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Chapter 10Solar Energy
10.1Summary
K E y m E S S a g E S
• Solarenergyisavastandlargelyuntappedresource.Australiahasthehighestaveragesolarradiationpersquaremetreofanycontinentintheworld.
• Solarenergyisusedmainlyinsmalldirect-useapplicationssuchaswaterheating.Itaccountsforonly0.1percentoftotalprimaryenergyconsumption,inAustraliaaswellasglobally.
• SolarenergyuseinAustraliaisprojectedtoincreaseby5.9percentperyearto24PJin 2029–30.
• Theoutlookforelectricitygenerationfromsolarenergydependscriticallyonthecommercialisationoflarge-scalesolarenergytechnologiesthatwillreduceinvestmentcostsandrisks.
• Governmentpolicysettingswillcontinuetobeanimportantfactorinthesolarenergymarketoutlook.Research,developmentanddemonstrationbyboththepublicandprivatesectorswillbecrucialinacceleratingthedevelopmentandcommercialisationofsolarenergyinAustralia,especiallylarge-scalesolarpowerstations.
10.1.1 World solar energy resources and market • Theworld’soverallsolarenergyresourcepotential
isaround5.6gigajoules(GJ)(1.6megawatt-hours(MWh))persquaremetreperyear.ThehighestsolarresourcepotentialisintheRedSeaarea,includingEgyptandSaudiArabia.
• Solarenergyaccountedfor0.1percentofworldtotalprimaryenergyconsumptionin2007,althoughitsusehasincreasedsignificantlyinrecentyears.
• Governmentpoliciesandfallinginvestment costsandrisksareprojectedtobethemainfactorsunderpinningfuturegrowthinworld solar energy use.
• TheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)initsreferencecaseprojectstheshareofsolarenergyintotalelectricitygenerationwillincreaseto1.2percentin2030–1.7percentinOECDcountriesand0.9percentinnon-OECDcountries.
10.1.2Australia’ssolarenergyresources• TheannualsolarradiationfallingonAustralia
isapproximately58millionpetajoules(PJ),approximately10000timesAustralia’sannualenergyconsumption.
• SolarenergyresourcesaregreaterinthenorthwestandcentreofAustralia,inareasthatdonothaveaccesstothenationalelectricitygrid.Accessingsolarenergyresourcesintheseareas
islikelytorequireinvestmentintransmissioninfrastructure(figure10.1).
• Therearealsosignificantsolarenergyresourcesinareaswithaccesstotheelectricitygrid.Thesolarenergyresource(annualsolarradiation)inareasofflattopographywithin25kmofexistingtransmissionlines(excludingNationalParks),isnearly500timesgreaterthantheannualenergyconsumptionofAustralia.
10.1.3KeyfactorsinutilisingAustralia’s solar resources• Solarradiationisintermittentbecauseofdaily
andseasonalvariations.However,thecorrelationbetweensolarradiationanddaytimepeakelectricitydemandmeansthatsolarenergyhasthepotentialtoprovideelectricityduringpeakdemandtimes.
• Solarthermaltechnologiescanalsooperateinhybridsystemswithfossilfuelpowerplants,and,withappropriatestorage,havethepotentialtoprovidebaseloadelectricitygeneration.Solarthermaltechnologiescanalsopotentiallyprovideelectricitytoremotetownshipsandminingcentreswherethecostofalternativeelectricitysourcesishigh.
• Photovoltaicsystemsarewellsuitedtooff-gridelectricitygenerationapplications,andwherecostsofelectricitygenerationfromothersourcesarehigh(suchasinremotecommunities).
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0 750 km
Existing solar power> 100 kW
1000 - 2000 kW
Transmission lines
100 - 300 kW300 - 600 kW
600 - 1000 kW
Megajoules/m² per day
12
13
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15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
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Figure 10.1 Annualaveragesolarradiation(inMJ/m2)andcurrentlyinstalledsolarpowerstationswithacapacity ofmorethan10kW
Source: BureauofMeteorology2009;GeoscienceAustralia
• Relativelyhighcapitalcostsandrisksremaintheprimarylimitationtomorewidespreaduseofsolarenergy.Governmentclimatechangepolicies,andresearch,developmentanddemonstration(RD&D)byboththepublicandprivatesectorswillbecriticalinthefuturecommercialisationoflargescalesolarenergysystemsforelectricitygeneration.
• TheAustralianGovernmenthasestablishedaSolarFlagshipsProgramatacostof$1.5billionaspartofitsCleanEnergyInitiativetosupporttheconstructionanddemonstrationoflargescale(upto1000MW)solarpowerstationsinAustralia.
10.1.4Australia’ssolarenergymarket• In2007–08,Australia’ssolarenergyuse
represented0.1percentofAustralia’stotalprimaryenergyconsumption.Solarthermalwaterheatinghasbeenthepredominantformofsolarenergyusetodate,butelectricitygenerationis increasingthroughthedeploymentofphotovoltaic
andconcentratingsolarthermaltechnologies.
• InABARE’slatestlong-termenergyprojections,
whichincludetheRenewableEnergyTarget,a5
percentemissionsreductiontarget,andother
governmentpolicies,solarenergyuseinAustralia
isprojectedtoincreasefrom7PJin2007–08
to24PJin2029–30(figure10.2).Electricity
generationfromsolarenergyisprojectedto
increasefrom0.1TWhin2007–08to4TWhin
2029–30(figure10.3).
10.2Backgroundinformationandworldmarket
10.2.1DefinitionsSolarpowerisgeneratedwhenenergyfromthesun
(sunlight)isconvertedintoelectricityorusedtoheatair,
water,orotherfluids.Asillustratedinfigure10.4,there
aretwomaintypesofsolarenergytechnologies:
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• Solar thermalistheconversionofsolarradiationintothermalenergy(heat).Thermalenergycarriedbyair,water,orotherfluidiscommonlyuseddirectly,forspaceheating,ortogenerateelectricityusingsteamandturbines.Solarthermaliscommonlyusedforhotwatersystems.Solarthermalelectricity,alsoknownasconcentratingsolarpower,istypicallydesignedforlargescalepowergeneration.
• Solar photovoltaic (PV)convertssunlight directlyintoelectricityusingphotovoltaiccells.PVsystemscanbeinstalledonrooftops,integratedintobuildingdesigns andvehicles,orscaleduptomegawatt scalepowerplants.PVsystemscanalsobeusedinconjunctionwithconcentratingmirrorsorlensesforlargescalecentralisedpower.
24
20
16
12
8
4
0
0.30
0.25
0.20
PJ 0.15 %
0.10
0.05
0
Solar energy consumption (PJ)
Share of total (%)
1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 2007- 2029-00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 30
YearAERA 10.2
Figure 10.2 ProjectedprimaryconsumptionofsolarenergyinAustralia
Source: ABARE2009a,2010
%
AERA 10.3
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
1.1
0.9
0.8
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0.5
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0.2
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002000-
012001-
022002-
032003-
042004-
052005-
062006-
072007-
08
TWh
2029-30
Solar electricity generation (TWh)
Share of total (%)
Year
Figure 10.3 ProjectedelectricitygenerationfromsolarenergyinAustralia
Source: ABARE2009a,2010
Electricity
Solar Radiation
Photovoltaics (PV) Solar ThermalSolar cells, photovoltaic arrays Heat exchange
Solar Hot WaterConcentrating Solar ThermalParabolic trough, power tower,parabolic dish, fresnel reflector
AERA 10.4
Process HeatSpace heating, food processing
and cooking, distillation,desalination, industrial
hot water
Figure 10.4 SolarenergyflowsSource: ABAREandGeoscienceAustralia
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SolarthermalandPVtechnologycanalsobecombinedintoasinglesystemthatgeneratesbothheatandelectricity.FurtherinformationonsolarthermalandPVtechnologiesisprovidedinboxes10.2and10.3insection10.4.
10.2.2SolarenergysupplychainArepresentationoftheAustraliansolarindustryisgiveninfigure10.5.Thepotentialforusingsolarenergyatagivenlocationdependslargelyonthesolarradiation,theproximitytoelectricityloadcentres,andtheavailabilityofsuitablesites.Largescalesolarpowerplantsrequireapproximately2hectaresoflandperMWofpower.Smallscaletechnologies(solarwaterheaters,PVmodulesandsmall-scalesolarconcentrators)canbeinstalledonexistingstructures,suchasrooftops.Onceasolarprojectisdeveloped,theenergyiscapturedbyheatingafluidorgasorbyusingphotovoltaiccells.Thisenergycanbeuseddirectlyashotwatersupply,convertedtoelectricity,usedasprocessheat,orstoredbyvariousmeans,suchasthermalstorage,batteries,pumpedhydroorsynthesisedfuels.
