AS 1418.12002 (Incorporating Amendment No. 1)
Australian Standard
Cranes, hoists and winches
Part 1: General requirements
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This Australian Standard was prepared by Committee ME-005, Cranes, General. It was approved on behalf of the Council of Standards Australia on 15 February 2002.
This Standard was published on 20 June 2002.
The following are represented on Committee ME-005:
Association of Consulting Engineers Australia
Australian Elevator Association
Australian Industry Group
Australian Institute for Non-destructive Testing
Bureau of Steel Manufacturers of Australia
Crane Industry Council of Australia
Department of Administrative and Information Services (SA)
Department of Industrial Relations (Qld)
Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources (Tas)
Department of Labour New Zealand
Institution of Engineers Australia
State Chamber of Commerce
University of New South Wales
Victorian WorkCover Authority
WorkCover New South Wales
WorkSafe Western Australia
Keeping Standards up-to-date
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We also welcome suggestions for improvement in our Standards, and especially encourage readers to notify us immediately of any apparent inaccuracies or ambiguities. Contact us via email at [email protected], or write to the Chief Executive, Standards Australia International Ltd, GPO Box 5420, Sydney, NSW 2001.
This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 00321.
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AS 1418.12002 (Incorporating Amendment No. 1)
Australian Standard
Cranes, hoists and winches
Part 1: General requirements
Originated as part of AS CB21938. Previous edition 1994. Fourth edition 2002. Reissued incorporating Amendment No.1 (November 2004)
COPYRIGHT
Standards Australia International
All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written
permission of the publisher.
Published by Standards Australia International Ltd GPO Box 5420, Sydney, NSW 2001,
Australia
ISBN 0 7337 4372 2
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AS 1418.12002 2
PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Standards Australia Committee ME-005, Cranes, to
supersede AS 1418.11994, SAA Crane Code, Part 1: General requirements.
This Standard incorporates Amendment No. 1 (November 2004). The changes required by the
Amendment are indicated in the text by a marginal bar and amendment number against the
clause, note, table, figure or part thereof affected.
The objective of this Standard is to provide uniform requirements within Australia for the
design and construction of cranes and similar lifting appliances.
Requirements that apply to more than one type of crane are included in Part 1: General
requirements. Any requirements that apply to only one type of crane should only appear in
the specific part for that crane and not in Part 1. Some requirements have been deleted from
this Standard and are being moved to their applicable Part.
The term shall is used to indicate those requirements that have to be met for compliance
with the objectives and intent of this Standard.
The Commonwealth, State and Territory governments may choose to incorporate this
Australian Standard into their laws and regulations. The exact manner of incorporation will
determine whether the whole document is incorporated or whether specific sections or
provisions of the Australian Standard are incorporated. The manner of incorporation will
determine which of the Standards requirements (shall statements) have been made a legal
requirement in a jurisdiction. As a general principle, where an Australian Standard is
incorporated by a regulation, the legal status of the Standards requirements and
recommendations is made clear by the incorporation of provisions of the regulation.
Thus, the requirements (shall statements) in an Australian Standard are not mandatory for
legal purposes unless incorporated specifically by an Act or regulation. Readers will need to
refer to their jurisdictions law to determine which parts of the Australian Standard (if any)
have been incorporated and the manner of incorporation.
This Standard deviates from ISO 11660.1 in regard to access requirements for safety
reasons.
This revision includes the following changes:
(a) The maximum temperature of touchable surfaces is now 55C.
(b) The term safe working load has been changed to rated capacity and other uses of
the word safe have been avoided due to the legal significance placed on the word.
(c) Reference to approval by the relevant authority has been removed to reflect the
current regulatory environment.
(d) Tear-out/tear-off forces for cranes equipped with magnets or grabs have to be taken
into consideration.
(e) There is a new method of calculating the hoisting factor (2), which is taken from
DIN 15018.
(f) Out-of-service wind loads are now considered additional loads instead of special
loads.
(g) Transport loads have to be taken into consideration where the crane is transported
during its life.
(h) The design of monorail beams has been moved to a new Part 18: Runways and
monorails.
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3 AS 1418.12002
(i) The factor of safety against drifting during operation has changed to 1.5.
(j) The design life of mechanisms may be less than 10 years provided this is
documented.
(k) In determining the group classification of mechanisms, an adjustment to an equivalent
number of running hours is allowed after the load spectrum factor has been set.
(l) Requirements for gearing have been expanded.
(m) Requirements for hoisting, travel, and traverse motion brakes have been expanded.
(n) A minimum worn wheel flange thickness has been defined.
(o) Hookbolts used for rail fastening are required to be ductile.
(p) Detachable parts are required to be designed for safe assembly and disassembly.
(q) The attachment of hooks directly attached to structural members is required to be
designed such that no bending moment is experienced by the hook shank.
(r) Some requirements for counterweights have been added.
(s) Requirements for controllers have been revised.
(t) Requirements for limit switches have been revised.
(u) Motor protection requirements have been revised.
(v) Mention is made of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and phase sequence
protection.
(w) Extra requirements for cranes with lifting magnets have been added.
(x) Emergency egress requirements have been revised.
(y) Requirements for installation of cranes in hazardous areas have been revised to
interface with recently revised applicable Standards.
(z) Requirements for operators and maintenance manuals have been added.
Questions concerning the meaning, the application, or effect of any part of this Standard,
may be referred to the Standards Australia Committee on Cranes. The authority of the
Committee is limited to matters of interpretations and it will not adjudicate in disputes.
Statements expressed in mandatory terms in notes to tables and figures are deemed to be
requirements of this Standard.
The terms normative and informative have been used in this Standard to define the
application of the appendix to which they apply. A normative appendix is an integral part
of a Standard, whereas an informative appendix is only for information and guidance.
