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Becoming an Effective Becoming an Effective Policy AdvocatePolicy Advocate
Bruce Jansson, University of Southern CaliforniaBruce Jansson, University of Southern California
PowerPoint created byPowerPoint created by
Gretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD CandidateGretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD Candidate
University of Southern CaliforniaUniversity of Southern California
School of Social WorkSchool of Social Work
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Chapter 10Chapter 10Developing and Using Power Developing and Using Power
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Developing and Using PowerDeveloping and Using Power
Developing and using power is part of Developing and using power is part of Task #6 (policy-enacting) of the Policy Task #6 (policy-enacting) of the Policy Practice and Advocacy ModelPractice and Advocacy Model
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In Defense of PoliticsIn Defense of Politics
Power and politics have a bad reputation among Power and politics have a bad reputation among some professionalssome professionalsHowever, power and politics can be used to help However, power and politics can be used to help stigmatized groups and unpopular causesstigmatized groups and unpopular causesPoliticsPolitics: Efforts by people in governmental and : Efforts by people in governmental and nongovernmental settings to secure their policy nongovernmental settings to secure their policy wishes by developing and using power resourceswishes by developing and using power resourcesPolitics is relevant to anyone who tries to influence Politics is relevant to anyone who tries to influence policy makingpolicy making The political process in a democracy provides a way The political process in a democracy provides a way for people with conflicting values or opposing for people with conflicting values or opposing positions to resolve their differencespositions to resolve their differences
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Analytic and Political Analytic and Political Approaches to Policy AdvocacyApproaches to Policy AdvocacyThe Analytic ApproachThe Analytic Approach– Aim to discover
technically superior solutions
– Use quantitative and qualitative techniques
– Assumes that the truth will win out
The Political ApproachThe Political Approach– Aim to understand
existing political realities to select feasible options
– Develop a political strategy to outmaneuver likely opponents
– Assumes that might will prevail
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The Nature of PowerThe Nature of Power
Policy advocates have to understand political power and develop skill in using itThe nature of power relationships is transactional– One person “sends” power and the other
“receives” it– Force is not power because it gives people
little or no choice– Real power, then, involves transactional
rather than unilateral relationships
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The Nature of PowerThe Nature of Power
The receiver (Y) in a power transaction The receiver (Y) in a power transaction chooses whether to accede to the chooses whether to accede to the sender’s (X’s) suggestionssender’s (X’s) suggestionsY can:Y can:– refuse to follow X’s suggestions– voice indecision– agree but not really mean it– agree enthusiastically– respond ambiguously
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The Nature of PowerThe Nature of Power
People use various power resources with People use various power resources with others in power relationships:others in power relationships:– Person-to-person power – Power that stems from policy maneuvering
Substantive power
Decision making power
Process power
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Person-to-Person PowerPerson-to-Person Power
Person-to-person powerPerson-to-person power: Exerting power in : Exerting power in personal discussions with otherspersonal discussions with othersThere are 9 kinds of these power resources:There are 9 kinds of these power resources:– Expertise: The sender displays their personal
credentials and knowledge to influence others– Coercive power: The sender uses threats to influence
others– Reward power: The sender uses promise
inducements to influence others– Referent power: The sender uses associations with
people or groups that others identify with or want to belong to in order to influence others
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Person-to-Person PowerPerson-to-Person Power
The 9 kinds of these power resources (cont.):The 9 kinds of these power resources (cont.):– Authority/Legitimacy: The sender uses the power of
authority to influence others– Position:The sender uses his/her strategic location in
an agency or legislature to influence others– Information: The sender uses his/her control of critical
information to influence others– Connections:The sender uses particular networks or
key contacts to influence others– Value-based power: The sender uses his/her The sender uses his/her ability to
appeal to others based upon their shared ethical commitments to influence others
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Person-to-Person PowerPerson-to-Person Power
