PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT
• An argument has two basic parts:
• Claims—the ideas that writers want us to believe or
act on
• Evidence—the reasoning based on facts, emotional
appeals designed to affect our feelings, and ethical
appeals based on trusting the writer’s credibility and
motives
PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT (CONT.)
Strong written arguments should include counterarguments and
refutations.
• Counterargument—the oppositions’ position on the topic.
• Refutation—The writer’s response to the counterargument.
REFUTE THE COUNTERARGUMENTS
Important! In order to persuade effectively, you should:
• Pull in the key counterargument(s) to your argument.
—AND—
• Offer a refutation those counterarguments to strengthen
your overall argument and make your readers more likely to
be persuaded.
Don’t let your argument be one-sided!
TOUMLIN ARGUMENT
• Model for an argument, developed by Stephen Toumlin
• Argument has three basic parts:
• The claim is the assertion, or thesis, being proved in the work.
• The support is the evidence the author provides to convince the
audience of his/her claim, such as facts, examples, statistics, and
expert testimony. This can also include appeals.
• The warrants are the underlying assumptions or beliefs behind
the claim and support. They may or may not be stated.
TOUMLIN ARGUMENT
• Warrants
• Can act as links between the claim and the support
• Reflect our observations, our personal experience, and our participation in a culture
• They are often broad generalizations that can apply to a number of different situations (whereas the claim is specific)
• Most importantly, cultural associations vary.
• This is where you need to keep perspectives of others in mind. If you don’t, your audience members who operate under different assumptions than you do will automatically reject your argument.
TOUMLIN ARGUMENT EXAMPLE
Claim: Laws making marijuana illegal should be repealed.
Support: People should have the right to use any
substance they wish.
Warrant: No laws should prevent citizens from exercising
their rights.
• People may disagree about how much the government
and laws should interfere with people’s lives.
TOUMLIN ARGUMENT EXAMPLE
Claim: Development will bring undesirable changes to the present way of life on the Eastern shore, a life of farming and fishing, peace and quiet.
Support: Developers will build express highways, condominiums, casinos, and nightclubs.
Warrant: A pastoral way of life of fishing and farming is superior to the way of life brought by expensive, fast-paced modern development.
• Is it better? Some may agree, while others believe in the benefits of modern development.
YOUR TURN…
• Claim: People should adopt a vegan diet (meat, egg,
and dairy-free diet).
• Support:
• Warrant:
YOUR TURN…
• Claim: People should adopt a vegan lifestyle.
• Support:
• You’ll slim down, have more energy, and be healthier.
• It can help prevent cancer and diabetes and promotes heart
health.
• No animals die for any meals that you eat.
• There are lots of alternatives to meat and dairy products
available in most grocery stores.
• Meals without meat are less expensive.
YOUR TURN…
• Claim: People should adopt a vegan lifestyle.
• Warrants:
• It’s healthier.
• Is it always?
• It’s ethical and compassionate (emphasis on animal rights).
• Do you agree? There are varying opinions on this.
• It’s better for the environment.
• Is it really?
APPEALS
• Appeals—A writer appeals to
the audience in different ways
in an effort to persuade them.
In Rhetoric, Aristotle (384 –
322 BC) described the three
means of persuasion:
• Logos—logical
• Pathos—emotional
• Ethos—ethical
APPEALS
The appeals convince the audience in
different ways:
• Logos—logic, facts, and sound
reasoning strengthen the support.
• Pathos—emotion in the argument
engages the audience and elicits a
response from them.
• Ethos—the author gains trust and
authority (credibility) from the audience.
APPEALS—LOGOS
Logos (Logical)—logical reasoning
based on sound principals of inductive
and deductive reasoning.
• The author has avoided logical
fallacies
• The argument is based on factual
evidence (facts cannot be
disputed)
“The use of reason is more distinctive of a human being
than the use of his limbs.”—Aristotle
APPEALS—PATHOS
Pathos (Emotional)—that arouse the audience’s emotions: sympathy, patriotism, pride, anger, and other feelings based on values, beliefs, and motives.
• These are often description or narratives (stories about people).
• Emotions can be used to encourage your audience to support your ideas.
“Every action must be due to one or other of seven
causes: chance, nature, compulsion, habit, reasoning,
anger, or appetite.”—Aristotle
APPEALS—PATHOS
Warning! Be careful that your argument isn’t overly emotional. This can cause your audience to interpret your argument as a rant and/or see your ideas as less credible because they are overly influenced by emotion.
Hint: Just like the tone of your writing should not come across as a rant, the sources you use
should not come across as angry rants either. Using biased sources can cause you to lose
credibility with your audience as well.
APPEALS—ETHOS
Ethos (Ethical)—based on the
audience’s impressions,
opinions, and judgments about
the author and his/her
character.
• These judgments play into
the author’s credibility and
how much the audience
trusts what he/she is saying.
“Character may almost be called the most effective means
of persuasion.”—Aristotle
APPEALS—ETHOS (CONT.)
Questions to consider:
• How does the author establish credibility?
• How does the author prove he/she is knowledgeable,
trustworthy, and fair?
• What are the author’s credentials?
• Has the author provided counterarguments?
ETHOS EXAMPLE
One example that may help is the “Letter from Birmingham Jail” by Martin Luther kind Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. understood the power of ethos (establishing credibility with the audience) full well. He was able to convey in writing a respect for subject and audience, an intelligence and superior degree of knowledge, that combined to create for him enormous credibility:
In his "Letter from Birmingham Jail," King calmly explains to several priests, rabbis, and ministers in Birmingham who felt he was an "outside agitator," unwelcomed in their town, why he joined the protests in Birmingham. In the first paragraph, he uses an even, rational tone. He cites the Apostle Paul in the second paragraph.