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AS 1418.12002 4
CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD.............................................................................................................................. 8
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL
1.1 NEW DESIGNS, INNOVATIONS AND DESIGN METHODS ................................. 9
1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS .................................................................................. 9
1.3 DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................ 9
1.4 NOTATION .............................................................................................................. 10
1.5 CONTACT SURFACE TEMPERATURE................................................................. 10
SECTION 2 CLASSIFICATION OF CRANES
2.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................... 11
2.2 GENERAL ................................................................................................................ 11
2.3 GROUP CLASSIFICATION..................................................................................... 12
SECTION 3 MATERIALS FOR CRANES
3.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................... 15
3.2 MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS............................................................................... 15
SECTION 4 CRANE LOADS
4.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................... 16
4.2 REFERENCE TO OTHER PARTS OF THIS STANDARD...................................... 16
4.3 DETERMINATION OF CRANE LOADS ................................................................ 16
4.4 CATEGORIZATION OF CRANE LOADS............................................................... 16
4.5 PRINCIPAL LOADS................................................................................................. 17
4.6 ADDITIONAL LOADS ............................................................................................ 25
4.7 SPECIAL LOADS..................................................................................................... 28
4.8 PRINCIPLES FOR DETERMINATION OF CRANE LOAD COMBINATIONS..... 30
SECTION 5 DESIGN OF CRANE STRUCTURE
5.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................ 33
5.2 BASIS OF DESIGN .................................................................................................. 33
5.3 DESIGN OBJECTIVE............................................................................................... 35
5.4 METHOD OF DESIGN............................................................................................. 35
5.5 FATIGUE STRENGTH............................................................................................. 35
5.6 DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY DEFLECTION AND VIBRATION .................. 36
SECTION 6 STABILITY
6.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................... 37
6.2 OVERTURNING....................................................................................................... 37
6.3 STABILITY DURING ERECTION AND MAINTENANCE ................................... 37
6.4 SAFETY AGAINST DRIFTING............................................................................... 37
SECTION 7 CRANE MECHANISMS
7.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................ 39
7.2 MECHANISMS......................................................................................................... 39
7.3 BASIS OF DESIGN .................................................................................................. 39
7.4 MECHANISM LOADINGS ...................................................................................... 42
7.5 PRINCIPAL LOADS................................................................................................. 43
7.6 ADDITIONAL LOADS ............................................................................................ 45 Acc
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7.7 SPECIAL LOADS..................................................................................................... 45
7.8 CATEGORIZATION OF FREQUENCY OF MECHANISM LOAD
COMBINATIONS..................................................................................................... 46
7.9 PRINCIPLES FOR DETERMINING MECHANISM LOAD COMBINATIONS ..... 46
7.10 MECHANICAL COMPONENTS ............................................................................. 51
7.11 DRIVING MEDIA .................................................................................................... 53
7.12 BRAKING................................................................................................................. 53
7.13 MOTION LIMITS, INDICATORS AND WARNING DEVICES ............................. 57
7.14 ROPES AND REEVED SYSTEMS .......................................................................... 58
7.15 GUYS, OTHER FIXED-ROPE SYSTEMS, AND STATIONARY ROPES ............... 58
7.16 REEVED SYSTEMS................................................................................................. 59
7.17 SHEAVES ................................................................................................................. 62
7.18 DRUM AND SHEAVE DIAMETERS ...................................................................... 62
7.19 DRUMS..................................................................................................................... 63
7.20 WHEEL AND RAIL SYSTEMS ............................................................................... 66
7.21 GUIDES FOR MOVING PARTS.............................................................................. 83
7.22 DETACHABLE PARTS............................................................................................ 83
7.23 DIRECTLY FITTED HOOKS................................................................................... 83
7.24 COUNTERWEIGHTS............................................................................................... 83
SECTION 8 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT AND CONTROLS
8.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................... 84
8.2 MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT............................................................................ 84
8.3 INFORMATION RELEVANT TO DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEM.............. 84
8.4 MOTORS .................................................................................................................. 85
8.5 MOTOR CONTROL ................................................................................................. 85
8.6 CONTACTORS......................................................................................................... 86
8.7 CONTROLLERS (see also Section 11) ..................................................................... 87
8.8 LIMIT SWITCHES (see also Clause 7.13) ................................................................ 93
8.9 CONTROL CIRCUITS.............................................................................................. 95
8.10 ELECTRICAL ISOLATION ..................................................................................... 96
8.11 ELECTRICAL PROTECTION................................................................................ 101
8.12 HIGH-VOLTAGE SUPPLY TO CRANES ............................................................. 104
8.13 CRANES WITH MAGNET ATTACHMENTS....................................................... 104
8.14 WIRING AND CONDUCTORS ............................................................................. 108
8.15 ACCESSIBILITY.................................................................................................... 111
8.16 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT MARKING AND INSTALLATION DIAGRAMS.. 111
SECTION 9 HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT AND CONTROLS
9.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................. 112
9.2 MATERIALS .......................................................................................................... 112
9.3 BASIS OF DESIGN ................................................................................................ 112
9.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ............................................................................................. 113
9.5 COMPONENTS ...................................................................................................... 113
9.6 INSTALLATION .................................................................................................... 115
9.7 TESTING ................................................................................................................ 115
9.8 MARKING .............................................................................................................. 115
9.9 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ................................................................... 115
SECTION 10 PNEUMATIC EQUIPMENT AND CONTROLS
10.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................. 116
10.2 MATERIALS .......................................................................................................... 116
10.3 BASIS OF DESIGN ................................................................................................ 116
10.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ............................................................................................. 117 Acc
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10.5 COMPONENTS ...................................................................................................... 117
10.6 INSTALLATION .................................................................................................... 118
10.7 TESTING ................................................................................................................ 118
10.8 MARKING .............................................................................................................. 118
10.9 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ................................................................... 118
SECTION 11 OPERATIONAL DESIGN
11.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................. 119
11.2 CONTROL CABIN ................................................................................................. 119
11.3 PENDENT CONTROL STATIONS AND PENDENT CORDS.............................. 121
11.4 OPERATOR CONTROLS AND INDICATORS..................................................... 122
11.5 WARNING DEVICES ............................................................................................ 122
SECTION 12 MANUFACTURE AND CONSTRUCTION
12.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................. 123
12.2 MATERIALS .......................................................................................................... 123
12.3 FABRICATION AND ASSEMBLY ....................................................................... 123
12.4 REWORK................................................................................................................ 123
12.5 FINISH .................................................................................................................... 123
12.6 DRAINING ............................................................................................................. 123
12.7 ACCESS AND CLEARANCES .............................................................................. 123
12.8 REPAIRS................................................................................................................. 124
SECTION 13 INSPECTION AND TESTING
13.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................. 125
13.2 INSPECTION.......................................................................................................... 125
13.3 TESTING ................................................................................................................ 125
13.4 COMMISSIONING................................................................................................. 125
SECTION 14 MARKING
14.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................. 126
14.2 MARKING .............................................................................................................. 126
SECTION 15 OPERATING ENVIRONMENT
15.1 GENERAL .............................................................................................................. 127
15.2 INDOOR INSTALLATION .................................................................................... 127
15.3 OUTDOOR INSTALLATION ................................................................................ 128
15.4 HAZARDOUS AREAS........................................................................................... 128
SECTION 16 MANUALS
16.1 GENERAL .............................................................................................................. 129
16.2 CRANE OPERATORS MANUAL......................................................................... 129
16.3 MAINTENANCE MANUAL .................................................................................. 129
16.4 SERVICE RECORD (LOGBOOK) ......................................................................... 130
16.5 PARTS BOOK ........................................................................................................ 130
APPENDICES
A ORGANIZATION OF AUSTRALIAN STANDARD FOR CRANES .................... 131
B LIST OF REFERENCED STANDARDS AND STANDARDS FOR REFERENCE136
C FAILURE TO SAFETY (FAIL-SAFE SYSTEMS)................................................. 140
D TYPICAL CRANE APPLICATION CLASSIFICATION ....................................... 142
E OBLIQUE TRAVEL FORCESDETAILED ANALYSIS .................................... 144
F FATIGUE DESIGN OF MECHANISMS................................................................ 148
G REEVED SYSTEMSALLOWANCE FOR FRICTIONAL EFFECTS ................. 150
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H EXAMPLES OF WIRE ROPE SELECTION .......................................................... 152
I ROPE ANCHORAGE POINT LOCATION............................................................. 153
J GROOVE PROFILES FOR WIRE ROPE SHEAVES ............................................. 154
K GROOVE PROFILES FOR ROPE DRUMS ........................................................... 157
L THEORETICAL THICKNESS OF HOIST DRUM................................................. 158
M RELATED STANDARDS ....................................................................................... 172
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AS 1418.12002 8
FOREWORD
This Standard is an authoritative source of fundamental principles for application by
responsible and competent persons and organizations. It has no legal authority in its own
right but it may acquire legal standing in one or more of the following ways:
(a) Adoption by a regulatory authority.
(b) Reference to compliance with the Standard as a contractual requirement.
(c) Claim, by a manufacturer or manufacturers agent (or both), of compliance with the
Standard.
