposite of Al2O3 nanoparticles added to the silicone rubber solution was then applied as a
surface coating by spin coating method. A hierarchical superhydrophobic structure like that of
lotus leaves was achieved resulting in better corrosion resistance. The amount of surface free
energy was reduced by two orders of magnitude [7]. Song et al. [185] used fluoroalkylsilane in a
sodium chloride aqueous solution as an electrolyte to make a superhydrophobic surface via one-
step electrochemical machining. Numerous micro-scale rectangular plateaus were formed on the
pits and protrusions of the rough structure.
One of the most common approaches for fabricating superhydrophobic coatings on aluminum
surfaces is anodization. Anodization has been used as a one-step method to improve the anti-
corrosion properties of aluminum alloys. Porous- and barrier-type of aluminum surfaces were
achieved by anodization in the presence of an aqueous H2SO4 solution and aqueous H3BO4
solution, respectively [180]. The electrolyte solution of sodium molybdate in sulfuric acid was
used as an alternative to chromic acid in the anodization process to improve the corrosion
resistance of aluminum samples [186]. Liu et al. [187] developed a superhydrophobic aluminum
surface having a contact angle of 171.9˚ and low SA via the one-step anodization process. The
resulting superhydrophobic surface exhibited a porous surface and good corrosion resistance.
Fabrication of superhydrophobic coatings through the anodization process as a two-step method
followed by deposition of low surface energy materials can favor an increased resistance to
corrosion. Anodization parameters can have a significant impact on the surface morphology
leading to a drastic change of the surface non-wettability of samples [11, 97, 187, 188]. An increase
in some anodization parameters, including anodization time, anodization current density, and
electrolyte temperature separately led to an increase in the contact angle and the reduction of SAs.
22
Subsequently, further increases to these parameters resulted in a contact angle and an SA reaching
a constant value or even a deterioration (Figure 10) [97, 188]. Figure 11 shows SEM images of the
nano-structures of the oxide layer fabricated on aluminum in relation to anodization times. The
increase of the oxide layer thickness from 3 to 30 µm and the increased diameter of the pore-like
nano-structures were observed as anodization time increased from 1 to 20 min. However, longer
anodization times also led to thinner boundaries between the pores [11]. Achieving optimized
parameters is therefore critical to obtain optimal superhydrophobic surfaces.
Figure 10: (a) The effect of anodization current density; (b) anodization time on the water contact
angle [97].
23
Figure 11: (i) SEM images of aluminum oxide nano-structures fabricated over aluminum surface
with varying anodization intervals from 1 to 20 min; (ii) The morphological evolution of the
aluminum oxide layer during the anodization process [11].
Another point of interest is to apply a decent modifier to improve the superhydrophobicity. Low
surface energy materials such as long chain fatty acids can be applied as surface modifiers to
decrease the surface energy of an anodized aluminum surface. A superhydrophobic coating having
a high corrosion resistance was achieved by anodized aluminum alloys modified with myristic
acid. The oxide layer, covered by intertwined nanowires, formed on the surface having a WCA of
155.6˚ and an SA of 5.7˚. Electrochemical measurements indicated that the anti-corrosion potential
of the superhydrophobic coating increased significantly. The corrosion current density decreased
by more than four orders of magnitude compared to that of untreated surface (Table 1) [96]. Similar
results have been reported by other researchers [11, 189-191].
24
Low surface energy chemicals containing fluorine are also commonly used as surface modifiers in
two-step methods. Peng et al. [188] evaluated the superhydrophobicity and corrosion resistance of
an aluminum surface comparing two modifiers, 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecyltriethoxysilane
(PDES) and stearic acid. Regardless of the modifier used, surfaces were similar with high contact
angles and an SA as low as 0˚. However, electrochemical results indicated that surfaces modified
with PDES had more positive corrosion potential and lower corrosion current densities than those
treated with stearic acid. Therefore, PDES seems to be the better choice for enhancing the
corrosion resistance of aluminum surfaces.
Table 1: The results of potentiodynamic polarization curve of aluminum alloys with and without
superhydrophobic coatings in a 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution [96].