Person-to-person power is most effective when: Person-to-person power is most effective when: – The sender selects the kind of power that the
receiver is likely to honor
– It is applied skillfully
Policy advocates can draw upon many kinds of Policy advocates can draw upon many kinds of power resources when seeking policy changespower resources when seeking policy changes
Power resources can be used singly or in Power resources can be used singly or in tandemtandem
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Power Resources that Stem Power Resources that Stem from Policy Maneuveringfrom Policy Maneuvering
Power resources that stem from policy Power resources that stem from policy maneuvering develop:maneuvering develop:– from specific actions that policy advocates from specific actions that policy advocates
take during policy deliberationstake during policy deliberations– in response to the actions of other personsin response to the actions of other persons– less from the specific characteristics of power less from the specific characteristics of power
users themselves than from give-and-take users themselves than from give-and-take with other persons in the policy-making with other persons in the policy-making processprocess
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Substantive PowerSubstantive Power
Substantive powerSubstantive power:: Shaping the content of Shaping the content of policies to elicit support from specific personspolicies to elicit support from specific persons– Vagueness is often used when persons disagree
about the specific details of a proposal– However, vagueness can be counterproductive
because: an excessively vague proposal will arouse opposition from those who favor specific measures
the implementers of the will legislation have more leeway
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Substantive PowerSubstantive Power
Policy advocates exercise substantive power Policy advocates exercise substantive power when they change a policy’s content to enhance when they change a policy’s content to enhance specific decision makers’ support for itspecific decision makers’ support for it
These changes may be made:These changes may be made: – when a proposal is initially draftedwhen a proposal is initially drafted
– during deliberationsduring deliberations
– when the proposal goes before a decision-when the proposal goes before a decision-making bodymaking body
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Substantive PowerSubstantive Power
Ways to shape a proposal so that it is non-Ways to shape a proposal so that it is non-threatening to potential opponents:threatening to potential opponents:– Couple relatively unpopular proposals with more Couple relatively unpopular proposals with more
popular ones (i.e. “Christmas Tree legislation”)popular ones (i.e. “Christmas Tree legislation”)
– Design and portray a program as a pilot Design and portray a program as a pilot project project
– Place a proposed program under a specific Place a proposed program under a specific government unit’s jurisdictiongovernment unit’s jurisdiction
– Select a title that makes it more acceptableSelect a title that makes it more acceptable
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Substantive PowerSubstantive Power
Dilemmas encountered when using Dilemmas encountered when using substantive power:substantive power:– Obtaining one person’s support while Obtaining one person’s support while
alienating someone elsealienating someone else– Making so many concessions to obtain Making so many concessions to obtain
support that the proposal becomes dilutedsupport that the proposal becomes diluted
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Power in Decision-Making Power in Decision-Making ProceduresProcedures
Decision-making power Decision-making power ((oror Procedural powerProcedural power):): Parliamentary techniques and strategies for Parliamentary techniques and strategies for increasing a proposal’s chances of enactment, increasing a proposal’s chances of enactment, or for blocking a proposalor for blocking a proposalExamples include:Examples include:– Bypassing persons, committees, and meetings Bypassing persons, committees, and meetings
unfavorable to the proposal, while routing the unfavorable to the proposal, while routing the proposal to those more favorableproposal to those more favorable
– Persuading party officials to steer a proposal to the Persuading party officials to steer a proposal to the committee most favorably disposed or to leapfrog a committee most favorably disposed or to leapfrog a meeting or proceduremeeting or procedure
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Power in Decision-Making Power in Decision-Making ProceduresProcedures
Challenges in using decision-making Challenges in using decision-making power:power:– Accusations of unfairly stifling dissent– Ethical objections when concerned persons
are excluded from deliberations
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Process PowerProcess Power
Process powerProcess power:: Influencing the tenor, Influencing the tenor, tempo, or scope of conflict of deliberations tempo, or scope of conflict of deliberations in order to get a specific proposal enactedin order to get a specific proposal enacted– Tenor: The level of conflict– Tempo: The timing, pace, and duration of a
deliberation– Scope of conflict: The number and kind of