This Standard has been prepared bearing in mind that it will be used by a number of
different categories of users, with entirely different objectives.
Essentially, the users of this Standard are
(i) crane and hoist manufacturers, importers and agents;
(ii) crane and hoist owners;
(iii) crane and hoist users and operators; and
(iv) regulatory and legal authorities.
Crane and hoist manufacturers, importers and agents require acceptable data that can be
used in the design, manufacture, testing and acceptance inspection of cranes and hoists for
both general and particular applications.
Crane and hoist owners require data for specification and selection of cranes and hoists. In
this situation, applications can be more specific.
Crane and hoist users and operators require statements of their responsibilities in the safe
use of equipment.
Regulatory and legal authorities look to Standards as a framework on which regulations,
directives and other legislation can be based. Further legal aspects of crane Standards must
be recognized because they may also be utilized as measures of legal responsibility.
This Standard references the alternative limit states design method in addition to the
working stress design method.
A general requirement for safety is that, upon the occurrence of a high risk condition, a
safety device or system (or both) should halt the condition or revert the crane to a
non-dangerous condition. Depending on the risk assessment of the application, it may be
necessary to exceed the minimum safety requirements described herein.
Where personnel are being conveyed, this principle is modified in one of the following
ways:
(A) a fail-safe design, allowing for the simultaneous malfunction of two items, may be
required.
(B) The operator in control is at personal risk.
(C) An increased factor of safety is applied.
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STANDARDS AUSTRALIA
Australian Standard
Cranes, hoists and winches
Part 1: General requirements
S E C T I O N 1 S C O P E A N D G E N E R A L
1.1 SCOPE
This Standard specifies the general requirements for cranes, hoists, winches, and their
components, and appliances intended to carry out similar functions, as defined in AS 2549.
It does not include powered industrial trucks as defined in AS 2359.
The term crane used herein applies to a crane, hoist or winch as appropriate.
NOTES:
1 Specific requirements for particular types of cranes and associated equipment are specified in
other parts of AS 1418; these requirements take precedence over corresponding requirements
in this Standard where any difference exists. Appendix A outlines the structure of the
AS 1418 series of Standards.
2 Requirements for the selection, operation and maintenance of cranes are given in the
appropriate part of AS 2550.
1.2 NEW DESIGNS, INNOVATIONS AND DESIGN METHODS
This Standard does not preclude the use of materials, designs, methods of assembly,
procedures, and the like, that do not comply with a specific requirement of this Standard, or
are not mentioned in it, but which can be shown to give equivalent or superior results to
those specified.
Where the limit states design method is used, cranes shall be designed to give a degree of
safety not less than that given in this Standard by the working stress design method for
strength, buckling, deflection, torsion, fatigue and the like.
NOTE: This Standard does not provide specific guidance on the limit state design methods, as the
necessary dynamic factors have not been formulated for the complex forces cranes are subjected
to. This is a worldwide situation and ISO has established a working group specifically to resolve
the issue. Design of structural members by limit state methods, including determination of the
partial load factors for individual loads, should comply with the appropriate Australian Standard,
e.g., AS 1664.1 for aluminium members and AS 4100 for steel members.
1.3 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
A list of the documents referred to in this Standard is given in Appendix B.
1.4 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this Standard, the definitions given in AS 2549 and below apply.
1.4.1 Classification
The system used to provide a means of establishing a rational basis for the design of
structures and machinery. It also serves as a framework of reference between the purchasers
and the manufacturers, by the use of which a particular crane may be matched to the service
for which it is required.
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NOTE: Classification considers only the conditions of operation for the intended life of the crane.
These are independent of the type of crane and the way it is operated.
1.4.2 Competent person
A person who has acquired through training, qualification, experience or a combination of
these, the knowledge and skill enabling that person to correctly perform the required task.
1.4.3 Controlled stop
The stopping of a machine motion in a controlled manner, which limits the deceleration to
significantly less than the deceleration experienced in a sudden uncontrolled stop.
NOTE: An example of one method is to reduce the electrical command signal to zero once the
stop signal has been recognized by the control and retain electrical power to the hoisting machine
actuators during the stopping process.
1.4.4 Fail-safe
A state or condition whereby if the fail-safe component fails, a system exists to prevent any
increase of the assessed risk associated with the device.
NOTE: Information regarding fail-safe systems is given in Appendix C.
1.4.5 May
Indicates the existence of an allowable option.
NOTE: Neither inclusion nor exclusion of the option results in non-compliance with the Standard.
1.4.6 Shall
Indicates that compliance with a statement is mandatory for compliance with the objectives
and intent of his Standard (see Preface).
1.4.7 Should
Indicates a recommendation. Neither following nor ignoring the recommendation results in
non-compliance with the Standard.
1.4.8 Rated capacity
The maximum gross load which may be applied to the crane or hoist or lifting attachment
while in a particular working configuration and under a particular condition of use.
1.4.9 Uncontrolled stop
The stopping of a motion by removing power to the machine actuators, all brakes and/or
other mechanical stopping devices being actuated.
1.5 NOTATION
Symbols used in equations in this Standard are defined in relation to the particular equation
in which they occur.
1.6 CONTACT SURFACE TEMPERATURE
Surfaces with temperatures exceeding 55C, which may cause pain by contact with human
skin, shall be protected over all areas that can be touched during normal operation, daily
maintenance and assembly/erection, such that the touchable surfaces are below 55C.
Except where surface temperatures can be increased by solar radiation, surfaces on which
the temperature exceeds 55C shall be located more than 300 mm from hand-related access
points.
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S E C T I O N 2 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F C R A N E S
2.1 SCOPE OF SECTION
This Section specifies the classification of a crane (see Clause 1.1) based on the maximum
number of in-service cycles to be carried out during the intended life of the crane and a load
spectrum. Other parts of AS 1418 define which parts of the classification range are
applicable to the various types of cranes.
NOTES:
1 See Clause 1.4.1 for a definition of classification.
2 The C classification relates to the duty (i.e. load spectrum and number of operating cycles) of
the crane as a whole and is intended for contractual and technical reference purposes (see
Clause 2.3).
3 The purpose of the S and M classification is to provide a basis for the load determination
and fatigue analysis of the individual structural and mechanical components (see Sections 5
and 7, respectively). The designer takes the estimated load spectrum and the number of load
applications to determine the group class of the crane.
4 Cranes for specific applications may require minimum classifications as specified elsewhere
in this Standard, or other parts of AS 1418.
2.2 GENERAL
The classification of the crane and its constituent parts shall be as follows:
(a) Group classification Overall classification of the crane based on the number and
magnitude of operating cycles the crane will be expected to see during its design life
(see Clause 2.3.2).
(b) Structural classification Classification of each part of the crane structure based on
the number and magnitude of the load cycles which that part of the structure will see
during the design life of the crane (see Clause 5.2.2).
(c) Mechanical classification Classification of each of the mechanical components of
the crane based on the expected magnitude of the applied load and the number of
operating hours, at the load, for the design life of the crane (see Clause 7.3.4).
Unless otherwise specified in the applicable part of AS 1418, the required design life of any
crane and its constituent parts shall be as follows:
(i) Structures .................................................................................................... 25 years.
(ii) Mechanical components............................................................................... 10 years.