Samples Ecorr (V) icorr (A/cm2) WCA (˚)
Untreated sample -0.838 2.733 × 10–7 84.6 ± 0.4
Superhydrophobic sample 0.403 9.965 × 10–11 155.6 ± 1.0
Similar results were obtained from the electrochemical anodization of aluminum followed by a
grafting of long chain saturated fatty acids, perfluorinated fatty acid (PFODA), and
perfluorsulfonic acid–polytetrafluoroethylene copolymer (PFSA). It was found that the lower
surface energy of fluorine-containing modifiers—relative to fatty acids—led to higher contact
angles and a better superhydrophobicity. Electrochemical tests showed that anodized aluminum
grafted to PFODA had a much lower corrosion current density in comparison to the bare substrate
and anodized aluminum (Figure 12), again representing a better corrosion resistance [177]. Qian
and Shen [114] described a simple surface roughening method by chemical etching on
polycrystalline aluminum in a Beck’s dislocation etchant and further modification with
25
fluoroalkylsilane. The depth and width of the etched pits was positively related to the duration of
etching. Following the treatment with fluoroalkylsilane, the etched metallic surfaces exhibited
superhydrophobicity. Shi et al. [192] modified an acid-etched hydrophilic aluminum substrate by
using nano-silica particles and fluorosilane coating. Finally, a superhydrophobic aluminum surface
having a WCA of 155.7˚ was prepared by using hydrochloric acid followed by potassium
permanganate passivation and modification by fluoroalkyl-silane. The surface showed hierarchical
terrace-like structures and nano-scale coral-like network of bulge structures. Consequently, a
corrosion inhibition efficiency of about 83 % was obtained in comparison to the conventional two-
steps method of etching and modification [31].
Figure 12: Polarization curves of the bare, anodized, and chemically modified anodized aluminum
surface immersion in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution for 30 min [177].
26
3.2. Corrosion issues on copper surfaces
Copper is an important material used in a wide range of applications owing to its excellent
electrical and thermal conductivity, mechanical workability, fine appearance, malleability, and
relatively noble properties [95, 193]. Copper is used as a conductor in electrical power lines, in
pipelines for domestic and industrial water utilities, and as heat conductors and heat exchangers
[194]. However, copper as an active metal is susceptible to corrosion, particularly in the presence
of aggressive ions like chloride. The impact of chloride on copper corrosion within a corrosive
environment depends on the concentration of chloride, so that unstable films of CuCl and CuCl2̄
formed at lower concentrations and CuCl3̄ and CuCl4̄ formed at higher concentrations [195, 196].
Therefore, preventing the corrosion of copper has attracted much attention over the past years.
Organic inhibitor-containing polar groups [197], heterocyclic compounds such as azole derivatives
[195, 198-200], and conjugated double bonds [201] have been applied as copper corrosion
inhibitors. The main disadvantage of these inhibitors is their inherent toxicity having risks to the
environment and human health [202]. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) are another prevalent
approach that is limited in application due to its poor durability [203]. Moreover, the poor adhesion
and water permeability of the electroactive conducting polymer coatings (ECPs) restricts its use
as an anti-corrosive coating in very aggressive environments [204]. Therefore, a substitute method
for providing an effective, environmentally friendly, and long-lasting protection against copper
corrosion is sought. Superhydrophobic coatings represent an interesting approach for inhibiting
corrosion by reducing the contact area between water and copper surfaces. As such, research has
been carried out developing superhydrophobic surfaces on copper substrates by means including
electrodeposition [34, 100, 205, 206], anodization [95, 207], wet chemical reaction [32, 208], and
sol-gel [33, 101].
27
The advantages of the electrodeposition process are its low costs, ease of control, and versatility.
Use of the electrodeposition process and adjusting the related parameters can be a relatively simple
way to control surface morphology and non-wettability [100, 127, 206, 209]. For instance, with
the increase in deposition time, the morphology of the cathodic copper surface transformed from
blossom buds into nanostructure assemblies, flowers, and then into nanorods [209]. Liu et al. [205],
studying the effect of deposition time on surface adhesion, showed that as deposition time
increased, there was a transition of the wetting state from the high adhesive petal effect to the low
adhesive lotus state and a higher corrosion resistance due to this alteration of surface morphology.
