Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 1
Biology 2
Lecture Material
For
Macroevolution
&
Systematics
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 2
Microevolution:
Biological Species:
Two Patterns of Evolutionary Change
Allopatric Speciation:
Evidence of:
Favorable Conditions:
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 3
Sympatric Speciation:
Autopolyploidy:
Allopolyploidy:
Hybrid Zones:
Reinforcement:
Fusion:
Stability:
Adaptive Radiation:
The emergence of
numerous species from a
common ancestor
introduced into an
environment, presenting a
diversity of new
opportunities and
problems
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 4
Macroevolution:
Gradualism:
Three Types:
_______________________________: new traits
become established in a population by increasing their
frequency from a small fraction of the population to
the majority
_______________________________: New traits,
even those that are strikingly different from ancestral
ones are produced in small increments
_______________________________: On a
geological time scale, there are intermediate forms
connecting the phenotypes of ancestors and
descendents
Punctuated Equilibrium:
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 5
Macroevolution through many Speciation Events
Evolutionary Novelties
Evolution of Genes that control development
– Changes in Spatial Pattern
– Changes in Rate and Timing
Origin of Evolutionary Novelty
Exaptation (preadaptation):
Evolution of Genes that control development:
____________________________________________ (Julian Huxley)
1. Gradual evolution can be explained by small genetic changes that produce variation which is
acted upon by natural selection
2. The evolution at higher taxonomic levels and of greater magnitude can be explained by long
periods of time
“Evo-devo”
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 6
Changes in Spatial Patterns:
Homeotic Genes: Hox Genes:
Homeobox:
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 7
Changes in Rate and Timing:
Allometric Growth:
Heterochrony:
Paedeomorphosis:
Paedeogenesis:
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 8
Evolutionary Trends:
Species Selection (Steven Stanley):
Size:
Toe Reduction:
Tooth shape/size:
Fossil Records
Sedimentary Rocks:
Hard Parts:
Minerals:
Organic Material
Casts:
Trace Fossils:
Entire Organisms:
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 9
Fossil Record Limitations
Absolute Dating
HALF-LIFE
Use the concept of half-life to answer the following questions about the ages of fossils.
1. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. A fossil that is 22,920 years old would have what amount of the
normal portion of C-14 to C-12?
2. The half-life of potassium-40 is 1.3 billion years. If a rock specimen contained 12 milligrams of potassium-
40 when it was formed and now contained 3 milligrams of potassium-40, How old is the rock?
Relative Dating
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 10
ERA PERIOD EPOCH AGE EVENTS
Now – 0.01
MYA
0.01 - 2.6
MYA
2.6 – 5.3
MYA
5.3 – 23
MYA
23 – 33.9
MYA
33.9 - 55.8
MYA
55.8 - 65.5
MYA
65.5 – 145.5
MYA
145.5 - 199.6
MYA
199.6 – 251
MYA
251 – 299
MYA
299 – 359
MYA
359– 416
MYA
416 – 444
MYA
444 – 488
MYA
488 – 542
MYA
635
MYA
1.8
BYA
2.7
BYA
3.5
BYA
3.8
BYA
4.6
BYA
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 11
Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift
Plate Tectonics:
Continental Drift:
Pangaea:
Laurasia:
Gondwana:
Mass Extinctions:
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 12
SYSTEMATICS:
Tools:
Comparing the genes or genomes of two species is the most direct measure of inheritance from shared
ancestors. Comparisons can be made by using three methods: DNA-DNA hybridization, restriction
maps, and DNA sequencing. Use the information to determine where species A through F belong in the
phylogenetic tree. The information below is comparing the number of differences between an amino acid
sequence from a blood protein found in rodents. (Assumption: The larger the number, the longer they
have been separated from their common ancestor)
A B C D E F
A 0 10 4 9 14 10
B 10 0 11 5 16 2
C 4 11 0 10 15 10
D 9 5 10 0 15 6
E 14 16 15 15 0 16
F 10 2 10 6 16 0
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 13
PHYLOGENETIC GROUPINGS:
Monophyletic:
Paraphyletic:
Polyphyletic:
Use the diagram below to identify whether the grouping is monophyletic, paraphyletic or polyphyletic.
A B C D E F G H 1. A and B ____________________
2. A, B and C ____________________
3. D, E, and F ____________________
4. E, F, G and H ____________________
5. F, G, and H ____________________
6. E, F, and G ____________________
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 14
SIMILARITIES
Homology:
Analogy:
Molecular Homeoplasy:
ONTOGENY RECAPITULATES PHYLOGENY (Ernst Haekel)
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 15
SYSTEMATICS:
Classical Evolutionary (Linnaean) Systematics:
Cladistics:
Assumptions:
Synapomorphies: Shared derived characters
Plesiomorphies: Shared ancestral (primitive) characters
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 16
Phylograms:
Ultrametric Trees:
Parsimony:
Maximum Likelyhood:
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 17
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 18
Cladistic taxonomy and classical evolutionary taxonomy are different methods of interpreting
phylogenetic data and classifying organisms. Read each statement below and check whether it relates to
the cladistic approach, the classical approach, or both. Cladistic Classical
1. Method of classifying organisms and reconstructing phylogeny ___ ___
2. Concerned only with the order of branching lineages ___ ___
3. Produces cladograms ___ ___
4. Concerned with branching and degree of divergence ___ ___
5. Differentiates between primitive and derived characters ___ ___
6. Puts lizards and crocodiles in one class, birds in another ___ ___
7. Becoming more popular with researchers ___ ___
8. Says birds are closer to crocodiles than to other reptiles ___ ___
9. Uses anatomy and molecular biology to determine relationship ___ ___
10. Places humans in the same family as some other apes ___ ___
11. Places humans in their own family, separate from apes ___ ___
12. The approach used 15 years ago ___ ___
13. Considered to be more objective approach ___ ___
14. Involves subjective judgements about divergence ___ ___
Place the new species into their proper position on the classical evolutionary phylogenetic tree
You are the first zoologist to penetrate the Timbasi Swamp and explore the Okongo Forest. You identify 7 new
species of guenon monkeys. You collect blood sample and compare the new species blood proteins and facial
markings to decide where on the current phylogenetic tree these new species belong. Match each of the new
monkey species with one of the letters inserted into the revised phylogenetic tree.