For cranes designed for special applications, the design life may be less than that specified
in Items (i) and (ii) above, provided that
(A) the structural and mechanical components of the crane have been designed for a
specific task of short duration with no intention of redeployment;
(B) the design life and design classification of the components are marked on the
components and crane;
(C) the intended service conditions are well defined in writing by the designer; and
(D) the crane is used in accordance with the designers instructions and actual service
conditions are monitored and recorded in accordance with AS 2550.1.
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2.3 GROUP CLASSIFICATION
2.3.1 Bases of classification
The group classification of the crane shall be determined from the class of utilization (see
Clause 2.3.2) and the load spectrum (see Clause 2.3.3) where relevant data is available or
selected from typical crane applications in Appendix D.
2.3.2 Class of utilization
The maximum number of in-service cycles expected from the crane during its intended life
shall be the first basic parameter of classification. The range of classes of utilization are
divided into 10 categories, as shown in Table 2.3.2.
TABLE 2.3.2
CLASSES OF UTILIZATION OF CRANES
Maximum number of
operating cycles
Classes of
utilization Description of use
1.6 104 U0 Infrequent use
3.2 104 U1
6.3 104 U2
1.25 105 U3
2.5 105 U4 Fairly frequent use
5 105 U5 Frequent use
1 106 U6 Very frequent use
2 106 U7 Continuous or near-continuous use
4 106 U8
Greater than
4
106
U9
2.3.3 Load spectrum
The second basic parameter of classification is the load spectrum, which is concerned with
the number of times a load of a particular magnitude, in relation to the capacity of the
crane, is hoisted. The four nominal values of load spectrum factor (Kp) shall be as shown in
Table 2.3.3 and illustrated in Figure 2.3.3, each numerically representative of a
corresponding nominal state of loading.
The load spectrum factor for the crane (Kp) is given by the following equation:
max
i
3
T
ip =
P
P
C
CK . . . 2.3.3
where
Ci = number of load cycles that occur at the individual load levels
= C1, C2, C3, ..., Cn
CT = total of all the individual load cycles at all load levels
= Ci
= C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + Cn
Pi = individual load magnitudes (load levels) characteristic of the duty of the
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= P1, P2, P3, ... Pn
Pmax = rated capacity
NOTE: A load cycle accounts for all motions of the crane when operated between an unloaded
state through to loaded state and returns to its unloaded state.
The nominal load spectrum factor for the crane shall be established by matching the
calculated load spectrum factor to the closest (higher) nominal value of Kp in Table 2.3.3.
NOTE: t1, t2, t3 and t are time increments expressed as a percentage of design life.
FIGURE 2.3.3 TYPICAL LOAD SPECTRA
TABLE 2.3.3
NOMINAL LOAD SPECTRUM FACTOR AND
STATE OF LOADING FOR CRANES
Nominal load
spectrum factor
(Kp)
State of loading Description of use
0.125 Q1Light Cranes that hoist the rated capacity very rarely and,
normally, very light loads
0.25 Q2Moderate Cranes that hoist the rated capacity fairly frequently
and, normally, light loads
0.50 Q3Heavy Cranes that hoist the rated capacity frequently and,
normally, medium loads
1.00 Q4Very heavy Cranes that are frequently loaded close to the rated
capacity
2.3.4 Group classification
The group classification for the various combinations of classes of utilization and state of
loading shall be as given in Table 2.3.4.
NOTE: The application of group classification to specific types of cranes is covered in the appropriate parts
of AS 1418.
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TABLE 2.3.4
GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF CRANES
Group classification of crane
Classes of utilization State of loading
Nominal
load
spectrum
factor
(Kp) U0 U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9
Q1Light 0.125 C1 C1 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
Q2Moderate 0.25 C1 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C8
Q3Heavy 0.50 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C8 C9
Q4Very heavy 1.00 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C8 C9 C9
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S E C T I O N 3 M A T E R I A L S F O R C R A N E S
3.1 SCOPE OF SECTION
This Section specifies requirements for materials used in the manufacture of cranes (see
Clause 1.1).
3.2 MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
Where applicable, materials shall comply with the relevant Australian Standard
specifications.
Where the properties of any material are in doubt, the material shall be subjected to
sufficient testing in order to determine the properties concerned.
NOTE: Refer to specific parts of AS 1418 for material Standards applicable to a particular crane
type.
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S E C T I O N 4 C R A N E L O A D S
4.1 SCOPE OF SECTION
This Section specifies the requirements for the determination of loads and load
combinations to be used in the design of crane structures (see Clause 1.1).
4.2 REFERENCE TO OTHER PARTS OF THIS STANDARD
The determination of loads in this Section shall be supplemented by the requirements of the
other relevant parts of this Standard.
4.3 DETERMINATION OF CRANE LOADS
Determination of crane loads shall include all loads resulting from the intended crane
operation, and loads caused by the environment, erection, testing and fault conditions.
Steady-state loads, such as gravity-induced loads, shall be determined from the masses of
all component parts permanently attached to the crane.
Live loads induced on in-service cabin floor walkways and platforms shall be determined in
accordance with the provisions of this Standard and the referenced Standards including
AS 1170.1.
Dynamic loads due to acceleration or deceleration of masses shall be determined by
either
(a) dynamic analysis capable of modelling the characteristics of the crane operations; or
(b) methods of determination of loads specified in this Section.
4.4 CATEGORIZATION OF CRANE LOADS
For convenience of referencing, the crane loads are divided into three load groups as
follows:
(a) Principal loads (see Clause 4.5).
(b) Additional loads (see Clause 4.6).
(c) Special loads (see Clause 4.7).
Each load group is divided into load types as shown in Table 4.4.
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TABLE 4.4
CATEGORIZATION OF CRANE LOADS
Load group Load Reference
Clause
Principal loads
(see Clause 4.5)
Dead loads
Hoisted loads
Inertia loads
Displacement-induced loads
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.4
4.5.5
Additional loads
(see Clause 4.6)
In-service and out-of-service wind loads
Snow and ice loads
Temperature-induced forces
Oblique travelling forces
Bulk material loads
4.6.2
4.6.3
4.6.4
4.6.5
4.6.6
Special loads
(See Clause 4.7)
Off-vertical hoisting loads
Test loads
Buffer impact forces
Tilting forces
Live loads on walkways and in chutes, etc
Loads due to emergency condition
Seismic loads
Loads during erection
Loads during transport
4.7.2
4.7.3
4.7.4
4.7.5
4.7.6
4.7.7
4.7.8
4.7.9
4.7.10
4.5 PRINCIPAL LOADS
4.5.1 General
Principal loads comprise the mass of the crane and highly repetitive loads arising from the
intended service of the crane.
4.5.2 Dead loads
4.5.2.1 Dead load dynamic factor
The loads due to the mass of the crane in operation shall be given by the following
equation:
1w
WP = . . . 4.5.2.1
where
Pw = factored deadweight load
W = gravitational force induced by the mass of the crane.
1 = dynamic factor for the mass of the crane subject to inertial forces and
vibrations
The upper bound value of 1 shall be as given in Table 4.5.2.1 unless a more accurate
determination is made by using an appropriate dynamic analysis.
The lower bound value of 1 shall be taken as 1.0, except where the vibration of the
stabilizing part of the crane structure reduces the resistance to overturning. In such case, the
lower bound value of 1 shall be taken as 0.9.