The stability of superhydrophobic surfaces is an important factor when assessing performance in
corrosion inhibition as a lack of durability and stability is a limiting factor for the practical
application of superhydrophobic surfaces. Long-term stability is verified by testing the
superhydrophobicity of samples after being in storage at ambient conditions for several months
[33, 193, 206]. The non-wettability of a superhydrophobic surface prepared via electrodeposition
in an electrolytic buffer solution of zinc ions showed no significant difference after it was stored
for about eight months. When compared to bare copper, superhydrophobic surfaces with long-term
stability showed a 133-fold reduction of the corrosion rate and 99% decrease of corrosion current
density [206]. The chemical stability of superhydrophobic surfaces can be evaluated by testing the
influence of the acidity of water droplets on the non-wettability of the surface. Most studies showed
a negligible variation of contact angle and an SA across pH values ranging from 1.0 to 14.0 [193,
205, 210]. One of the major factors for the practical application of superhydrophobic surfaces is
mechanical stability. For instance, the change in surface roughness or impurities left on the surface
as a result of abrasion leads to the reduction of non-wettability [211]. Despite the importance of
mechanical stability, this has not been frequently studied. Figure 13 illustrates the destruction of
28
hierarchical structures after pulling a weight on the surface for 1.0 m at an applied pressure of
6.0 kPa leading to the decrement of the contact angle and increment of the SA. The hardness of
the superhydrophobic surface was also greater than that of bare substrate [34].
Figure 13: SEM images of the superhydrophobic surfaces (a) before abrasion; (b) after abrasion
for 1.0 m at applied pressure of 6.0 kPa [34].
Immersion time in corrosive environments also plays an important role in the corrosion behavior
of a given surface. Su et al [34] studied the effect of immersion time on the non-wettability
properties of superhydrophobic surfaces fabricated using the electrodeposition process in a
traditional Watts’ bath followed by a heating treatment in the presence of a fluorine-containing
modifier. After six days of immersion in water, the contact angle of the surface remained 150˚ and
the SA was less than 10˚. The non-wettability of a superhydrophobic surface prepared by the sol-
gel method in a basic solution showed no difference after storage in air for three months. However,
after 21 days of immersion in a NaCl solution, the contact angle appeared to be less than 150˚
[101]. The deterioration of corrosion resistance of the superhydrophobic copper sulfide film under
attack from chloride ions was also observed from the Bode plots after 48 h of immersion in a NaCl
solution [210]. As shown in Figure 14 (a), the decrease of contact angle with an increase in
29
immersion time is significant over the first four days. However, after five days or more, the contact
angle remained almost constant around 140˚. The polarization curves showed the increase of
current densities with the immersion time indicating the deterioration of barrier capability of the
film (Figure 14 (b)) [212]. Other studies have confirmed these results [33, 202, 209, 213].
Figure 14: (a) The effect of immersion time on the contact angle of a superhydrophobic surface
placed in a NaCl solution; (b) The polarization curves of bare substrate and a superhydrophobic
surface as a function of immersion time in a NaCl solution [212].
The study of the effect of capillarity and the immersion depth in a NaCl solution on corrosion
behavior showed that the NaCl solution could be in contact with the superhydrophobic film via
the two different models of Cassie-Baxter and Wenzel depending on the immersion depth [208].
As the superhydrophobic film was immersed deeper into a NaCl solution, liquid penetrated the
cavities and followed the Wenzel model. On the other hand, as immersion depth decreased, the
Cassie model was attained with bright superhydrophobic surfaces and a higher stability. The
interface model and equivalent circuits of superhydrophobic surfaces in the Cassie and Wenzel
models can be observed in Figure 15 and 16.
30
Figure 15: (a) The interface model; (b) and (c) equivalent circuits in the Cassie mode for the
superhydrophobic sample placed in a 3.5% NaCl solution [208].
Figure 16: (a) The interface model; (b) and (c) equivalent circuits in the Wenzel mode for a
superhydrophobic sample immersed in a 3.5% NaCl solution [208].
3.3. Corrosion issues on magnesium surfaces
Magnesium is one of the most promising green engineering materials and the lightest of all metals
used as the basis for constructional alloys. This material possesses many favorable characteristics
including a high strength to weight ratio, low specific gravity, high thermal conductivity, good
shock adsorption capacity, good machinability, and recyclability. Magnesium and its alloys have
attracted great interest due to their potential applications as biological materials and their use in
the automotive, aerospace, and electronic industries [129, 214]. The high affinity of Mg for oxygen
leads to the formation of a thin layer of magnesium oxide on its surface in a dry air atmosphere.