people who participate in the deliberation
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Process PowerProcess Power
Advocates can influence the tenor (level of Advocates can influence the tenor (level of conflict) of deliberations by:conflict) of deliberations by:– Using emotion-laden words (increases conflict)– Clearly stating that an amicable resolution is not
desirable (increases conflict)– Identifying the common interests of all the parties
(decreases conflict)– Discouraging the participation of those who will raise
the level of conflict (decreases conflict)
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Process PowerProcess Power
Advocates can influence the timing of Advocates can influence the timing of deliberations by:deliberations by:– Introducing a proposal at an opportune moment– Choosing a favorable context
Advocates can influence the scope of conflict by:Advocates can influence the scope of conflict by:– Co-opting other persons by giving them credit or by
involving them in key tasks– Intimidating opponents by giving the impression that
they are certain to lose– Publicizing the deliberation in the mass media
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Shaping ContextsShaping Contexts
Policy advocates can increase their odds Policy advocates can increase their odds of success by placing pressure on of success by placing pressure on decision makers from external sources, decision makers from external sources, such as by:such as by:– involving interest groupsinvolving interest groups– forming coalitionsforming coalitions– using the internet to solicit support from using the internet to solicit support from
sympathetic personssympathetic persons
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Shaping ContextsShaping Contexts
Politicians are more likely to take the advice of an Politicians are more likely to take the advice of an advocate who is backed up by affiliations with advocate who is backed up by affiliations with recognized groups or coalitionsrecognized groups or coalitions
Such groups can:Such groups can: – mobilize membersmobilize members– get attention from the mass mediaget attention from the mass media– obtain funds from foundations and other sources obtain funds from foundations and other sources – conduct more sophisticated research than solo advocatesconduct more sophisticated research than solo advocates– develop ongoing associations with government officials develop ongoing associations with government officials – pool resources, share contacts, and form coalitionspool resources, share contacts, and form coalitions
If such groups do not exist, policy advocates should If such groups do not exist, policy advocates should form themform them
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Successful Power UsersSuccessful Power Users
Characteristics and tactics of successful Characteristics and tactics of successful power users:power users:– PersistencePersistence– FlexibilityFlexibility– Fashions compromisesFashions compromises– Sticks to basic convictions, even in the face of Sticks to basic convictions, even in the face of
oppositionopposition– Focuses on an issue’s content and avoids Focuses on an issue’s content and avoids
attacking the motivations or character of attacking the motivations or character of opponentsopponents
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Power in OrganizationsPower in Organizations
Power relationships and power resources Power relationships and power resources also are used extensively in social also are used extensively in social agenciesagencies
Most social workers must confront - at Most social workers must confront - at some point in their professional work - some point in their professional work - when to challenge policies or practices when to challenge policies or practices that they believe to be unethicalthat they believe to be unethical
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Power in OrganizationsPower in Organizations
Social workers and policy advocates in Social workers and policy advocates in agencies have many power resources:agencies have many power resources:– DiscretionDiscretion
How much autonomy service workers haveHow much autonomy service workers have
– ComplianceComplianceObeying or disobeying policies believed to be Obeying or disobeying policies believed to be unethicalunethical
– Whistle-blowingWhistle-blowingTaking disagreements to outside authoritiesTaking disagreements to outside authorities
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DiscretionDiscretion
Line workers in agencies translate policy into actionLine workers in agencies translate policy into actionMuch of the work occurs within zones of discretion, Much of the work occurs within zones of discretion, where their own judgments and choices shape their where their own judgments and choices shape their actionsactions– They are sometimes given the latitude to make exceptions They are sometimes given the latitude to make exceptions
to policiesto policies– The location and nature of the work sometimes precludes The location and nature of the work sometimes precludes
detailed oversightdetailed oversight
Ceding discretion to professionals bears some risks:Ceding discretion to professionals bears some risks: – It may lead to discrimination against certain clientsIt may lead to discrimination against certain clients – Some professionals might take advantage of the Some professionals might take advantage of the