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TABLE 4.5.2.1
APPLICATION OF DYNAMIC Factor (1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Dynamic factor (1)
Travel velocity, m/s Type of
runway
Condition
of runway
Wheel
type
Suspension
type
1.0 >1.0
1.5 >1.5
Unsprung 1.1 1.1 1.2 Smooth
welded
continuously
Steel Sprung 1.1 1.1 1.1
Unsprung 1.1 1.2 1.2
Steel
rails
or
beams Joints
4 mm wide Steel
Sprung 1.1 1.1 1.1
Smooth
no joints Rubber Sprung 1.1 1.1 1.1
Concrete
Jointed Rubber Sprung 1.2 1.2 1.25
Rubber Sprung 1.1 1.1 1.15 Roadway
or flexible
pavement
Crawler
tracks Sprung 1.1 1.2 1.25
NOTES:
1 Do not interpolate, use nearest higher value for 1.
2 It is assumed that the rail joints are in good condition. The detrimental effect on
hoisting appliances of rail tracks in poor condition is so great, both for the
structure and the machinery, that it is necessary to stipulate that the rail joints
must be maintained in good condition: no shock loading coefficient can allow for
the damage caused by faulty joints. In so far as high speed appliances are
concerned, the best solution is to butt-weld the rails, in order to eliminate entirely
the shock loadings that occur when an appliance runs over joints.
4.5.3 Hoisted load
4.5.3.1 Description
The hoisted load shall include the rated capacity together with the weight of the hook and
hook block, full length of hoist cable, and any devices attached to the hook block for the
purpose of grappling the hoisted load.
Where hoists are equipped with magnets or grabs, allowances shall be made in selecting the
hoists capacity to account for tear-off or tear-out forces respectively. A tear-out force is
equal to the weight of the load plus additional forces applied as a result of removing the
load from the heap.
4.5.3.2 Hoisting operations to be considered
The basic hoisting operations covered in this Section are the following:
(a) Hoisting a load from rest The effects of the hoisted load shall be determined by the
following equation:
2hhdPP = . . . 4.5.3.2(1)
where
Phd = factored hoisted load
Ph = hoisted load as specified in Clause 4.5.3.1
2 = hoisted load dynamic factor for hoisting as given in Clause 4.5.3.3. Acce
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(b) Rapid releasing of a part of the hoisted load Where the intended operation requires
rapid releasing of the hoisted load, the effect of rapid release shall be determined by
the following equation:
( )3rhrd
PPP = . . . 4.5.3.2(2)
where
Prd = the peak intensity of the loads acting on the hoist as a result of the rapid
releasing
Ph = hoisted load as specified in Clause 4.5.3.1
Pr = the upper estimate of the part of the load being released
3 = rapid load release dynamic factor for rapid load release as given in
Clause 4.5.3.4.
4.5.3.3 Hoisted load dynamic factor (2)
The value of the dynamic factor for hoisting (2) depends on the hoisting velocity (h), and
the hoisting application group as determined by Table 4.5.3.3(A). The dynamic factor (2)
shall be taken from Table 4.5.3.3(B), except where a more appropriate or more accurate
determination has been carried out using a dynamic analysis or by certified tests.
Where the hoist drive control system automatically selects the steady creep speed at the
start of hoisting, such speed shall be used for the determination of the dynamic factor (2).
Where the hoist drive is equipped with a stepless variable speed control, the value of the
dynamic factor (2) shall be determined for a hoisting velocity of not less than 0.5 times the
nominal speed for the unloaded hoist drive.
TABLE 4.5.3.3(A)
HOISTING APPLICATION GROUP FOR CRANES
1 2 3 4 5
Hoisting application group
Hoisting acceleration
m/s2
Fundamental
natural
frequency of
structure
(vertical plane)
Hz 0.2 >0.2 to 0.4 >0.4 to 0.6 >0.6
3.2 H1 H1 H2 H3
>3.2 5.0 H1 H2 H2 H3 to H4
>5.0 H2 H2 H3 H4
NOTE: For hoisting accelerations/decelerations greater than 0.6 m/s2 analysis of inertial effects in accordance
with Clause 4.5.4 should be considered.
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TABLE 4.5.3.3(B)
HOISTING FACTORS 2
Hoisting application
group h 1.5 h >1.5
H1
H2
H3
H4
1.1 + 0.13h
1.2 + 0.27h
1.3 + 0.40h
1.4 + 0.53h
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
LEGEND:
h = the nominal speed related to the lifting attachment, derived
from the steady rotational speed of the unloaded drive, in
metres per second
Where two or more hoists are installed, the dynamic factor (2) shall be applied as follows:
(a) Where the two hoists are designed not to operate simultaneously, the appropriate
factor shall be applied to one drive at a time taking into account that drives hoisting
speed. The other hoist drive shall be considered to be stationary.
(b) Where the hoists are designed to operate simultaneously, the appropriate factor shall
be applied to each hoist in accordance with its hoisting speed.
4.5.3.4 Rapid load release dynamic factor (3) (see Figure 4.5.3.4.)
The value of 3 is given by the following equation:
W
W 5.1 1 =
3 for hoisting appliances in the form of grabs; or
W
W 0.2 1 =
3 for hoisting appliances using magnetic holding devices
where
W = released mass
W = mass of the hoisted load including the load to be released
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FIGURE 4.5.3.4 DYNAMIC FACTOR (3)
4.5.4 Inertia loads
4.5.4.1 General
The designer shall determine the inertia forces induced by acceleration, braking and the
travel, slewing and luffing drives.
4.5.4.2 Methods of determination of inertia loads
The loads due to acceleration of drives shall be determined by one of the following
methods:
(a) Simple method of determination based on upper bounds of parameters for drives
relying on frictional transfer of the reactive forces. The procedure shall be as given in
Clause 4.5.4.3.
(b) An appropriate method of dynamic analysis for any type of load transfer.
4.5.4.3 Simplified method of determination of traction forces
Where the maximum traction forces are limited by friction, the traction forces shall be
determined from the friction between the driven wheels and the runway. To eliminate wheel
slip, drives shall be selected so that the maximum traction force does not exceed the
minimum frictional force between the driven wheel and the rail.
For travel and traverse motions, the maximum traction forces may be determined by the
following equations:
(a) For independent drives:
wij4SR PNT = . . . 4.5.4.3(1)
NOTE: This equation assumes matched power and rating of motors on each driven wheel.
(b) For synchronized drive:
jiN
i
N
j
PT
t
w
1 = 1 =
4R
s
= . . . 4.5.4.3(2)
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where
TR = resultant of the traction forces
Ns = number of drivesfor independent drives
= number of driven pairs of wheelsfor synchronized drive(s)
4 = dynamic factor
= coefficient of friction
Pwij = minimum driven wheel load (see below)
i = runway number, e.g., 1 = left runway, 2 = right runway (see below)
j = number of the wheel pair
) + ( 2 w 1 w
s
PP jj
N
1 =j
= minimum sum of the driven wheel loads
The value of 4 shall be determined as follows:
(i) 4 = 1 for centrifugal forces;
(ii) 1 4 1.5 for drives with no backlash or in cases where existing backlash does
not affect the dynamic forces and with smooth change of forces;
(iii) 1.5 4 2 for drives with no backlash or in cases where existing backlash does
not affect the dynamic forces and with sudden change of forces;
(iv) 4 = 3 for drives with considerable backlash, if not estimated accurately by
using a spring-mass model.
Where a force that can be transmitted is limited by friction or by the nature of the drives
mechanism, the limited force and a factor 4 appropriate to that system shall be used.
For steel wheels on steel rails, the nominal coefficient of friction () shall be taken as 0.20,
unless a more accurate determination has been made.