However, in the presence of even a low amount of relative humidity, the hydration of that oxide
layer results in the formation of brittle layer of magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 with a weak
adherence to the metal [215]. Therefore, Mg corrosion easily occurs in aqueous solutions or in a
humid atmosphere thereby seriously hindering its outdoor applications [129]. It is crucial to
generate an anti-corrosive surface for Mg without sacrificing the dominant and favorable physical
31
and mechanical properties. Chemical conversion, electroplating, and anodic oxidation are some
means used to ameliorate the corrosion resistance of magnesium alloy [216, 217]. The formation
of pores, pin holes, cracks, etc. during these methods is, so far, unavoidable. These defects provide
channels into which water penetrates, deteriorating the corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys
[211]. Fabrication of superhydrophobic coatings on Mg and its alloys is an effective means of
reducing surface corrosion. Various methods have been employed to fabricate these surfaces such
as etching [88, 89, 171], electrodeposition [129, 211, 218], wet chemical reactions [21, 219, 220],
and hydrothermal synthesis [135, 221, 222].
Electrodeposition is a common method for the fabrication of superhydrophobic surfaces on
magnesium alloys. Liu et al. [130] developed a one-step, environmental friendly technique to
fabricate hierarchical micro- and nano-scale structures having a better corrosion resistance. The
structures were made in the presence of cerium nitrate hexahydrate and myristic acid as a surface
modifier. Liu and Kang [129] demonstrated that electrodeposition of a cobalt coating followed by
modification with stearic acid produced cotton-like structures and leaf-like clusters on a
superhydrophobic surface (Figure 17). According to the Cassie-Baxter equation, the area fraction
of the air trapped within the interstices of the micro/nano-structures was 87.4 %. As such, the
obtained superhydrophobic surface demonstrated excellent corrosion resistance [129].
32
Figure 17: SEM images of the copper superhydrophobic surface at various magnifications [129].
Zn-Co coating with post-modification of the magnesium alloy had an attractive anti-corrosive
behavior. The good stability of the rough texture on the surface was detected with the immersion
test, finger pressing, and abrasion with sandpaper [211]. She et al. [223] achieved the pinecone-
like hierarchical structures by Ni electrodeposition on the magnesium surface. After modification
with stearic acid, the as-prepared superhydrophobic surface showed a low corrosion rate that was
only 0.003 % of the bare magnesium alloy’s rate with good mechanical and chemical stability. In
another study, a highly anti-corrosive Ni-Co coating on magnesium alloy was prepared [218]. The
addition of cobalt led to flower-like hierarchical structures and better superhydrophobicity.
Furthermore, as seen in Table 2, a lower corrosion rate was observed on Ni-Co superhydrophobic
surfaces relative to those containing Ni. In terms of combination of metal ions and fatty acids as a
superhydrophobic coating, Wang et al. [224] developed a superhydrophobic surface by using a Cu
coating and She et al. [225] electrodeposited a Cu-Zn alloy coating followed by modification with
lauric acid. In the presence of Cu, cylindrical forms with cone-shape structures were detected.
However, feather-like CuO structures were formed on a surface coated by Cu-Zn. There was no
33
difference in the superhydrophobicity and corrosion resistance for surfaces electrodeposited by Cu
versus those by Cu-Zn ions.
Table 2: The results of potentiodynamic corrosion test of the magnesium surface with and without
superhydrophobic coating when immersed in a 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution [218].
Samples Ecorr (V) icorr (A/cm2) Corrosion rate
(mm/a)
Bare substrate -1.597 1.5 × 10–5 3.3 × 10–1
Ni superhydrophobic surface -0.333 2.0 × 10–8 4.2 × 10–4
Ni-Co superhydrophobic surface -0.172 9.2 × 10–9 2.0 × 10–4
The hydrothermal method is another approach for obtaining uniform and reproducible
superhydrophobic surfaces. A hydrothermal process, with subsequent modification with
fluoroalkylsilane, was used to construct a flower-like hierarchical microstructure. As shown in
Figure 18, numerous crystallites having a flake morphology formed these flower-like protrusions.
After modification, the corrosion current density decreased by more than three orders of magnitude
and the corrosion potential increased, meaning a greater corrosion resistance [226]. Gao et al. [214,
227] developed a superhydrophobic coating having a good corrosion resistance through use of a
hydrothermal process in the presence of hydrogen peroxide and further modification with
fluoroalkylsilane. By increasing the reaction time, the morphology of the szaibelyite evolved from
a fibrous microstructure to spherical-like structures.