10.2.3WorldsolarenergymarketTheworldhaslargesolarenergyresourceswhichhavenotbeengreatlyutilisedtodate.Solarenergycurrentlyaccountsforaverysmallshareofworldprimaryenergyconsumption,butitsuseisprojectedtoincreasestronglyovertheoutlookperiodto2030.
ThehighestsolarresourcepotentialperunitlandareaisintheRedSeaarea.Australiaalsohashigherincidentsolarenergyperunitlandareathananyothercontinentintheworld.However,thedistributionofsolarenergyuseamongstcountriesreflectsgovernmentpolicysettingsthatencourageitsuse,ratherthanresourceavailability.
World solar resourcesTheamountofsolarenergyincidentontheworld’slandareafarexceedstotalworldenergydemand.Solarenergythushasthepotentialtomakeamajorcontributiontotheworld’senergyneeds.However,largescalesolarenergyproductioniscurrentlylimitedbyitshighcapitalcost.
Theannualsolarresourcevariesconsiderably aroundtheworld.Thesevariationsdependon severalfactors,includingproximitytotheequator,cloudcover,andotheratmosphericeffects. Figure10.6illustratesthevariationsinsolar energyavailability.
TheEarth’ssurface,onaverage,hasthepotentialtocapturearound5.4GJ(1.5MWh)ofsolarenergypersquaremetreayear(WEC2007).ThehighestresourcepotentialisintheRedSeaarea,includingEgyptandSaudiArabia(figure10.6).AustraliaandtheUnitedStatesalsohaveagreatersolarresourcepotentialthantheworldaverage.Muchofthispotentialcanbeexplainedbyproximitytotheequatorandaverageannualweatherpatterns.
Development and Processing, Transport,Resource Exploration End Use Market
Production Storage
Industry
Solar photovoltaic
Electricity
Solar collection Thermalstorage
CommercialPower plants
Resource potentialSolar thermal Electricity
Water heating Residential
AERA 10.5
Batterystorage
Developmentdecision
Figure 10.5 Australia’ssolarenergysupplychainSource: ABAREandGeoscienceAustralia
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Primary energy consumptionSincesolarenergycannotcurrentlybestoredformorethanseveralhours,nortradedinitsprimaryform,solarenergyconsumptionisequaltosolarenergyproduction.Longtermstorageofsolarenergyiscurrentlyundergoingresearchanddevelopment,buthasnotyetreachedcommercialstatus.
SolarenergycontributesonlyasmallproportiontoAustralia’sprimaryenergyneeds,althoughitsshareiscomparabletotheworldaverage.Whilesolar energyaccountsforonlyaround0.1percentofworldprimaryenergyconsumption,itsusehasbeen
increasingatanaveragerateof10percentperyearfrom2000to2007(table10.1).Increasedconcernwithenvironmentalissuessurroundingfossilfuels,coupledwithgovernmentpoliciesthatencouragesolarenergyuse,havedrivenincreaseduptakeofsolartechnologies,especiallyPV.
From1985to1989,worldsolarenergyconsumptionincreasedatanaveragerateof19percentperyear(figure10.7).From1990to1998,therateofgrowthinsolarenergyconsumptiondecreasedto5percentperyear,beforeincreasingstronglyagainfrom1999to2007(figure10.7).
AERA 10.6
Nil
1.0 - 1.9
2.0 - 2.9
3.0 - 3.9
4.0 - 4.9
5.0 - 5.90 5000 km6.0 - 6.9
120°W 60°W 0° 60°E 120°E
60°N
Hours ofsunlightper day 30°N
0°
30°S
Figure 10.6 Hoursofsunlightperday,duringtheworstmonthoftheyearonanoptimallytiltedsurfaceSource: SunwizeTechnologies2008
Table 10.1 Keystatisticsforthesolarenergymarket
unit australia OECD World 2007–08 2008 2007
Primary energy consumptiona PJ 6.9 189.4 401.8
Shareoftotal % 0.12 0.09 0.08
Averageannualgrowth,from2000 % 7.2 4.3 9.6
Electricity generation
Electricityoutput TWh 0.1 8.2 4.8
Shareoftotal % 0.04 0.08 0.02
Averageannualgrowth,from2000 % 26.1 36.3 30.8
Electricitycapacity GW 0.1 8.3 14.7
a Energyproductionandprimaryenergyconsumptionareidentical Source:IEA2009b;ABARE2009a;Watt2009;EPIA2009
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Themajorityofsolarenergyisproducedusing solarthermaltechnology;solarthermalcomprised 96percentoftotalsolarenergyproductionin 2007(figure10.7).Aroundhalfisusedforwaterheatingintheresidentialsector.Mostof
theremainderisusedforspaceheatingeitherresidentiallyorcommercially,andforheatingswimmingpools.Alloftheenergyusedfor thesepurposesiscollectedusingsolarthermaltechnology.
400
350
300
250
PJ
200
150
100
50
01985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006
Year
PJ
Solar thermal
AERA 10.7
450
Figure 10.7 Worldprimarysolarenergyconsumption, bytechnology
Source: IEA2009b
1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006
YearAERA 10.9
TWh
2.0
1.0
0
5.0
4.0
3.0
PV
Solar thermal
Figure 10.9 Worldelectricitygenerationfromsolarenergy,bytechnology
Source: IEA2009b
Australia
Japan
Brazil
China
Israel
Turkey
Germany
Greece
India
China
Israel
Japan
Turkey
Germany
Greece
Australia
India
Brazil
0
PJ50 100 150 200
%0
United States
United States
AERA 10.8
1 2 3 4
a) Solar thermal use
b) Share in primary energy consumption
Figure 10.8 Directuseofsolarthermalenergy, bycountry,2007
Source: IEA2009b
0 1 2 3 4
TWh
0%
a) Solar electricity generation
Germany
United States
Spain
ChinaRepublic of
KoreaItaly
Netherlands
Switzerland
Canada
Portugal
Australia
b) Share in total electricity generation
Germany
United States
Spain
ChinaRepublic of
KoreaItaly
Netherlands
Switzerland
Canada
Portugal
Australia AERA 10.10
0.2 0.4 0.6
Figure 10.10 Electricitygenerationfromsolarenergy,majorcountries,2007
Source: IEA2009b
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Solar thermal energy consumptionThelargestusersofsolarthermalenergyin2007wereChina(180PJ),theUnitedStates(62PJ),Israel(31PJ)andJapan(23PJ).However,Israelhasasignificantlylargershareofsolarthermalinitstotalprimaryenergyconsumptionthananyothercountry(figure10.8).Growthinsolarthermalenergyuseinthesecountrieshasbeenlargelydrivenbygovernmentpolicies.
Electricity generationElectricitygenerationaccountsforaround5percentofprimaryconsumptionofsolarenergy.Allsolarphotovoltaicenergyiselectricity,whilearound
3percentofsolarthermalenergyisconvertedtoelectricity.Until2003,moresolarthermalenergywasusedtogenerateelectricitythansolarphotovoltaicenergy(figure10.9).
Thelargestproducersofelectricityfromsolar energyin2007wereGermany(3.1TWh),theUnitedStates(0.7TWh)andSpain(0.5TWh),withallothercountrieseachproducing0.1TWhorless(figure10.10).Germanyhadthelargestshareofsolarenergyinelectricitygeneration,at0.5percent.Itisimportanttonotethattheseelectricitygenerationdatadonotincludeoff-gridPVinstallations,whichrepresentalargepartofPVuseinsomecountries.
Table 10.2 IEAreferencecaseprojectionsforworldsolarelectricitygeneration
unit 2007 2030
OECD TWh 4.60 220
Shareoftotal % 0.05 1.66
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030 % - 18
Non-OECD TWh 0.18 182
Shareoftotal % 0.00 0.86
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030 % - 35
World TWh 4.79 402
Shareoftotal % 0.02 1.17
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030 % - 21
Source: IEA2009a
8000
7000
6000
5000
Peak
cap
acity
(MW
)
4000
3000
2000
1000
9000 8
7
6
5
4
3
% s
hare
of s
olar
PV
mar
ket
2
1
001992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
AERA 10.11
2007Year
Other
Spain Japan
United States Germany
Australia’s share ofsolar PV market (%)
Figure 10.11 WorldPVCapacity,1992–2007,includingoff-gridinstallationsSource: IEA-PVPS2008
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Installed PV generation capacityTheIEA’sestimatesoftotalPVelectricitygenerationcapacity(includingoff-gridgeneration)showthatJapan(1.9GW)andtheUnitedStates(0.8GW)hadthesecondandthirdlargestPVcapacityin2007,followingGermanywith3.9GW(figure10.11).Over90percentofthiscapacitywasconnectedtogrids(WEC2009).