The minimum driven wheel loads of the unladen crane shall be used to calculate the
maximum traction forces.
4.5.4.4 Application of traction forces
The traction forces shall be applied to the loaded crane and shall be in accordance with the
drive type and the driving system of the crane as illustrated in Figures 4.5.4.4(A) and
4.5.4.4(B). The effect of eccentricity of the resultant traction forces to the centre of mass of
the driven system shall be considered.
(a) Acceleration due to cross-travel drives The reactive loads (PHC) from
Table 4.5.4.4(A) due to the traction force of the crab (Pc) shall be transmitted to the
runway through all travel wheels equally (see Figure 4.5.4.4(A)).
Horizontal forces due to inertial forces for cranes with more than two wheels per
runway side shall be equally shared by all wheels.
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FIGURE 4.5.4.4(A) ACCELERATION LOADS DUE TO CROSS-TRAVEL DRIVES
TABLE 4.5.4.4(A)
LATERAL LOADS DUE TO ACCELERATION FROM CROSS-TRAVEL DRIVES
Lateral loads Lateral fixity
of crane wheels PHC11 PHC12 PHC21 PHC22
All wheels laterally
fixed 4
cP 4
cP 4
cP 4
cP
Wheels on only
one side laterally fixed 2
cP 2
cP 0 0
NOTES:
1 This Table is for four-wheel cranes only; however, similar principles apply for other travel systems.
2 A laterally fixed wheel is a flanged wheel with laterally fixed bearings or side-guide rollers.
(b) Acceleration due to long-travel drives For the travel drive system illustrated in
Figure 4.5.4.4(B), the drive forces (PHT) are assumed to be distributed equally to the
driven wheels. The resulting lateral force (PHB) due to the eccentricity (ls) of the
centre of the drive force with respect to the centre of mass is assumed to be
distributed equally to the applicable travel wheels. The moment shall be calculated
from the following equation and the forces from Table 4.5.4.4(B):
RsE TlM = . . . 4.5.4.4
where
ME = moment due to eccentricity of drive forces
ls = maximum eccentricity of the point of application of the drive force with
respect to the centre of mass of the crane including the rated capacity
TR = resultant of the traction forces PHT1 and PHT2 in Figure 4.5.4.4(B)
The effect of acceleration of long travel drives shall be taken into account in designing the
crane.
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FIGURE 4.5.4.4(B) ACCELERATION LOADS DUE TO LONG-TRAVEL DRIVES
TABLE 4.5.4.4(B)
LATERAL LOADS DUE TO ACCELERATION
FROM LONG-TRAVEL DRIVES
Lateral loads Long travel drive
system PHB11 PHB21 PHB12 PHB22
All wheels laterally fixed
G
E
2S
M
G
E
2S
M
G
E
2S
M
G
E
2S
M
Wheels on only one side
laterally fixed S
M
G
E 0 S
M
G
E 0
NOTES:
1 For a four-wheel crane, SG equals the distance between the means of lateral guidance.
2 For cranes with more than four wheels, SG equals the bogie pivot centre distance
(see Figure 4.5.4.4(C)).
3 A laterally fixed wheel is a flanged wheel with laterally fixed bearings or side-guide rollers.
FIGURE 4.5.4.4(C) DISTRIBUTION OF HORIZONTAL FORCES
4.5.4.5 Determination of loads due to slewing and luffing motions
The determination of loads due to slewing and luffing motions shall be as follows:
(a) Loads due to the acceleration of slewing drives shall be determined by an appropriate
method of dynamic analysis.
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The centrifugal forces acting on slewing cranes shall be from the dead load of the
boom components, the counterweight, where used, and the hoisted load without
applying the dynamic factor and assuming the hoisted load to be positioned at the tip
of the jib or boom.
(b) Loads due to the acceleration of luffing drives shall be calculated by an appropriate
dynamic analysis.
4.5.5 Loads induced by displacements
Account shall be taken of loads arising from displacements caused by movement of the
supporting structure, for example, from prestressing or differential movement due to
settlement or temperature.
4.6 ADDITIONAL LOADS
4.6.1 General
Additional loads and effects include loads induced by wind, snow, ice, temperature and
oblique travel.
4.6.2 Wind forces
4.6.2.1 Principles
The determination of wind forces on a crane exposed to wind (e.g., outdoors operation or
partially enclosed building) shall be as specified in AS 1170.2.
NOTES:
1 This applies to in-service and out-of-service wind forces.
2 Cranes are considered to be high-risk installations. Allowances given in AS 1170.2 to reduce
loads on temporary structures should only be applied after the appropriate risk analysis has
been carried out by the designer.
4.6.2.2 Wind forces on the hoisted load
Wind forces (PD) acting on the hoisted load shall be calculated for the largest dimensions
and the least favourable configuration of the load using the drag coefficients (CD) taken
from AS 1170.2.
4.6.3 Snow and ice loads
Snow and ice loads, where applicable, shall be taken into consideration including
(a) increased dead load
(b) increased wind exposure surfaces due to encrustation.
4.6.4 Forces due to temperature variation
Forces caused by the restraint of expansion or contraction of a component due to local
temperature variation shall be taken into account.
4.6.5 Lateral forces due to oblique travel
4.6.5.1 General
The following Clauses outline a simplified method of analysis of lateral forces due to
oblique travel. A detailed analysis is provided in Appendix E.
Where a crane or crab is subjected to oblique travel in the moment of contact between rail
and front guiding element (wheel flange or guide roller), a steering force (POT) develops
and straightens the crane in its tracks.
The magnitude of the steering force (POT) depends on the type of crane drives, the crane
geometry, and on the coefficient of frictional contact (KO) which is determined by the
maximum oblique travel gradient ().
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4.6.5.2 Coefficient of frictional contact (KO)
The coefficient of frictional contact (KO) shall be obtained from Table 4.6.5.2.
NOTE: Interpolation of KO values is permissible under this Standard.
TABLE 4.6.5.2
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTIONAL CONTACT
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 12.5 15 >15
KO 0.118 0.158 0.196 0.214 0.248 0.268 0.287 0.293 0.3
LEGEND:
= oblique travel gradient, in millimetres per metre
=
S
C
G
L
where
CL = maximum clearance between wheel flange or guide roller and side of rail, in millimetres
SG = centre distance of track wheels, track wheel groups or guide rollers, in metres
4.6.5.3 Calculation of steering contact force (POTE)
The calculation of the steering contact force (POTE) and Y11 and Y21 reactions for a crane
supported by four wheels with two independent drives is determined in accordance with
Figure 4.6.5.3.
Equilibrium condition gives:
0OTEj == PYi
where
Yij are the frictional forces between the wheels and the rail
Y21 = POTE Y11
= KO PW21 KF
NOTE: Y21 is the force that is to be used for design of crane structure and runway beams; POTE is only important for
design of guiding elements and the like. The most adverse condition for analysis is with the crab on the opposite side of
the crane girder to the contact force.
FIGURE 4.6.5.3 WHEELS WITH TWO INDEPENDENT DRIVES (EFF) Acc
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4.6.5.4 Calculation of steering contact force (POTW)
The calculation of the steering contact force (POTW) and Y11, Y12, Y21 and Y22 reactions for a
crane supported by four wheels with two or more mechanically or electrically coupled drive
wheels is determined in accordance with Figure 4.6.5.4.
NOTE: This method is simplified and the results are slightly conservative, being not more than
15% greater than the exact calculation in Appendix E. Forces parallel with runway beams are
very small and can be disregarded.