34
Figure 18: SEM images of the hydromagnesite film layer at different magnifications [226].
Post-modification of a hydrothermal-treated surface with stearic acid and PFOTES led to the petal-
like structure and an excellent corrosion protection [124, 221]. Ou et al. [124] compared
hydrothermally-treated and chemically-etched samples. It was shown that superhydrophobic
surfaces based on the hydrothermal technique were more effective in corrosion protection mainly
because of the generation of hydroxide or oxide layers on the surfaces. Wang et al. [135] developed
an anti-corrosion superhydrophobic surface with long-term stability and an anti-bacterial adhesion
effect. After modification with stearic acid, the wettability of the surface had changed from
superhydrophilicity to the superhydrophobicity. The corrosion behavior of the samples after a
long-term immersion in Hank’s solution are presented in Figure 19. After 80 days, the substrate
had corroded significantly, however the corrosion area of the superhydrophobic sample was much
smaller in comparison to the bare substrate and superhydrophilic samples.
35
Figure 19: Optical images of the bare substrate, the samples with superhydrophilic film and
superhydrophobic film after 80 days in Hank's solution [135].
3.4. Corrosion issues on steel surfaces
Steel and its alloys is one of the most essential and beneficial engineered materials and they play
an important role in our daily lives as well as in industrial applications, such as construction,
infrastructure, transportation, electrification, the maritime industry, etc. Annual worldwide
production of crude steel is more than 1.5 billion tons [176, 228, 229]. There are thousands of
different types of steel to fulfill the multiple purposes of use. Differences are based upon their
chemical composition, often combinations of iron, carbon, chromium, tungsten, copper,
aluminum, and manganese. Varying the amounts of alloying elements will modify its properties
such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength. Carbon steel and stainless steel are the two
well-established grades of steel. By increasing the carbon content in steel from 0.25 % to 2 %,
36
carbon steel is produced. Because of its low cost and high strength, carbon steel is one of the most
common materials used in marine applications, chemical processing, petroleum production,
refining, etc. Stainless steel is a low carbon steel generally containing 10–20 % chromium as the
main alloying element and is valued for comparatively good corrosion resistance. The broad
spectrum of stainless steel applications includes the petrochemical, construction, maritime, and
aviation industries [230, 231]. However, even stainless steel is corroded under harsh conditions in
the presence of halogen ions [99]. Despite the better corrosion resistance of stainless steel, carbon
steel is widely used in corrosive media as the cost per weight and cost per sample is 4–6× and 9–
14× cheaper, respectively [232-235]. The dominant cause of the failure of structures is steel
corrosion. Evidently, steel corrosion is responsible for about 40% of structures’ destruction
assessed at as much as $14 billion annually for the United States alone [236]. Consequently, it is
a major challenge to increase the stability of steel alloys under corrosive environments. The
development of superhydrophobic surfaces is of great interest to improve the corrosion resistance
of steel and expand its applications. Etching [38, 119, 230], templating [113, 237, 238], spray
coating [3, 239, 240], and anodization [94, 241] are some of the techniques used to create
superhydrophobic surfaces on steel substrates.
The study of the corrosion resistance of superhydrophobic nanocomposite coatings of metals in
combination with an underlying oxide layer has attracted much attention [99, 102, 242]. A
multilayer superhydrophobic nanocomposite coating atop oxide sublayers, including magnetite
coatings and composite coatings produced by plasma electrolyte oxidation (PEO) have been
developed for low carbon steel. The nanocomposite coatings on top of a PEO oxide coating showed
more corrosion resistance and durability [102]. The silica nanoparticles were deposited on a PEO
sublayer to prepare the anti-corrosive surfaces. The higher values of polarization resistance and
37
impedance modulus having lower corrosion currents confirmed the better corrosion resistance of
the superhydrophobic surfaces [242].