World market outlookGovernmentincentives,fallingproductioncostsandrisingelectricitygenerationpricesareprojectedtoresultinincreasesinsolarelectricitygeneration.Electricitygenerationfromsolarenergyisprojected toincreaseto402TWhby2030,growingatanaveragerateof21percentperyeartoaccountfor1.2percentoftotalgeneration(table10.2).Solarelectricityisprojectedtoincreasemoresignificantlyinnon-OECDcountriesthaninOECDcountries,albeitfromamuchsmallerbase.
PVsystemsinstalledinbuildingsareprojectedtobethemainsourceofgrowthinsolarelectricitygenerationto2030.PVelectricityisprojectedto
increasetoalmost280TWhin2030,while electricitygeneratedfromconcentratingsolar powersystemsisprojectedtoincreasetoalmost124TWhby2030(IEA2009a).
10.3Australia’ssolarenergyresources and market
10.3.1SolarresourcesAsalreadynoted,theAustraliancontinenthasthehighestsolarradiationpersquaremetreofanycontinent(IEA2003);however,theregionswiththehighestradiationaredesertsinthenorthwestandcentreofthecontinent(figure10.12).
Australiareceivesanaverageof58millionPJofsolarradiationperyear(BoM2009),approximately10000timeslargerthanitstotalenergyconsumptionof5772PJin2007–08(ABARE2009a).Theoretically,then,ifonly0.1percentoftheincomingradiationcouldbeconvertedintousableenergyatanefficiencyof10percent,allofAustralia’senergyneedscouldbesuppliedbysolarenergy.Similarly,theenergyfallingonasolar
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Annual Average Solar Radiation
0 750 km
Megajoules/m² per day
3 Transmission lines
4 - 6
7 - 9
10 - 12
13 - 15
16 - 18
19 - 21
22 - 24
25 - 27
28 - 30
31 - 33
Figure 10.12 AnnualaveragesolarradiationSource: BureauofMeteorology2009
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farmcovering50kmby50kmwouldbesufficienttomeetallofAustralia’selectricityneeds(Stein2009a).Giventhisvastandlargelyuntappedresource,thechallengeistofindeffectiveandacceptablewaysofexploitingit.
WhiletheareasofhighestsolarradiationinAustraliaaretypicallylocatedinland,therearesomegrid-connectedareasthathaverelativelyhighsolarradiation.WyldGroupandMMA(2008)identifiedanumberoflocationsthataresuitableforsolarthermalpowerplants,basedonhighsolarradiationlevels,proximitytolocalloads,andhighelectricitycostsfromalternativesources.WithintheNationalElectricityMarket(NEM)gridcatchmentarea,theyidentifiedthePortAugustaregioninSouthAustralia,north-westVictoria,andcentralandnorth-westNewSouthWalesasregionsofhighpotentialforsolarthermalpower.TheyalsonominatedKalbarri,nearGeraldton,WesternAustralia,ontheSouth-WestInterconnectedSystem,theDarwin-KatherineInterconnectedSystem,andAliceSprings-TennantCreekaslocationsofhighpotentialforsolar thermalpower.
Concentrating solar powerFigure10.12showstheradiationfallingonaflatplane.ThisistheappropriatemeasureofradiationforflatplatePVandsolarthermalheatingsystems,butnotforconcentratingsystems.Forconcentratingsolarpower,includingbothsolarthermalpowerandconcentratingPV,theDirectNormalIrradiance(DNI)isamorerelevantmeasureofthesolarresource.Thisisbecauseconcentratingsolartechnologiescanonlyfocussunlightcomingfromonedirection,andusetrackingmechanismstoaligntheircollectorswiththedirectionofthesun.TheonlydatasetcurrentlyavailableforDNIthatcoversallofAustraliaisfromtheSurfaceMeteorologyandSolarEnergydatasetfromtheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA).ThisdatasetprovidesDNIatacoarseresolutionof1degree,equatingtoagridlengthofapproximately100km.TheannualaverageDNIfromthisdatasetisshowninfigure10.13.
Sincethegridcellsizeisaround10000km2,thisdatasetprovidesonlyafirstorderindicationoftheDNIacrossbroadregionsofAustralia.However,itisadequatetodemonstratethatthespatialdistribution
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Direct Normal Irradiance0 750 km
Megajoules/m² per day
3
4 - 6
7 - 9
10 - 12
13 - 15
16 - 18
19 - 21
22 - 24
25 - 27
28 - 30
31 - 33
Figure 10.13 DirectNormalSolarIrradianceSource: NASA2009
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ofDNIdiffersfromthatofthetotalradiationshowninfigure10.12.Inparticular,thereareareasofhighDNIincentralNewSouthWalesandcoastalregionsofWesternAustraliathatarelessevidentinthetotalradiation.MoredetailedmappingofDNIacrossAustraliaisneededtoassessthepotential forconcentratingsolarpoweratalocalscale.
Sometypesofsolarthermalpowerplants,includingparabolictroughsandFresnelreflectors,needto beconstructedonflatland.Itisestimatedthat about2hectaresoflandarerequiredperMWofpowerproduced(Stein2009a).Figure10.14showssolarradiation,wherelandwithaslopeofgreaterthan1percent,andlandfurtherthan25kmfromexistingtransmissionlineshasbeenexcluded. LandwithinNationalParkshasalsobeenexcluded.Theseexclusionthresholdsofslopeanddistancetogridarenotpreciselimitsbutintendedtobeindicativeonly.Evenwiththeselimits,theannualradiationfallingonthecolouredareasinfigure10.14is2.7millionPJ,whichamountstonearly500timestheannualenergydemandofAustralia.Moreover,
powertowers,dishesandPVsystemsarenotrestrictedtoflatland,whichrenderseventhisfigureaconservativeestimate.
Seasonal variations in resource availabilityTherearealsosignificantseasonalvariationsintheamountofsolarradiationreachingAustralia.WhilesummerradiationlevelsaregenerallyveryhighacrossallofinlandAustralia,winterradiationhasamuchstrongerdependenceonlatitude.Figures10.15and10.16showacomparisonoftheDecemberandJuneaveragedailysolarradiation.Thesamecolourschemehasbeenusedthroughoutfigures10.12to10.16toallowvisualcomparisonoftheamountofradiationineachfigure.
Insomestates,suchasVictoria,SouthAustralia andQueensland,theseasonalvariationinsolarradiationcorrelateswithaseasonalvariationinelectricitydemand.Thesesummerpeakdemandperiods–causedbyair-conditioningloads–coincidewiththehoursthatthesolarresourceisatitsmostabundant.However,thetotaldemandacrosstheNationalElectricityMarket(comprisingallofthe
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30°
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AERA 10.14
Annual Average Solar Radiation(Slope < 1%)
0 750 km
Megajoules/m² per day
3
Transmission lines
4 - 6
7 - 9
10 - 12
13 - 15
16 - 18
19 - 21
22 - 24
25 - 27
28 - 30
31 - 33
Figure 10.14 Annualsolarradiation,excludinglandwithaslopeofgreaterthan1percentandareasfurther than25kmfromexistingtransmissionlines
Source: BureauofMeteorology2009;GeoscienceAustralia
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easternstates,SouthAustraliaandTasmania)isrelativelyconstantthroughouttheyear,andoccasionallypeaksinwinterduetoheatingloads(AER2009).
10.3.2SolarenergymarketAustralia’smodestproductionanduseofsolarenergyisfocussedonoff-gridandresidentialinstallations.Whilesolarthermalwaterheatinghasbeenthepredominantformofsolarenergyusetodate,productionofelectricityfromPVandconcentrating
solarthermaltechnologiesisincreasing.
Primary energy consumptionAustralia’sprimaryenergyconsumptionofsolarenergyaccountedfor2.4percentofallrenewableenergyuseandaround0.1percentofprimaryenergyconsumptionin2007–08(ABARE2009a).Productionandconsumptionofsolarenergyarethesame,becausesolarenergycanonlybestoredforseveralhoursatpresent.
Overtheperiodfrom1999–2000to2007–08,Australia’ssolarenergyuseincreasedatanaveragerateof7.2percentperyear.However,asillustrated
infigure10.17,thegrowthratewasnotconstant;therewasconsiderablevariationfromyeartoyear.Thebulkofgrowthoverthisperiodwasintheformofsolarthermalsystemsusedfordomesticwaterheating.PVisalsousedtoproduceasmallamountofelectricity.Intotal,Australia’ssolarenergyconsumptionin2007–08was6.9PJ(1.9TWh),ofwhich6.5PJ(1.8TWh)wereusedforwaterheating(ABARE2009a).
Consumption of solar thermal energy, by stateStatisticsonPVenergyconsumptionbystatearenotavailable.However,PVrepresentsonly5.8percentoftotalsolarenergyconsumption;onthatbasis,statisticsonsolarthermalconsumptionbystateprovideareasonableapproximationofthedistributionoftotalsolarenergyconsumption.