discretion to further their own interestsdiscretion to further their own interests
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ComplianceCompliance
Social workers who do not want to implement Social workers who do not want to implement specific policies can adopt several strategies:specific policies can adopt several strategies:– They can keep their noncompliance secret They can keep their noncompliance secret – They can comply with official policy but use every They can comply with official policy but use every
available means to seek exemptions for specific available means to seek exemptions for specific personspersons
– They can comply with official policy in every respect, They can comply with official policy in every respect, even while believing it to be defectiveeven while believing it to be defective
– They can comply with official policies while trying to They can comply with official policies while trying to change themchange them
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Whistle-BlowingWhistle-Blowing
Whistle-blowing is an attempt to correct lapses Whistle-blowing is an attempt to correct lapses by calling external parties into the conflictby calling external parties into the conflictIt is ethical if: It is ethical if: – The policies or actions are major, not trivial, violations The policies or actions are major, not trivial, violations
of ethics or professional standardsof ethics or professional standards– The whistle-blower has extremely good evidence that The whistle-blower has extremely good evidence that
he or she cannot modify policies by conventional he or she cannot modify policies by conventional meansmeans
– The whistle-blower has excellent evidence that he or The whistle-blower has excellent evidence that he or she will be subjected to serious penalties as a result she will be subjected to serious penalties as a result of raising questions about the policies or conductof raising questions about the policies or conduct
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Power DifferentialsPower Differentials
Power differentials give some people a significant advantage over others– Those with formal authority– Executives of agencies and government
bureaucracies – Technical experts on specific topics – Leaders, staff members, and lobbyists of
groups that have large constituencies– Individuals who help shape and enact budgets
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Power DifferentialsPower Differentials
Discrimination patterns in the broader society Discrimination patterns in the broader society influence power transactionsinfluence power transactionsSome point to the Some point to the power elitepower elite– The leaders of well-financed interest groups that The leaders of well-financed interest groups that
monopolize power and consigns other people and monopolize power and consigns other people and interests to marginal rolesinterests to marginal roles
Others suggest that many interests and people Others suggest that many interests and people shape policy choicesshape policy choicesPolicy practitioners need to be realistic in Policy practitioners need to be realistic in assessing the distribution of power in specific assessing the distribution of power in specific settingssettings
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Ethical IssuesEthical Issues
Social workers often use power in their workSocial workers often use power in their work
It may be unethical NOT to use power in certain It may be unethical NOT to use power in certain situationssituations
However, power can be used unethicallyHowever, power can be used unethically
Simple, easy-to-follow ethical rules are difficult to Simple, easy-to-follow ethical rules are difficult to constructconstruct– Blatant dishonesty and manipulation are clearly Blatant dishonesty and manipulation are clearly
unethicalunethical– But there are many shades of grayBut there are many shades of gray
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Obtaining Power ResourcesObtaining Power Resources
Tactics for developing power resources for Tactics for developing power resources for use in agency, community, and legislative use in agency, community, and legislative settings:settings:– Build personal credibilityBuild personal credibility– Learn how to networkLearn how to network– Create links with groupsCreate links with groups
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Building Personal CredibilityBuilding Personal Credibility
Policy Advocates require personal credibility to Policy Advocates require personal credibility to be effectivebe effectiveThey can build credibility by:They can build credibility by:– Appearing reasonable and pragmatic
Downplay ideologyEmphasize a proposal’s underlying principles rather than focus on its substantive provisions
– Appearing to be a team playerAssume multiple functions Take the initiative to make changes within an organizationShape policy proposals germane to an org’s mission
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Building Personal CredibilityBuilding Personal Credibility
Policy advocates can build credibility by (cont.):Policy advocates can build credibility by (cont.):– Having personal integrity