Nickel is one of the indispensable engineering materials due to its good properties like high
corrosion resistance, hardness and magnetism. The anti-corrosive behavior of Ni-based
superhydrophobic coatings fabricated by electrodeposition mechanism have been examined so far
[128, 243, 244]. Xiang et al. [245] produced a superhydrophobic coating by electrodeposition of
nickel with further surface modification with myristic acid on a low carbon steel. As shown in
Figure 20, a great number of hierarchical starfish-like structure are deposited on the substrate at
the current density of 8 A/dm2. Furthermore, there were several void spaces and grooves among
them leading to the higher air trapped content. As such, this achieved high WCA and good
corrosion resistance. By using stearic acid as surface modification and at the current density of 60
A/dm2, the surface was covered with homogeneously tortoise-shell-like structure [246]. A
superhydrophobic surface with a WCA as high as 160.4˚ was fabricated based on electrodeposited
nickel-graphene hybrid film. The corrosion current density of superhydrophobic surface decreased
up to 0.005% and polarization resistance showed about 1.88×104 times increase [247]. In the
presence of tungsten disulphide nanoparticles, the surface roughness and consequently WCA and
corrosion resistance was enhanced. By the increase of nanoparticle content up to 20 g dm-3, the
surface roughness was changed from coarse to porous surface. In addition, it leads to higher
reduction of current density with good mechanical stability [248].
38
Figure 20: SEM images of the superhydrophobic nickel coatings at (a) low and (b) high
magnification [245].
To fabricate superhydrophobic coatings, templating is another useful method. For instance, a
Xanthosoma sagittifolium leaf was used as the template to replicate its papillary nano-structures
by means of nanocasting onto cold rolled steel electrodes [237]. Formation of anodic protection of
the electroactive epoxy coating that reduced corrosion rates and/or water repellency of the
superhydrophobic coating led to the enhancement of corrosion protection. By replacing the epoxy
with a polyaniline coating, which has a good processability and a comparatively low cost, Chang
et al. [249] obtained many micro-scale mastoids covered by nano-scale wrinkles. Furthermore, the
non-wettability and corrosion resistance of these coatings had an almost insignificant difference
[113]. Chang et al. [249] also synthesized an electroactive polyimide and then used a nanocasting
technique to replicate the nanostructure of Xanthosoma sagittifolium leaves. They produced a
biomimetic superhydrophobic electroactive polyimide (SEPI) having a similar morphology as the
leaf, a high WCA, and better corrosion resistance. Peng et al. [238] fabricated the
superhydrophobic plant leaf structure onto cold rolled steel by means of environmentally friendly
epoxy coating and nanocasting with a subsequent UV-curing technique. Rapid production rates,
lower costs, and solvent free curing at room temperature are some of the advantages of UV-curing
39
relative to other curing techniques. After keeping the steel at room temperature for one month,
there were negligible changes of the WAC, confirming a good durability. As shown in Figure 21,
they observed papillary-like microstructures, the reduction of the corrosion current density by
more than two orders of magnitude, and more positive values of corrosion potential.
Figure 21: (a) Potentiodynamic polarization curve of the bare coating with smooth surface and
coating with superhydrophobic surface of cold rolled steel; (b) the SEM image of the
superhydrophobic surface with Xanthosoma sagittifolium leaf-like microstructure; (c) top-view
of the surface; (d) side-view of the surface [238].
Summary
Nature-inspired superhydrophobic surfaces have received enormous attention due to their specific
properties and potential industrial applications. Fundamental theories for describing wetting
phenomena on superhydrophobic surfaces derive from the work of Young, Wenzel, and Cassie-
Baxter. The combination of surface roughness and low surface energy materials are essential for
creating superhydrophobic surfaces.
The corrosion of metals such as aluminum, copper, magnesium, and steel can waste natural
resources and degrade infrastructure. Improving the corrosion resistance of these metals is a
40
remarkable application of superhydrophobic surfaces. In this review, we summarize the corrosion
resistance of superhydrophobic coatings for a range of metal surfaces. Potentiodynamic
polarization curves are commonly used to compare the corrosion resistance of different substrates.
Studies of corrosion resistant superhydrophobic surfaces highlight a shift of corrosion potential to
positive values and a reduction of more than two orders of magnitude of corrosion current density.
The reduction of the water contact area and the formation of air barriers diminishes the interaction
between such metal surfaces and liquid. This leads to superb corrosion resistance and a lower
corrosion rate. Furthermore, long-lasting superhydrophobicity and corrosion resistance of these
surfaces hold promise for practical applications in both daily life and industrial needs. As such,
research into superhydrophobic surfaces as barriers against the corrosion of metals demands more
consideration.
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