NOTES:
1 POTW, Y11 and Y21 are calculated in accordance with Clause 4.6.5.3.
2 Y21 and Y22 are forces to be used for design of crane structure and the runway beams; POTW is only
important for the design of guiding elements and the like.
3 Equilibrium condition gives approximately:
0OTWij =+ PY
where
Yi j are frictional forces between the wheels and the rail.
FIGURE 4.6.5.4 MECHANICALLY OR ELECTRICALLY COUPLED DRIVE WHEELS (WFF)
4.6.5.5 Oblique travel force (POTE) and reduction factor (KF)
Because of flexibility of the crane and runway, reactions Y in Clauses 4.6.5.3 and 4.6.5.4
shall be reduced by multiplying with factor (KF) from Table 4.6.5.5. The natural frequency
of the crane beams shall be determined for vibrations in the vertical plane.
TABLE 4.6.5.5
REDUCTION FACTORS
Type of crane
Natural frequency of
crane beams, Hz
(vertical plane)
Reduction factor
(KF)
Double girder
Cranes only
> 5.0 1.0
Single girder and
Double girder cranes
> 3.2 5.0 0.83
Single girder and
Double girder cranes
3.2 0.66
4.6.6 Bulk material loads
Where applicable, effects due to the dropping of bulk material shall be taken into
consideration. Effects include impact and recoil.
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4.7 SPECIAL LOADS
4.7.1 General
Special loads include loads caused by testing, buffer forces and tilting, as well as from
emergency cut-out, failure of drive components, and external excitation of the crane
foundation.
4.7.2 Loads due to off-vertical hoisting
A lateral load of not less than 4% of the rated capacity shall be applied to account for
inadvertent off-vertical lifting.
Where off-vertical hoisting is required by the crane operation, lateral loads induced by this
effect shall be determined by a competent person.
4.7.3 Dynamic effects of test loads
The values of test loads and their locations shall be determined as appropriate for the type
of crane or hoist tested.
The dynamic test load shall be multiplied by a factor (5) from the following equation:
( )25
15.0 += . . . 4.7.3
where
2 is calculated in accordance with Clause 4.5.3.3.
4.7.4 Buffer forces
The impact force (PB) due to cranes or parts of a crane running against other cranes or stops
shall be absorbed by appropriately designed buffers or similar energy-absorbing means.
The total buffer capacities required and the maximum buffer force (PB) shall be determined
for longitudinal travel at 85% of full travel velocity and for traverse at 100%. Where
automatic retarding means are provided, the maximum buffer force (PB) shall be determined
for cranes and crabs at not less than 70% of full travel velocity.
For two-speed cranes fitted with fail-safe duplicated automatic retard switching to slow
speed and sufficient distance from end stop to slow before impacting buffer, the maximum
buffer force (PB) may be determined for 100% of the slow speed.
Where two cranes of masses m1 and m2 and having velocities VF1 and VF2 collide, the kinetic
energy released on the collision shall be calculated by the following equation:
) + 2(
) + ( =
21
2
2121
mm
VVmmE
FF . . . 4.7.4(1)
The total energy (E) shall be absorbed by all buffers engaged in the collision, with each
taking its share of energy in proportion to its rigidity.
Where a crane of mass m and having a velocity V collides with an end stop, the kinetic
energy released on collision shall be calculated by the following equation:
mVE2
2
1 = . . . 4.7.4(2)
NOTE: In some circumstances, the effects of the kinetic energy of the rotating long travel
components, e.g., motors, brake drums, gearboxes, should be considered.
For calculation of the buffer capacities and the strength of the structure, the forces resulting
from the masses in motion (dead loads plus any rigidly guided hoisted loads in the worst
position) shall be used, but not the factors mentioned in Clause 4.5.3. Loads suspended
from hoisting equipment and freely swinging loads need not be taken into consideration. Acce
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For cranes and crabs with or without attached hoisted loads, no negative wheel loads shall
result from 1.1 times the buffer force and the abovementioned dead loads and hoisted loads.
For tower cranes and portal slewing cranes, an analysis of the buffer capacity and of the
effect that the buffer forces have on the structure need not be made, provided that the rated
travelling velocity is lower than 0.67 m/s and reliable limit switches are provided in
addition to the buffer stops.
The resulting forces as well as the horizontal inertia forces in balance with the buffer forces
shall be multiplied by a factor (6) to account for elastic effects that cannot be evaluated
using a rigid body analysis. Factor 6 shall be taken as 1.25 in the case of buffers with
linear characteristics (e.g., springs) and as 1.60 in the case of buffers with rectangular
characteristics (e.g., hydraulic constant force buffers). For buffers with other
characteristics, other values justified by calculation or by test shall be used (see
Figure 4.7.4).
Intermediate values of 6 shall be calculated as follows:
(a) 6 = 1.25 for 0.0 0.5
(b) 6 = 1.25 + 0.7 ( 0.5) for 0.5 < 1.0
where is defined in Figure 4.7.4.
FIGURE 4.7.4 DYNAMIC Factor (6) FOR BUFFERS
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4.7.5 Tilting forces
If an appliance with a horizontally restrained load (rigidly guided load) can tilt when its
load or lifting attachment is in collision with an obstacle, the resulting static forces shall be
determined. For the determination of this force, the crab shall be assumed to be in the worst
position. The possibility of lifting the crab wheels off one of the crane bridge girders shall
be considered.
If a tilted appliance can fall back into its normal position uncontrolled, the resulting impact
on the supporting structure shall be evaluated and taken into account.
4.7.6 Miscellaneous loads
The effects of other loads that may be applied to the crane, for example lights, advertising
boards, chutes, maintenance activities and the like shall be considered.
Live loads on walkways during maintenance shall be determined in accordance with
AS 1657 unless higher loads can be generated, for example, placement of equipment on
walkways during maintenance.
4.7.7 Loads caused by emergency conditions
4.7.7.1 Mechanical failure
Where protection is provided by emergency brakes in addition to service brakes, failure and
emergency brake activation shall be assumed to occur under the least favourable condition.
Where mechanisms are duplicated for safety reasons, failure shall be assumed to occur in
any part of either system.
The value of the dynamic factor (4) shall be taken between 1.5 and 2.0.
4.7.7.2 Emergency cut-out
Loads caused by emergency cut-out shall be evaluated in accordance with Clause 4.5.4
taking into account the most unfavourable combination of acceleration and loading at the
time of cut-out. The coefficient of friction shall be taken at its upper bound value. The
value of the dynamic factor (4) shall be taken between 1.5 and 2.0.
4.7.7.3 Application of loads
The resulting loads shall be distributed in accordance with the principles set out in
Clause 4.5.4 for traction forces.
In both these cases, resulting loads shall be evaluated in accordance with Clause 4.5.4,
taking into account any impacts resulting from the transfer of forces.
4.7.8 Seismic loads
Loads induced by seismic or other vibratory excitations of crane foundations shall be
considered.
4.7.9 Loads during erection
The loads acting at each stage of the erection and dismantling process shall be taken into
account.
4.7.10 Forces during transport
The effects of loads occurring during transport shall be considered, where appropriate.
4.8 PRINCIPLES FOR DETERMINATION OF CRANE LOAD COMBINATIONS
4.8.1 Basic considerations
Loads shall be combined to determine the maximum stresses an appliance will experience
during operation. To achieve this, the appliance shall be taken in its most unfavourable
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attitude and configuration while the loads are assumed to act in magnitude, position and
direction causing the maximum stresses at the critical points selected for evaluation on the
basis of engineering considerations.