WesternAustraliahasthehighestsolarenergyconsumptioninAustralia,contributing40percentofAustralia’stotalsolarthermalusein2007–08(figure10.18).NewSouthWalesandQueenslandcontributedanother26percentand15percentrespectively.Therateofgrowthofsolarenergyuse
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30°
40°
AERA 10.15
December Average SolarRadiation
0 750 km
Megajoules/m² per day
3
4 - 6
7 - 9
10 - 12
13 - 15
16 - 18
19 - 21
22 - 24
25 - 27
28 - 30
31 - 33
Figure 10.15 DecemberaveragesolarradiationSource: BureauofMeteorology2009
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10°
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AERA 10.16
June Average Solar Radiation
0 750 km
Megajoules/m² per day
3
4 - 6
7 - 9
10 - 12
13 - 15
16 - 18
19 - 21
22 - 24
25 - 27
28 - 30
31 - 33
Figure 10.16 JuneaveragesolarradiationSource: BureauofMeteorology2009
7
6
5
4
PJ
3
2
1
0
PV
Solar thermal
1974-75 1977-78 1980-81 1983-84 1986-87 1989-90 1992-93 1995-96 1998-99 2001-02 2004-05 2007-08
YearAERA 10.17
Figure 10.17 Australia’sprimaryconsumptionofsolarenergy,bytechnologySource: IEA2009b;ABARE2009a
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overthepastdecadehasbeensimilarinallstatesandterritories,rangingfromanaverageannualgrowthof7percentintheNorthernTerritoryandVictoria,toanaverageannualgrowthof11percentinNewSouthWales.
ArangeofgovernmentpolicysettingsfrombothAustralianandStategovernmentshaveresultedinasignificantincreaseintheuptakeofsmall-scalesolarhotwatersystemsinAustralia.Thecombinationofdrivers,includingthesolarhotwaterrebate,statebuildingcodes,theinclusionofsolarhotwaterundertheRenewableEnergyTargetandthemandatedphase-outofelectrichotwaterby2012,haveallcontributedtotheincreaseduptakeofsolarhotwatersystemsfrom7percentoftotalhotwatersysteminstallationsin2007to13percentin2008(BISShrapnel2008;ABARE2009a).
Electricity generationElectricitygenerationfromsolarenergyinAustraliaiscurrentlyalmostentirelysourcedfromPVinstallations,primarilyfromsmalloff-gridsystems.Electricitygenerationfromsolarthermalsystemsiscurrentlylimitedtosmallpilotprojects,althoughinterestinsolarthermalsystemsforlargescaleelectricitygenerationisincreasing.
Somecareinanalysisofgenerationdatainenergystatisticsiswarranted.Forenergyaccountingpurposes,thefuelinputstoasolarenergysystemareassumedtoequaltheenergygeneratedbythesolarsystem.Thus,thesolarelectricityfuelinputs inenergystatisticsrepresentthesolarenergycapturedbysolarenergysystems,ratherthanthesignificantlylargermeasureoftotalsolarradiationfallingonsolarenergysystems;howeverthisradiationisnotmeasuredinenergystatistics.Fossilfuelssuchasgasandcoalaremeasuredinterms
ofboththeirthermalfuelinput,andtheirelectricaloutput.Theresultofthisdifferencebetweenfuelinputsandenergyoutputforfossilfuelsisthatsolarrepresentsalargershareofelectricitygenerationoutputthanoffuelinputstoelectricitygeneration.
In2007–08,0.11TWh(0.4PJ)ofelectricityweregeneratedfromsolarenergy,representing0.04percentofAustralianelectricitygeneration(figure10.19).Despiteitssmallshare,solarelectricitygenerationhasincreasedrapidlyinrecentyears.
Installed electricity generation capacityAustralia’stotalPVcapacityhasincreasedsignificantlyoverthelastdecade(figure10.20),andinparticularoverthelasttwoyears.ThishasbeendrivenprimarilybytheSolarHomesandCommunitiesPlanforon-gridapplicationsandtheRemoteRenewablePowerGenerationProgramforoff-gridapplications.Overthelasttwoyears,therehasbeenadramaticincreaseinthetake-upofsmallscalePV,withmorethan40MWinstalledin2009(figures10.20,10.23).Thisisduetoacombinationoffactors:supportprovidedthroughtheSolarHomesandCommunitiesprogram,greaterpublicawarenessofsolarPV,adropinthepriceofPVsystems,attributablebothtogreaterinternationalcompetitionamonganincreasednumberofsuppliersandadecreaseinworldwidedemandasaresultoftheglobalfinancialcrisis,astrongAustraliandollar,andhighlyeffectivemarketingbyPVretailers.
MostAustralianstatesandterritorieshaveinplace,orareplanningtoimplement,feed-intariffs.Whilethereissomecorrelationoftheirintroductionwithincreasedconsumeruptake,itistooearlytosuggestthatthesetariffshavebeensignificantcontributorstoit.Thecombinationofgovernmentpolicies,associatedpublicandprivateinvestmentinRD&Dmeasuresandbroadermarketconditionsarelikelytobethemaininfluences.
WesternVictoriaAustralia
6%40%
Queensland15%
Tasmania2%
NorthernSouth Territory
Australia 3%8%
New SouthWales26%
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Figure 10.18 Solarthermalenergyconsumption, bystate,2007–08
Source: ABARE2009a
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Figure 10.20 PVinstalledcapacityfrom1992–2008Note: TheseestimatesrepresentthepeakpoweroutputofPVsystems.Theydonotrepresenttheaveragepoweroutputoverayear,assolarradiationvariesaccordingtofactorssuchasthetimeofday,thenumberofdaylighthours,theangleofthesunandthecloudcover.ThesecapacityestimatesareconsistentwiththePVproductiondatapresentedinthisreport
Source: Watt2009
Thelargestcomponentofinstalledsolarelectricitycapacityisusedforoff-gridindustrialandagriculturalpurposes(41MW),withsignificantcontributionscomingfromoff-gridresidentialsystems(31MW),andgridconnecteddistributedsystems(30MW).Thislargeoff-gridusagereflectsthecapacityofPVsystemstobeusedasstand-alonegeneratingsystems,particularlyforsmallscaleapplications.Therehavealsobeenseveralcommercialsolarprojectsthatprovideelectricitytothegrid.
Recently completed solar projectsFivecommercial-scalesolarprojectswithacombinedcapacityofaround5MWhavebeencommissionedinAustraliasince1998(table10.3).AlloftheseprojectsarelocatedinNewSouthWales.Commissionedsolarprojectstodatehavehadsmallcapacitieswithfourofthefiveprojectscommissionedhavingacapacityoflessthanorequalto1MW.Theonlyprojecttohaveacapacityofmorethan1MW
isAusra’s2008solarthermalattachmenttoLiddellpowerplant,whichhasapeakelectricpowercapacityof2MW(Ausra2009).Whilesomewhatlargerthanthemorecommondomesticorcommercialinstallations,thesearemodestly-sizedplants.However,thereareplansforconstructionofseverallargescalesolarpowerplantsundertheAustralianGovernment’sSolarFlagshipsProgram,whichwill usebothsolarthermalandPVtechnologies.
10.4Outlookto2030forAustralia’sresourcesandmarketSolarenergyisarenewableresource:increaseduseoftheresourcedoesnotaffectresourceavailability.However,thequantityoftheresourcethatcanbeeconomicallycapturedchangesovertimethroughtechnologicaldevelopments.
TheoutlookfortheAustraliansolarmarket dependsonthecostofsolarenergyrelativetootherenergyresources.Atpresent,solarenergyismoreexpensiveforelectricitygenerationthanothercurrentlyusedrenewableenergysources,suchashydro,wind,biomassandbiogas.Therefore,theoutlookforincreasedsolarenergyuptakedependsonfactorsthatwillreduceitscostsrelativetootherrenewablefuels.Thecompetitivenessofsolarenergyandrenewableenergysourcesgenerallywillalsodependongovernmentpoliciesaimedatreducinggreenhousegasemissions.
Solarenergyislikelytobeaneconomicallyattractiveoptionforremoteoff-gridelectricitygeneration.Thelong-termcompetitivenessofsolarenergyinlarge-
Table 10.3 Recentlycompletedsolarprojects
Project Company State Start up Capacity
Singleton Energy NSW 1998 0.4MWAustralia
Newington Private NSW 2000 0.7MW
BrokenHill Australian NSW 2000 1MWInlandEnergy
Newcastle CSIRO NSW 2005 0.6MW
Liddell Ausra NSW Late 2MW2008
Source: GeoscienceAustralia2009
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scalegrid-connectedapplicationsdependsinlargemeasureontechnologicaldevelopmentsthatenhancetheefficiencyofenergyconversionandreducethecapitalandoperatingcostofsolarenergysystems andcomponentry.TheAustralianGovernment’s$1.5billionSolarFlagshipsprogram,announcedaspartoftheCleanEnergyInitiative,willsupporttheconstructionanddemonstrationoflargescale (upto1000MW)solarpowerstationsinAustralia. Itwillacceleratedevelopmentsolartechnologyand helppositionAustraliaasaworldleaderinthatfield.