These help to build King's ethical appeal within an audience that is very hostile toward his actions. "He leaves his readers with the firm impression that he is a person of intelligence, virtue and goodwill arguing a just cause and it is in his words, sentences, and allusions that King establishes his character" (Horner 54).
Adapted from: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp1/ethos.htm
ETHOS & THE HOSTILE AUDIENCE
• Ethos can be especially important in dealing
with a hostile an audience—when most of
your audience will disagree with your
stance.
• Tips:
• Know the audience’s position better
than they know it themselves. This will
help you make your case stronger.
• Be sensitive to the audience.
• Let your audience know that what you
are saying matters to them and that
you are worth listening to.
PRACTICELet’s practice identifying appeals in an argument.
• The situation: You are arguing that there should be a law
that prohibits drivers from using their cell phones while
driving.
• On a piece a paper, jot down some examples for each kind
of appeal that could be used in this argument.
Appeals Examples
Logical -Studies about dangers of cell phone use while driving
-Studies on distraction
-Studies on reaction times and multitasking
-Studies the number of accidents caused from cell phone use
-Driver safety manuals
-Whether there are laws concerning cell phone use while driving
Emotional -Personal stories of loss from accidents caused by cell phone use while driving
-Especially examples involving children
Ethical Using expert testimony:
-Chief of Police
-Paramedics
-People in accidents caused by cell phone use while driving
-Emergency responders
-Your own experiences
Using credible , reliable sources of information (Department of Revenue, Traffic
Safety Commission, scientific studies, etc.)
Addressing the opposition (including counterarguments) and refutations
ROGERIAN ARGUMENT
• Developed by Carl Rogers
• Goal of this model for using this model for argument is to bridge
the conflict with opponents by finding common ground.
• Video on Rogerian Argument
Acknowledges Opposition
•The author
acknowledges
some of the
opponent’s
arguments
Presents Claim
•Then, the
author
explains
his/her point of
view
Finds Common Ground
• The author
moves toward
a final position
that involves
compromise
and agreement
LOGICAL FALLACIES
Logical fallacies are poor logic, and they should be avoided.
• If there are logical fallacies in your argument, it will weaken the
argument, which will make you less likely to persuade your
audience.
Hasty Generalization - A conclusion
reached with too few examples or with
examples that are not representative.
• Example: A man suffering from
depression murdered people at
his place of work. Therefore, all
people with depression are
potentially dangerous.
LOGICAL FALLACIES
LOGICAL FALLACIES
Ad Hominem - Attacking the
individual instead of the argument.
• Example: You are so stupid your
argument couldn't possibly be
true.
• Example: I figured that you
couldn't possibly get it right, so I
ignored your comment.
Post hoc, ergo propter hoc—Latin for “after this, therefore because of this.” When one event is followed by another event, and people mistakenly assume that the first event caused the second.
• Example: A new solar field was connected, and then power went out in the city. Precautions need to be taken when new forms of energy are added to the grid.
LOGICAL FALLACIES
LOGICAL FALLACIES
Appeal to Pity - Urging the hearer to accept the argument based upon
an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc. Example: You owe me big time
because I really stuck my neck out for you.
• Example: A BBC News article, ”Jurors shown graphic 9/11 images,” gives another
clear example of an appeal to pity:
“A US jury has been shown graphic images of people burned to death in the
11 September 2001 attack on the Pentagon. The jurors will decide whether
al-Qaeda plotter Zacarias Moussaoui should be executed or jailed for life…
Prosecutors hope such emotional evidence will persuade the jury to opt for
the death penalty.”
Bandwagon Appeal- Urging the hearer to accept a position because a majority of people hold to it.
• Example: The majority of people think something is a good idea. Therefore, it is a good idea.
• Remember, even if 50 million people believe in a fallacy, it’s still a fallacy.
LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)
Straw Man: One side of the argument is presented as so extreme that no one will agree with it. Often this is done by referring to the exception, rather than the rule, and inferring that the exception is the rule.
Examples:
• “All PETA supporters support the bombing or destruction of laboratories.”
• “If you surrender your freedoms, the terrorists have already won. You don’t want that, do you?”
• “Hitler supported gun control, you know.”
LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)
LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)
Cause and Effect - Assuming that the effect
is related to a cause because the events
occur together. Just because two events
happen together, that doesn’t mean they are
related.
• Example: When the rooster crows,
the sun rises. Therefore, the rooster
causes the sun to rise.
• Example: When the fuel light goes
on in my car, I soon run out of
gas. Therefore, the fuel light causes
my car to run out of gas.
Appeal to Tradition - Trying to get someone to accept something because it has been done or believed for a long time.
• Example: This is the way we've always done it. Therefore, it must be the best way.
• Remember, just because it’s the way something has always been done it doesn’t mean it’s logical.
LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)
LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)
Circular Argument—Argument goes in
circles because the claim and evidence
have the same meaning.
• Example: Bob Smith is the most
successful mayor the town has
ever had because he's the best
mayor of our history.
LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)
Non Sequitur - Comments or information that do
not logically follow from a premise or the
conclusion.
Examples:
• It rained today because I washed my car.
• If you do not buy this type of pet food, you
are neglecting your dog.
• The administration must know where the
WMDs are, or they wouldn’t have sent
American troops into look for them.
MORE LOGICAL FALLACIES
• For more logical fallacies, see the Illustrated Book of Bad Arguments.