____ 1. Ann’s: More closely related to Diana than any other species
____ 2. Flat-topped: As close to Mona as Mona is to Campbell’s
____ 3. Gladstone’s: Closer to redtail and moustached than any other new species
____ 4. Bearded: Related to Diana but not as closely as Ann’s
____ 5. Liebaert’s: A ground-dweller not closely related to any of the others
____ 6. Perkins’s: Related to Mona and Campbell’s but it branched off earlier
____ 7. Striped: Equally related to blue and redtail, but closer to ancestor
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 19
Cladogram
Place the taxa (outgroup, A, B, C, and D) on the cladogram based on the presence or absence of
the characters 1-4 as shown in this table. Indicate before each branch point, which shared derived
character evolved in the ancestor of the clade.
Constructing a Cladogram, Practice Exercise with Insects Taxa
Characters Millipede Body Louse
Beetle Assassin Bug
Bee Ant
Wings
0 0 1 1 1 1
3 body regions
0 1 1 1 1 1
Social
0 0 0 0 1 1
Complete Metamorphosis
0 0 1 0 1 1
Mobile Head
0 0 0 0 1 1
Flattened Body
0 1 0 0 0 0
Draw the Cladogram below
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 20
Cladistic Analysis of a DNA Sequence
The study group below is an example of three species of chameleons, two from Madagascar and
one for Equatorial Guinea. The outgroup is a lizard that is a distant relative of chameleons. The
question is are the two Madagascan species (genus: Brookesia) really more closely related to each other
over one being more closely related to the Equatorial Guinea species (Chamaeleo). The information
below is from a piece of mitochondrial DNA sequence which encodes an amino acid of a protein called
NADH dehydrogenase subuit 2.
Uromastyx
AAACCTTAAAAGACACCACAACCATATGAACAACAACACCAACAATCAGCACACTAC
B. theili
AAACACTACAAAATATAACAACTGCATGAACAACATCAACCACAGCAAACATTTTAC
B. brygooi
AAACACTACAAGACATAACAACAGCATGAACTACTTCAACAACAGCAAATATTACAC
C. feae
AAACCCTACGAGACGCAACAACAATATGATCCACTTCCCCCACAACAAACACAATTT
Possible Cladograms
B. theili
1. B. brygooi Number of changes ______
C. feae
B. brygooi
2.
C. feae Number of changes ______
B. theili
B. theili
3.
C. feae Number of changes ______
B. brygooi
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 21
ERA PERIOD EPOCH AGE EVENTS
Now – 0.01
MYA
0.01 - 2.6
MYA
2.6 – 5.3
MYA
5.3 - 23
MYA
23 – 33.9
MYA
33.9 - 55.8
MYA
55.8 - 65.5
MYA
65.5 – 145.5
MYA
145.5 - 199.6
MYA
199.6 - 251
MYA
251 – 299
MYA
299 - 359
MYA
359– 416
MYA
416 – 444
MYA
444 – 488
MYA
488 – 542
MYA
635
MYA
1.8
BYA
2.7
BYA
3.5
BYA
3.8
BYA
4.6
BYA
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 22
ERA PERIOD EPOCH AGE EVENTS
Now – 0.01
MYA
0.01 - 2.6
MYA
2.6 – 5.3
MYA
5.3 – 23
MYA
23 – 33.9
MYA
33.9 - 55.8
MYA
55.8 - 65.5
MYA
65.5 – 145.5
MYA
145.5 - 199.6
MYA
199.6 - 251
MYA
251 – 299
MYA
299 - 359
MYA
359– 416
MYA
416 – 444
MYA
443 – 488.3
MYA
488 – 542
MYA
635
MYA
1.8
BYA
2.7
BYA
3.5
BYA
3.8
BYA
4.6
BYA
Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 23
ERA PERIOD EPOCH AGE EVENTS
Now – 0.01
MYA
0.01 - 2.6
MYA
2.6 – 5.3
MYA
5.3 – 23
MYA
23 – 33.9
MYA
33.9 - 55.8
MYA
55.8 - 65.5
MYA
65.5 – 145.5
MYA
145.5 - 199.6
MYA
199.6 - 251
MYA
251 – 299
MYA
299 - 359
MYA
359 – 416
MYA
416 – 444
MYA
444 – 488
MYA
488 – 542
MYA
635
MYA
1.8
BYA
2.7
BYA
3.5
BYA
3.8
BYA
4.6
BYA