10.4.1KeyfactorsinfluencingthefuturedevelopmentofAustralia’ssolarenergyresourcesAustraliaisaworldleaderindevelopingsolartechnologies(LovegroveandDennis2006),butuptakeofthesetechnologieswithinAustraliahasbeenrelativelylow,principallybecauseoftheir highcost.Anumberoffactorsaffecttheeconomicviabilityofsolarinstallations.
Solar energy technologies and costsResearchintobothsolarPVandsolarthermaltechnologiesislargelyfocussedonreducingcostsandincreasingtheefficiencyofthesystems.
• Electricity generation–commercial-scalegenerationprojectshavebeendemonstratedtobepossiblebutthecostofthetechnologyisstillrelativelyhigh,makingsolarlessattractiveandhigherriskforinvestors.Small-scalesolarPVarraysarecurrentlybestsuitedtoremoteandoff-gridapplications,withotherapplicationslargelydependentonresearchorgovernmentfundingtomakethemviable.Informationonsolarenergytechnologiesforelectricitygenerationispresentedinbox10.1.
• Direct-use applications–solarthermalhotwatersystemsfordomesticuserepresentthemostwidelycommercialisedsolarenergytechnology.
Solarwaterheatersarecontinuingtobedevelopedfurther,andcanalsobeintegrated withPVarrays.Otherdirectusesincludepassivesolarheating,andsolarairconditioning.Informationonsolarenergytechnologiesfordirect-useapplicationsispresentedinbox10.2.
WithbothsolarPVandsolarthermalgeneration,themajorityofcostsareborneinthecapitalinstallationphase,irrespectiveofthescaleorsizeoftheproject(figure10.21).ThelargestcostcomponentsofPVinstallationsarethecellsorpanelsandtheassociatedcomponentsrequiredtoinstallandconnectthepanelsasapowersource.Inaddition,theinverterthatconvertsthedirectcurrenttoalternatingcurrentneedstobereplacedatleastonceevery10years(Borenstein2008).However,therearenofuelcosts–oncethesystemisinstalled,apartfromreplacingtheinverter,thereshouldbenocostsassociatedwithrunningthesystemuntiltheendofitsusefullife(20to25years).Themajorchallenge,therefore,isinitialoutlay,withsomewhatmoremodestperiodiccomponentreplacement, andpaybackperiodfortheinvestment.
Currently,thecostofsolarenergyishigherthan othertechnologiesinmostcountries.TheminimumcostforsolarPVinareaswithhighsolarradiation isaroundUS23centsperkWh(EIA2009).
SolarthermalsystemshaveasimilarprofiletoPV,dependingonthescaleandtypeofinstallation.Thecostofelectricityproductionfromsolarenergyisexpectedtodeclineasnewtechnologiesaredevelopedandeconomiesofscaleimproveintheproductionprocesses.
Thecostofinstallingsolarcapacityhasgenerallybeendecreasing.BothPVandsolarthermaltechnologiescurrentlyhavesubstantialresearch anddevelopmentfundsdirectedtowardthem,andnewproductionprocessesareexpectedtoresultinacontinuationofthistrend(figure10.22).IntheUnited
Cos
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Figure 10.21 IndicativesolarPVproductionprofile and costs
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Figure 10.22 Projectedaveragecapitalcostsfor newelectricitygenerationplantsusingsolarenergy, 2011to2030
Source: EIA2009
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States,thecapitalcostofnewPVplantsisprojectedtofallby37percent(inrealterms)from2009to2030(EIA2009).
TheElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)hasdevelopedestimatesofthelevelisedcostoftechnologya,includingarangeofsolartechnologies,toenablethecomparisonoftechnologiesatdifferentlevelsofmaturity(Chapter2,figures2.18,2.19).Thesolartechnologiesconsideredareparabolictroughs,centralreceiversystems,fixedPVsystemsandtrackingPVsystems.Centralreceiversolarsystemswithstorageareforecasttohavethelowestcostsoftechnologyin2015.AddingstoragetothecentralreceiversystemsortoparabolictroughsisestimatedtodecreasethecostperKWhproduced,asitallowsthesystemtoproduceahigherelectricityoutput.TrackingPVsystemsareforecasttohavethelowestcostoftheoptionsthatdonotincorporatestorage.TheEPRItechnologystatusdatainfigures2.18and2.19showthat,althoughsolartechnologiesremainrelativelyhighcostoptionsthroughouttheoutlookperiod,significantreductionsincostareanticipatedby2030.ThesubstantialglobalRD&D(bygovernmentsandtheprivatesector)intosolartechnologies,includingtheAustralianGovernment’s$1.5billionSolarFlagshipsProgramtosupporttheconstructionanddemonstrationoflargescalesolarpowerstationsinAustralia,isexpectedtoplayakeyroleinacceleratingthedevelopmentanddeploymentofsolarenergy.
Thetimetakentoinstallordevelopasolarsystem ishighlydependentonthesizeandscaleoftheproject.Solarhotwatersystemscanbeinstalledinaroundfourhours.Small-scalePVsystemscansimilarlybeinstalledquiterapidly.However,commercialscaledevelopmentstakeconsiderablylonger,dependingonthetypeofinstallationandotherfactors,includingbroaderlocationorenvironmentalconsiderations.
Location of the resourceInAustralia,thebestsolarresourcesarecommonlydistantfromthenationalelectricitymarket(NEM),especiallythemajorurbancentresontheeasternseaboard.Thisposesachallengefordevelopingnewsolarpowerplants,asthereneedstobeabalancebetweenmaximisingthesolarradiationandminimisingthecostsofconnectivitytotheelectricitygrid.However,thereispotentialforsolarthermalenergyapplicationtoprovidebaseandintermediateloadelectricitywithfossil-fuelplants(suchasgasturbinepowerstations)inareaswithisolatedgridsystemsandgoodinsolationresources.ThereportbytheWyldGroupandMMA(2008)identifiedMountIsa,AliceSprings,TennantCreekandthePilbararegionasareaswiththesecharacteristics.AccesstoAustralia’smajorsolarenergyresources–aswithotherremoterenewableenergysources–islikelytorequireinvestmenttoextendtheelectricitygrid.
Stand-alonePVsystemscanbelocatedclosetocustomers(forexampleonroofareasofresidentialbuildings),whichreducesthecostsofelectricitytransmissionanddistribution.However,concentratingsolarthermaltechnologiesrequiremorespecificconditionsandlargeareasofland(Lorenz,PinnerandSeitz2008)whichareoftenonlyavailablelongdistancesfromthecustomersneedingtheenergy. InAustralia,installingsmall-scaleresidentialormediumscalecommercialsystems(bothPVandthermal)canbehighlyattractiveoptionsforremoteareaswhereelectricityinfrastructureisdifficultorcostlytoaccess,andalternativelocalsourcesofelectricityareexpensive.
government policiesGovernmentpolicieshavebeenimplementedatseveralstagesofthesolarenergyproductionchaininAustralia.RebatesprovidedforsolarwaterheatingsystemsandresidentialPVinstallationsreducethecostofthesetechnologiesforconsumersandencouragetheiruptake.
TheSolarHomesandCommunitiesPlan(2000toJune2009)providedrebatesfortheinstallationofsolarPVsystems.ThecapacityofPVsystemsinstalledbyAustralianhouseholdsincreasedsignificantlyunderthisprogram(figure10.23). TheexpandedRETschemeincludestheSolar Creditsinitiative,whichprovidesamultipliedcreditforelectricitygeneratedbysmallsolarPVsystems. Solar Creditsprovidesanup-frontcapitalsubsidytowardstheinstallationofsmallsolarPVsystems.
TheAustralianGovernmenthasalsoannounced $1.5billionofnewfundingforitsSolarFlagshipsprogram.Thisprogramaimstoinstalluptofournewsolarpowerplants,withacombinedpoweroutputofupto1000MW,madeupofbothPVandsolarthermalpowerplants,withthelocationsandtechnologiestobedeterminedbyacompetitivetenderprocess.Theprogramaimstodemonstratenewsolartechnologiesatacommercialscale,therebyacceleratinguptakeofsolarenergyingeneralandprovidingtheopportunityforAustraliatodevelopleadershipinsolarenergytechnology(RET2009b).