Take principled and outspoken positions on certain issues
– Displaying authoritativeness Demonstrate knowledge and offer evidence
– Developing a positive track record – Affiliating oneself with successful institutions – Using Machiavellian tactics
Negative tactics, such as harming others’ reputations, buck-passing, sandbagging, and turf or empire building
Are often seen as immoral, and credibility can thus suffer
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NetworkingNetworking
NetworkNetwork: The number and range of supportive : The number and range of supportive relationships a person hasrelationships a person hasThere are many types:There are many types:– Lateral networks Lateral networks consist of relationships with consist of relationships with
colleaguescolleagues– Vertical Vertical and and subordinate networks subordinate networks consist, consist,
respectively, of persons who are superior to and respectively, of persons who are superior to and beneath a person in an organization’s hierarchybeneath a person in an organization’s hierarchy
– Heterogeneous networks Heterogeneous networks are supportive relationships are supportive relationships with others in a range of positions both within and with others in a range of positions both within and outside the work settingoutside the work setting
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NetworkingNetworking
Strategies that help expand a person’s Strategies that help expand a person’s networks: networks: – Enhancing visibilityEnhancing visibility
Exchange information with, and sExchange information with, and seek advice, support, or suggestions from others
– Seeking inclusion in decision-making bodiesSeeking inclusion in decision-making bodiesShow interest, or sugges the formation of a committee to examine a problem
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NetworksNetworks
Strategies that help expand a person’s Strategies that help expand a person’s networks (cont.):networks (cont.):– Cultivating mentorsCultivating mentors
Develop informal relationships with high-level officials
– Obtaining access to informal groupsObtaining access to informal groups– Developing links with social movementsDeveloping links with social movements
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Power Challenges Encountered Power Challenges Encountered by Vulnerable Populationsby Vulnerable Populations
Members of these groups can use the Members of these groups can use the techniques already discussed, but they techniques already discussed, but they must be even more diligent and persistentmust be even more diligent and persistent
They can also: They can also: – Develop relationships with other members of Develop relationships with other members of
their own group from both within and outside their own group from both within and outside the organizationthe organization
– Find allies among mainstream personsFind allies among mainstream persons
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Developing AssertivenessDeveloping Assertiveness
To use power effectively, people must first decide: – that they possess power resources – that they can use them successfully– that they want to use them
Assertiveness is undermined by:– Victim mentality
The belief that others conspire to defeat their preferences
– FatalismThe belief that only high-level persons or powerful interests can wield power successfully
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Developing AssertivenessDeveloping Assertiveness
An assertive person: – Does not passively accept a situation – Rather, he/she diagnoses it, identifies
possible strategies, and tries several options in search of one that works
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Can Direct-Service Staff Use Can Direct-Service Staff Use Power Resources?Power Resources?
Direct-service staff already have considerable Direct-service staff already have considerable power stemming from their personal knowledge power stemming from their personal knowledge of an agency’s problemsof an agency’s problems
Executives depend on direct-service staff for the Executives depend on direct-service staff for the agency’s: agency’s: – reputation reputation – efficiencyefficiency– revenues revenues – public relations with clients and other agenciespublic relations with clients and other agencies
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Can Direct-Service Staff Use Can Direct-Service Staff Use Power Resources?Power Resources?
Direct-service staff members who belong to Direct-service staff members who belong to unions can imply or state that their work will be unions can imply or state that their work will be disrupted if certain demands are not metdisrupted if certain demands are not metThey often have access to at least some agency They often have access to at least some agency decision-making processesdecision-making processesThey can also wield power indirectly by: They can also wield power indirectly by: – influencing a supervisor to initiate a suggestioninfluencing a supervisor to initiate a suggestion– forming coalitions within the agency to pressure forming coalitions within the agency to pressure
administrators to modify specific policiesadministrators to modify specific policies
They often derive power from their autonomyThey often derive power from their autonomy