The load combinations appropriate to individual types of appliances shall be in accordance
with Table 4.8, as applicable. The designer shall also consider other load combinations not
shown in Table 4.8, as appropriate to the type of appliance and its operation.
4.8.2 Application of load combinations
4.8.2.1 Use of Table 4.8
For each type of load and each load combination, the Table gives
(a) a dynamic factor () for the particular load;
(b) numeral 1, which signifies that no dynamic factor is required for that load type unless
special conditions of intended operation require that a dynamic factor (different from
1.0) be included; or
(c) a dash (), which signifies that the load of that type need not be included in the load
combination unless special conditions of operation require its inclusion.
4.8.2.2 Working stress design method
Where the working stress design method is used for the verification of the strength and
serviceability of the crane structure, the load effects (moments, shear and normal forces)
derived from each load combination shall be multiplied by the load combination factor (c).
NOTE: As an example for load combination 5, the total load (Ptot) in a girder will be derived
from:
c = 0.9
Ptot = 0.9 [The effect of (1 P1 + 2 P2 + 4 P3 + 1.0 P4 + 1.0 P5 + 1.0 P6 + 1.0 P7)]
4.8.2.3 Limit states design method
The limit states design method uses partial load factors P, which differ for each type of
load and range generally between 1.2 and 1.5 depending on the statistical variability of the
load type in that particular type of crane.
Where the limit states design method is used, cranes shall be designed to give a degree of
safety not less than that given in this Standard for the working stress design method for
strength, buckling, deflection, torsion, fatigue, and the like.
NOTE: At this stage, Standards Australia is unable to give specific guidance on the range of
values of the partial load factors.
4.8.2.4 Proof of fatigue strength
The effects of fatigue shall be considered. Where proof of fatigue strength is found to be
necessary, it shall be carried out in accordance with the principles set down in Clause 4.8.1.
In some applications it may be necessary to also consider occasional loads such as
in-service wind, skewing and exceptional loads such as test loads and excitation of the
lifting appliance foundation (for example, wave effects).
4.8.2.5 High risk applications
In special cases where the human or economic consequences of failure are exceptionally
severe (e.g., ladle cranes or cranes for nuclear applications) increased reliability shall be
obtained by the use of a risk coefficient n > 1, the value of which shall be selected
according to the requirements of the particular application.
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TABLE 4.8
CRANE LOAD COMBINATIONS
Load combination number*
Frequently occurring
load combinations
Infrequently
occurring load
combinations
Rarely occurring load combinations Load
group
Line
No. Description
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Principal
loads
1 Dead loads 1 1 0.9 1 1 0.9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.2
2 Hoisted loads 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 Inertia loads 4 4 1 4 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1
4 Displacement-
induced loads
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Additional
loads
5 In-service wind
forces
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6 Snow or ice loads 1 1 1
7 Temperature-
induced forces
1 1 1
8 Oblique travelling
forces
1
Special
loads
9 Off-vertical
hoisting loads
1
10 Out-of-service
wind forces
1
11 Test loads 5
12 Buffer impact
forces
6
13 Tilting forces 1
14 Live loads on
walkways and in
chutes
1
15 Loads due to
emergency
conditions
4
16 Seismic loads 1
17 Loads during
erection
1.2
18 Loads during
transit*
1
Load combination
factor, c 1.0 0.9 0.8
* Applicable only to cranes that are frequently moved e.g., mobile cranes, elevating work platforms.
is the mass of that part of the hoist load remaining suspended from the appliance.
NOTE: 1 to 6 are dynamic factors as described earlier in this Section.
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S E C T I O N 5 D E S I G N O F C R A N E S T R U C T U R E
5.1 GENERAL
This Section specifies requirements for both the crane structure and its supporting structure
(see Clause 1.1). The design life shall be 25 years unless the requirements of
Clause 2.2(A) to (D) are followed.
5.2 BASIS OF DESIGN
5.2.1 Design of structure
The crane and its supporting structure shall be designed in accordance with this Section and
Clause 2.2, except where other parts of AS 1418 take precedence, and with the following:
(a) AS 1163.
(b) AS 1594.
(c) AS 1664.1 or AS 1664.2.
(d) AS 1720.1.
(e) AS 1726.
(f) AS 3600.
(g) AS 3990; or AS 4100.
5.2.2 Classification of crane structures
5.2.2.1 Bases of classification
The classification of the structure of a crane or crane components, e.g., the boom, shall be
determined from the class of utilization (see Clause 5.2.2.2) and the state of loading (see
Clause 5.2.2.3).
5.2.2.2 Class of utilization
The number of in-service cycles expected from the structure of a crane or crane component
during its useful life shall be one basic parameter of classification and shall comply with
Table 5.2.2.2.
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TABLE 5.2.2.2
CLASS OF UTILIZATION OF STRUCTURES
Maximum number
of operating
cycles
Class of
utilization Description of use)
1.6 104 U0 Infrequent use
3.2 104 U1
6.3 104 U2
1.25 105 U3
2.5 105 U4 Fairly frequent use
5 105 U5 Frequent use
1 106 U6 Very frequent use
2 106 U7 Continuous or near
continuous use
4 106 U8
Greater than
4
106 U9
NOTE: The number of loading cycles is often significantly higher than
the number of in-service cycles in Table 2.3.2.
5.2.2.3 State of loading
The second basic parameter of classification is the state of loading, which is concerned with
the number of times a load of a particular magnitude, in relation to the capacity of the
structure of the crane or crane component, is hoisted. The nominal values of the load
spectrum factor (Kp) shall comply with Clause 2.3.3.
5.2.2.4 Structure classification
The structure classification for the various combinations of class utilization and state of
loading shall be as given in Table 5.2.2.4.
TABLE 5.2.2.4
CLASSIFICATION OF CRANE STRUCTURES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Classification of crane structure
Class of utilization State of loading
Nominal
load
spectrum
factor
(Kp) U0 U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9
Q1Light 0.125 S1 S1 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
Q2Moderate 0.25 S1 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S8
Q3Heavy 0.50 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S8 S9
Q4Very heavy 1.00 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S8 S9 S9
Load condition 0* 1 2 3 4
* Fatigue analysis not required.
Corresponds to same loading condition in AS 3990.
NOTE: The solid lines in the Table group together the state of loading (Q) and the class of utilization (U),
which belong to the same loading condition (see Clause 5.5).
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5.3 DESIGN OBJECTIVE
Design objectives are to achieve adequate strength and serviceability during the design life
of the crane. Design calculation shall be carried out to determine that the crane structure
will have adequate strength in service when operated in compliance with the manufacturers
written instructions.
The proof of adequacy shall include proof of safety against yielding, elastic instability or
fatigue.
Proof of adequacy shall also include stability against overturning.
The elastic displacements shall be checked to prove that the appliance shall not become
unfit to perform its intended duties, affect stability, or interfere with the proper functioning
of mechanisms.
5.4 METHOD OF DESIGN
5.4.1 General
The design of the lifting appliance shall be carried out by one of the following methods:
(a) The working stress design method.
(b) The limit states method.
5.4.2 Working stress design method
Design by working stress design method shall be determined in accordance with the
provisions of AS 3990, except where otherwise specified in this Standard.
5.4.3 Limit states method
Individual specified or characteristic loads (Fj) are d