TheAustralianGovernmenthasalsoallocatedfundingtoestablishtheAustralianSolarInstitute(ASI),whichwillbebasedinNewcastle.ItwillhavestrongcollaborativelinkswithCSIROandUniversitiesundertakingR&Dinsolartechnologies.TheinstitutewillaimtodrivedevelopmentofsolarthermalandPVtechnologiesinAustralia,includingtheareasofefficiencyandcosteffectiveness(RET2009a).
Othergovernmentpolicies,includingfeed-intariffs,whichareproposedoralreadyinplaceinmostAustralianstatesandterritories,mayalsoencouragetheuptakeofsolarenergy.
a ThisEPRItechnologystatusdataenablesthecomparisonoftechnologiesatdifferentlevelsofmaturity. Itshouldnotbeusedtoforecastmarketandinvestmentoutcomes.
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50
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AERA 10.23
Figure 10.23 ResidentialPVcapacityinstalledundertheSolarHomesandCommunitiesPlan(asofOctober2009)
Source: DEWHA2009
Infrastructure issuesThelocationoflargescalesolarpowerplants inAustraliawillbeinfluencedbythecostofconnectiontotheelectricitygrid.Intheshortterm,developmentsarelikelytofocusonisolatedgridsystemsornodestotheexistingelectricitygrid, sincethisminimisesinfrastructurecosts.
Inthelongerterm,theextensionofthegridtoaccessremotesolarenergyresourcesindesertregionsmayrequirebuildinglongdistancetransmissionlines.Thetechnologyneededtoachievethisexists:highvoltagedirectcurrent(HVDC)transmissionlinesareabletotransferelectricityoverthousandsofkilometres,withminimallosses.SomeHVDClinesarealreadyinuseinAustralia,andarebeingusedtoforminterstategridconnections;thelongestexamplebeingtheHVDClinkbetweenTasmaniaandVictoria.However,buildingaHVDClinktoasolarpowerstationindesertareaswouldrequirealargeup-frontinvestment.
Theideaofgeneratinglargescalesolarenergyinremotedesertregionshasbeenproposedonamuchlargerscaleinternationally.InJune2009theDESERTECFoundationoutlinedaproposaltobuildlargescalesolarfarmsinthesun-richregionsoftheMiddleEastandNorthernAfrica,andexporttheirpowertoEuropeusinglongdistanceHVDClines. Morerecently,anAsiaPacificSunbeltDevelopmentProjecthasbeenestablishedwiththeaimofmovingsolarenergybywayoffuelratherthanelectricityfromregionssuchasAustraliatothoseAsiancountrieswhoimportenergy,suchasJapanandKorea.Theseprojectsillustratethegrowinginternationalinterestinutilisinglargescalesolarpowerfromremoteandinhospitableareas,despitetheinfrastructurechallengesintransmittingortransportingenergyoverlongdistances.
Environmental issuesAroof-mounted,grid-connectedsolarsysteminAustraliaisestimatedtoyieldmorethanseventimes
theenergyrequiredtoproduceitovera20yearsystemlifespan(MacKay2009).Inareaswithlesssolarradiation,suchasCentral-NorthernEurope,theenergyyieldratioisestimatedtobearoundfour.Thispositiveenergyyieldratioalsomeansthatgreenhousegasemissionsgeneratedfromtheproductionofsolarenergysystemsaremorethanoffsetoverthesystems’lifecycle,astherearenogreenhousegasemissionsgeneratedfromtheiroperation.
Mostsolarthermalelectricitygenerationsystemsrequirewaterforsteamproductionandthiswateruseaffectstheefficiencyofthesystem.Themajorityofthiswaterisconsumedin‘wetcooling’towers,whichuseevaporativecoolingtocondensethesteamafterithaspassedthroughtheturbine.Inaddition,solarthermalsystemsrequirewatertowashthemirrors,tomaintaintheirreflectivity(Jones2008).Itispossibletouse‘drycooling’towers,whicheliminatemostofthewaterconsumption,butthisreducestheefficiencyofthesteamcyclebyapproximately10percent(Stein2009b).
AfurtheroptionunderdevelopmentistheuseofhightemperatureBraytoncycles,whichdonotusesteamturbinesandthusdonotconsumewater.BraytoncyclesaremoreefficientthanconventionalRankine(steam)cycles,buttheycanonlybeachievedbypoint-focussingsolarthermaltechnologies(powertowersanddishes).
10.4.2OutlookforsolarenergymarketAlthoughsolarenergyismoreabundantinAustraliathanotherrenewableenergysources,plansforexpandingsolarenergyinAustraliagenerallyrelyonsubsidiestobeeconomicallyviable.Therearecurrentlyonlyasmallnumberofproposedcommercialsolarenergyprojects,mostlyofsmallscale.Solarenergyiscurrentlymoreexpensivetoproducethanotherformsofrenewableenergy,suchashydro,windandbiomass(WyldGroupandMMA2008).Intheshortterm,therefore,solarenergywillfinditdifficulttocompetecommerciallywithotherformsofcleanenergyforelectricitygenerationintheNEM.However,asglobaldeploymentofsolarenergytechnologiesincreases,thecostofthetechnologiesislikelytodecrease.Moreover,technologicaldevelopmentsandgreenhousegasemissionreductionpoliciesareexpectedtodriveincreaseduseofsolarenergyinthemediumandlongterm.
Key projections to 2029–30ABARE’slatest(2010)AustralianenergyprojectionsincludetheRET,a5percentemissionsreductiontarget,andothergovernmentpolicies.SolarenergyuseinAustraliaisprojectedtomorethantriple,from7PJin2007–08to24PJin2029–30,growingatanaveragerateof5.9percentayear(figure10.27,table10.4).Whilesolarwaterheatingisprojectedtoremainthepredominantuseforsolarenergy,theshareofPVintotalsolarenergyuseisprojectedtoincrease.
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BOx 10.1SOLARENERGyTECHNOLOGIESFORELECTRICITyGENERATION
Sunlighthasbeenusedforheatingbygeneratingfireforhundredsofyears,butcommercialtechnologiesspecificallytousesolarenergytodirectlyheatwaterorgeneratepowerwerenotdevelopeduntilthe1800s.Solarwaterheatersdevelopedandinstalledbetween1910and1920werethefirstcommercialapplicationofsolarenergy.ThefirstPVcellscapableofconvertingenoughenergyintopowertorunelectricalequipmentwerenotdevelopeduntilthe1950sandthefirstsolarpowerstations(thermalandPV)withcapacityofatleast1megawattstartedoperatinginthe1980s.
Solar thermal electricitySolarthermalelectricityisproducedbyconvertingsunlightintoheat,andthenusingtheheattodrive agenerator.Thesunlightisconcentratedusingmirrors,andfocussedontoasolarreceiver.Thisreceivercontainsaworkingfluidthatabsorbstheconcentratedsunlight,andcanbeheateduptoveryhightemperatures.Heatistransferredfromtheworkingfluidtoasteamturbine,similartothoseusedinfossilfuelandnuclearpowerstations.Alternatively,theheatcanbestoredforlateruse(seebelow).
Therearefourmaintypesofconcentratingsolarreceivers,showninfigure10.24.Twoofthesetypesareline-focussing(parabolictroughandLinearFresnelreflector);theothertwoarepoint-focussing(paraboloidaldishandpowertower).Eachofthesetypesisdesignedtoconcentratealargeareaofsunlightontoasmallreceiver,whichenablesfluid tobeheatedtohightemperatures.Therearetrade-offsbetweenefficiency,landcoverage,andcosts ofeachtype.
Themostwidelyusedsolarconcentratoristheparabolictrough.Parabolictroughsfocuslightinoneaxisonly,whichmeansthattheyneedonlyasingleaxistrackingmechanismtofollowthedirectionofthesun.ThelinearFresnelreflectorachievesasimilarline-focus,butinsteadusesanarrayofalmostflatmirrors.LinearFresnelreflectorsachieveaweakerfocus(thereforelowertemperaturesandefficiencies)thanparabolictroughs.However,linearFresnelreflectorshavecost-savingfeaturesthatcompensateforlowerenergyefficiencies,includingagreateryieldperunitland,andsimplerconstructionrequirements.
Theparaboloidaldishisanalternatedesignwhichfocusessunlightontoasinglepoint.Thisdesignisabletoproduceamuchhighertemperatureatthe
a b
c d
Figure 10.24 Thefourtypesofsolarthermalconcentrators: (a)parabolictrough,(b)compactlinearFresnelreflector,(c)paraboloidaldish,and(d)powertower
Source: WikimediaCommons,photographbykjkolb;WikimediaCommons,originaluploaderwasLkruijswaten.wikipedia; AustralianNationalUniversity2009a;CSIRO
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receiver,whichincreasestheefficiencyofenergyconversion.Theparaboloidaldishhasthegreatestpotentialtobeusedinmodularform,whichmaygivethisdesignanadvantageinoff-gridandremoteapplications.However,tofocusthesunlightontoasinglepoint,paraboloidaldishesneedtotrackthedirectionofsunlightontwoaxes.Thisrequiresamorecomplextrackingmechanism,andismoreexpensivetobuild.Theotherpointfocusingdesignisthe‘powertower’,whichusesaseriesofground-basedmirrorstofocusontoanelevatedcentralreceiver.Powertowermirrorsalsorequiretwo-axistrackingmechanisms;howevertheuseofsmaller,flatmirrorscanreducecosts.
Theparabolictroughhasthemostwidespreadcommercialuse.Anarrayofnineparabolictroughplantsproducingacombined354MWhaveoperatedinCaliforniasincethe1980s.SeveralnewoneshavebeenbuiltinSpainandNevadainthelastfewyearsatarounda50–60MWscale,andtherearemanyparabolictroughplantseitherintheconstructionorplanningphase.Whileparabolictroughshavethemajorityofthecurrentmarketshare,allfourdesignsaregainingrenewedcommercialinterest.Thereisan11MWsolarpowertowerplantoperatinginSpain, andasimilar20MWplanthasrecentlybegunoperatingatthesamelocation.ThelinearFresnelreflectorhasbeendemonstratedonasmallscale(5MW),anda177MWplantisplannedforconstructioninCalifornia.Theparaboloidaldishhasalsobeendemonstratedonasmallscale,andthereareplansforlargescaledishplants.
Methodsofpowerconversionandthermalstoragevaryfromtypetotype.Whilesolarthermalplantsaregenerallysuitedtolargescaleplants(greaterthan 50MW),theparaboloidaldishhasthepotentialto beusedinmodularform.Thismaygivedishsystemsanadvantageinremoteandoff-gridapplications.
Efficiency of solar thermalTheconversionefficiencyofsolarthermalpowerplantsdependsonthetypeofconcentratorused, andtheamountofsunlight.Ingeneral,thepoint-focusingconcentrators(paraboloidaldishandpowertower)canachievehigherefficienciesthanlinefocussingtechnologies(parabolictroughandFresnelreflector).Thisispossiblebecausethepoint-focussingtechnologiesachievehighertemperaturesforhigherthermodynamiclimits.
Thehighestvalueofsolar-to-electricefficiencyeverrecordedforasolarthermalsystemwas31.25percent,usingasolardishinpeaksunlightconditions(Sandia2009).Parabolictroughscanachieveapeaksolar-to-electricefficiencyofover20percent(SEGS2009).However,theconversionefficiencydropssignificantlywhentheradiationdropsinintensity,
sotheannualaverageefficienciesaresignificantlylower.AccordingtoBegay-Campbell(2008),theannualsolar-to-electricefficiencyisapproximately12–14percentforparabolictroughs,12percentforpowertowers(althoughemergingtechnologiescanachieve18–20percent),and22–25percentforparaboloidaldishes.LinearFresnelreflectorsachieveasimilarefficiencytoparabolictroughs,withanannualsolar-to-electricefficiencyofapproximately 12percent(Millsetal.2002).
Energy storageSolarthermalelectricitysystemshavethepotentialtostoreenergyoverseveralhours.Theworkingfluidusedinthesystemcanbeusedtotemporarilystoreheat,andcanbeconvertedintoelectricityafterthesunhasstoppedshining.Thismeansthatsolarthermalplantshavethepotentialtodispatchpoweratpeakdemandtimes.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatperiodsofsustainedcloudyweathercuttheproductivecapacityofsolarthermalpower. Theseasonalityofsunshinealsoreducespoweroutputinwinter.
Thermalstorageisoneofthekeyadvantagesofsolarthermalpower,andcreatesthepotentialforintermediateorbase-loadpowergeneration.Althoughthermalstoragetechnologyisrelativelynew,severalrecentlyconstructedsolarthermalpowerplantshaveincludedthermalstorageofapproximately7hours’powergeneration.Inaddition,therearenewpowertowerdesignsthatincorporateupto16hoursofthermalstorage,allowing24hourpowergenerationinappropriateconditions.Thedevelopmentofcosteffectivestoragetechnologiesmayenableamuchhigheruptakeofsolarthermalpowerinthefuture(WyldGroupandMMA2008).
Currentresearchisdevelopingalternativeenergystoragemethods,includingchemicalstorage,andphase-changematerials.Chemicalstorageoptionsincludedissociatedammoniaandsolar-enhancednaturalgas.Thesenewstoragemethodshavethepotentialtoprovideseasonalstorageofsolarenergy,ortoconvertsolarenergyintoportablefuels.Infuture,itmaybepossibleforsolarfuelstobeusedinthetransportsector,orevenforexportingsolarenergy.
Hybrid operation with fossil fuel plantsSolarthermalpowerplantscanmakeuseof existingturbinetechnologiesthathavebeendevelopedandrefinedovermanydecadesinfossilfueltechnologies.Usingthismaturetechnologycanreducemanufacturingcostsandincreasetheefficiencyofpowergeneration.Inaddition,solarthermalheatcollectorscanbeusedinhybridoperationwithfossilfuelburners.Anumberofexistingsolarthermalpowerplantsusegasburnerstoboostpowersupplyduringlowlevelsofsunlight.
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Combiningsolarthermalpowerwithgascanprovideahedgeagainsttheintermittencyofsunlight.
Solarthermalheatcollectorscanbeattachedtoexistingcoalorgaspowerstationstopre-heatthewaterusedintheseplants.Thisispossiblesincesolarthermalheatcollectorsperformaverysimilarfunctiontofossilfuelburners.Inthisway,solarthermalpowercanmakeuseofexistinginfrastructure.Thisoptionisnotaffectedbyintermittencyofsunlight,sincethefossilfuelburnersprovidefirmcapacityofproduction.Internationally,thereareseveralnewintegratedsolarcombinedcycle(ISCC)plantsplannedforconstruction.ISCCplantsaresimilartocombinedcyclegasplants(usingbothagasturbine,andasteamturbine),butusesolarthermalheatcollectorstoboostthesteamturbineproduction.
Solar updraft towersAnalternativesolarthermalpowertechnologyisthesolarupdrafttower,alsoknownasasolarchimney.Theupdrafttowercapturessolarenergyusingalargegreenhouse,whichheatsairbeneathatransparentroof.Averytallchimneyisplacedatthecentreofthegreenhouse,andtheheatedaircreatespressuredifferencesthatdriveairflowupthechimney.Electricityisgeneratedfromtheairflowusingwindturbinesatthebaseofthechimney.
Solarupdrafttowershavebeentestedatarelativelysmallscale,witha50kWplantinSpainbeingtheonlyworkingprototypeatpresent.Thereareplanstoupscalethistechnology,includingaproposed200MWplantinBuronga,NSW.ThemaindisadvantageofsolarupdrafttowersisthattheydeliversignificantlylesspowerperunitareathanconcentratingsolarthermalandPVsystems(Enviromission2009).
Photovoltaic systemsThecostsofproducingPVcellshasdeclinedrapidlyinrecentyearsasuptakehasincreased(Fthenakis
etal.2009)andanumberofPVtechnologieshave
beendeveloped.Thecostofmodulescanbereduced
infourmainways:
• makingthinnerlayers–reducingmaterialand
processingcosts;
• integratingPVpanelswithbuildingelementssuch
asglassandroofs–reducingoverallsystem
costs;
• makingadhesiveonsite–reducingmaterials
costs;and
• improvingdecisionsaboutmakingorbuying
inputs,increasingeconomiesofscale,and
improvingthedesignofPVmodules.
TherearethreemaintypesofPVtechnology:
crystallinesilicon,thin-filmandconcentratingPV.
Crystallinesiliconistheoldestandmostwidespread
technology.Thesecellsarebecomingmoreefficient
overtime,andcostshavefallensteadily.
Thin-filmPVisanemerginggroupoftechnologies,
targetedatreducingcostsofPVcells.Thin-filmPV
isatanearlierstageofdevelopment,andcurrently
deliversalowerefficiencythancrystallinesilicon,
estimatedataround10percent,althoughmany
ofthenewervarietiesstilldeliverefficienciesof
lessthanthis(Prowse2009).However,thisis
compensatedbylowercosts,andtherearestrong
prospectsforefficiencyimprovementsinthefuture.
Thin-filmPVcanbeinstalledonmanydifferent
substrates,givingitgreatflexibilityinitsapplications.
ConcentratingPVsystemsuseeithermirrorsor
lensestofocusalargeareaofsunlightontoacentral
receiver(figure10.25).Thisincreasestheintensity
ofthelight,andallowsagreaterpercentageofits
energytobeconvertedintoelectricity.Thesesystems
aredesignedprimarilyforlargescalecentralised
Figure 10.25 (a)ExampleofarooftopPVsystem. (b)AschematicconcentratingPVsystem,wherealargenumberofmirrorsfocussunlightontocentralPVreceivers
Source: CERP,WikimediaCommons;EnergyInnovationsInc.underWikipedialicencecc-by-sa-2.5
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power,duetothecomplexitiesofthereceivers.ConcentratingPVisthemostefficientformofPV,deliveringatypicalsystemefficiencyofaround 20percent,andhasachievedefficienciesofjustover40percentinideallaboratoryconditions(NREL2008).
AnadvantageofusingconcentratingPVisthatitreducestheareaofsolarcellsneededtocapture thesunlight.PVcellsareoftenexpensivetoproduce,andthemirrorsorlensesusedtoconcentratethelightaregenerallycheaperthanthecells.However,theuseofsolarconcentratorsgenerallyrequiresalargersystemthatcannotbescaleddownaseasilyasflat-platePVcells.
ArelativelyrecentareaofgrowthforPVapplicationsisinBuilding-integratedPV(BIPV)systems.BIPVsystemsincorporatePVtechnologyintomanydifferentcomponentsofanewbuilding.Thesecomponentsincluderooftops,wallsandwindows,
wherePVcellscaneitherreplace,orbeintegratedwithexistingmaterials.BIPVhasthepotentialtoreducecostsofPVsystems,andtoincreasethesurfaceareaavailableforcapturingsolarenergywithinabuilding(NREL2009b).
Efficiency of photovoltaic systemsCurrently,themaximumefficiencyofcommerciallyavailablePVmodulesisaround20to25percent,withefficienciesofaround40percentachievedinlaboratories.MostcommerciallyavailablePVsystemshaveanaverageconversionefficiencyofaround10percent.Newdevelopments(suchasmulti-junctiontandemcells)suggestsolarcellswithconversionefficienciesofgreaterthan40percentcouldbecomecommerciallyavailableinthefuture.Fthenakisetal.(2009)positthatincreasesinefficiencyofPVmoduleswillcomefromfurthertechnologyimprovements.
BOx 10.2SOLARENERGyTECHNOLOGIESFORDIRECT-USEAPPLICATIONS
Solar thermal heatingSolarthermalheatingusesdirectheatfromsunlight,withouttheneedtoconverttheenergyintoelectricity.Thesimplestformofsolarthermalheatingisachievedsimplybypumpingwaterthroughasystemoflight-absorbingtubes,usuallymountedonarooftop.Thetubesabsorbsunlight,andheatthewaterflowingwithinthem.Themostcommonuseforsolarthermalheatingishotwatersystems,buttheyarealsousedforswimmingpoolheatingorspaceheating.
Therearetwomaintypesofsolarwaterheaters:flat-plateandevacuatedtubesystems(figure10.26).Flat-platesystemsarethemostwidespreadandmaturetechnology.Theyuseanarrayofverysmalltubes,coveredbyatransparentglazingforinsulation.Evacuatedtubesconsistofasunlightabsorbingmetaltube,insidetwoconcentrictransparentglasstubes.Thespacebetweenthetwoglasstubesis
evacuatedtopreventlossesduetoconvection.Evacuatedtubeshavelowerheatlossesthanflatplatecollectors,givingthemanadvantageinwinterconditions.However,flat-platesystemsaregenerallycheaper,duetotheirrelativecommercialmaturity.
Solarthermalheatingisamaturetechnologyandrelativelyinexpensivecomparedtoothersolartechnologies.Thiscostadvantagehasmeantthatsolarthermalheatinghasthelargestenergyproductionofanysolartechnology.Insomecountrieswithfavourablesunlightconditions,solarwaterheatershavegainedasubstantialmarketshareofwaterheaters.Forexample,theproportionofhouseholdswithsolarwaterheatersintheNorthernTerritorywas54percentin2008(CEC2009)whereasinIsraelthisproportionisapproximately 90percent(CSIRO2010).
Figure 10.26 (a)Flat-platesolarwaterheater. (b)EvacuatedtubesolarwaterheaterSource: WesternAustralianSustainableEnergyDevelopmentOffice2009;HillsSolar(SolarSolutionsforLife)2009
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Solar air conditioningSolarthermalenergycanalsobeusedtodriveair-conditioningsystems.Sorptioncoolingusesaheatsourcetodrivearefrigerationcycle,andcanbeintegratedwithsolarthermalheatcollectorstoprovidesolarair-conditioning.Sincesunlightisgenerallystrongwhenair-conditioningismostneeded,solarair-conditioningcanbeusedtobalancepeaksummerelectricityloads.However,anumberofdevelopmentsarerequiredbeforesolarair-conditioningbecomescostcompetitiveinAustralia(CSIRO2010).
Passive solar heatingSolarenergycanalsobeusedtoheatbuildingsdirectly,throughdesigningbuildingsthatcapturesunlightandstoreheatthatcanbeusedatnight.Thisprocessiscalledpassivesolarheating,andcansaveenergy(electricityandgas)thatwouldotherwisebeneededtoheatbuildingsduringcoldweather.Newbuildingscanbeconstructedwithpassivesolarheatingfeaturesatminimalextracost,providingareliablesourceofheatingthatcangreatlyreduceenergydemandsinwinter(AZSC2009).
Passivesolarheatingusuallyrequirestwo
basicelements:anorth-facing(intheSouthernHemisphere)windowoftransparentmaterialthatallowssunlighttoenterthebuilding;andathermalstoragematerialthatabsorbsandstoresheat.Passivesolarheatingmustalsobeintegratedwithinsulationtoprovideefficientstorageofheat,androofdesignsthatcanmaximiseexposureinwinter,andminimiseexposureinsummer.Althoughsomeofthesefeaturescanberetrofittedtoexistingbuildings,thebestprospectsforpassivesolarheatingareinthedesignofnewbuildings.
Combined heat and power systemsAtechnologyunderdevelopmentinAustraliaandoverseasisthecombinedheatandpowersystem,combiningsolarthermalheatingwithPVtechnology(ANU2009).Typicallythisconsistsofasmall-scaleconcentratingparabolictroughsystemwithacentralPVreceiver,wherethereceiveriscoupledtoacoolingfluid.WhilethePVproduceselectricity,heatisextractedfromthecoolingfluidandcanbeusedinthesamewayasaconventionalsolarthermalheater.Thesesystemscanachieveagreaterefficiencyofenergyconversion,byusingthesamesunlightfortwopurposes.Thesesystemsarebeingtargetedforsmall-scalerooftopapplications.
Electricitygenerationfromsolarenergyisprojectedtoincreasestrongly,fromonly0.1TWhin2007–08to4TWhin2029–30,representinganaverageannualgrowthrateof17.4percent(figure10.28).Theshareofsolarenergyinelectricitygenerationisalsoprojectedtoincrease,from0.04percentin2007–08to1percentin2029–30.
Whilehighinvestmentcostscurrentlyrepresentabarriertomorewidespreaduseofsolarenergy,thereisconsiderablescopeforthecostofsolartechnologiestodeclinesignificantlyovertime.Thecompetitivenessofsolarenergywillalsodependongovernmentpolicies.TheRET,theresultsofRD&D
programsandtheproposedemissionsreductiontargetareallexpectedtounderpinthegrowthofsolarenergyovertheoutlookperiod.
Proposed development projectsAsatOctober2009,therewerenosolarprojectsnearingcompletioninAustralia(table10.5).Therearecurrentlyfiveproposedsolarprojects,withacombinedcapacityof116MW.ThelargestoftheseprojectsisWizardPower’s$355millionWhyallaSolarOasis,whichwillbelocatedinSouthAustralia.Theprojectisexpectedtohaveacapacityof80MWandisscheduledtobecompletedby2012.
24
20
16
12
8
4
0
0.30
0.25
0.20
PJ 0.15 %
0.10
0.05
0
Solar energy consumption (PJ)
Share of total (%)
1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 2007- 2029-00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 30
YearAERA 10.2
Figure 10.27 Projectedprimaryenergyconsumption ofsolarenergy
Source: ABARE2009a,2010
%
AERA 10.3
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
1.1
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.2
01999-
002000-
012001-
022002-
032003-
042004-
052005-
062006-
072007-
08
TWh
2029-30
Solar electricity generation (TWh)
Share of total (%)
Year
Figure 10.28 Projectedelectricitygenerationfrom solar energy
Source: ABARE2009a,2010
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Table 10.4 OutlookforAustralia’ssolarmarketto2029–30
unit 2007–08 2029–30
Primary energy consumption
Shareoftotal
PJ
%
7
0.1
24
0.3
Averageannualgrowth,2007–08to20029–30
Electricity generation
Electricityoutput
Shareoftotal
%
TWh
%
0.1
0.04
5.9
4
1.0
Averageannualgrowth,2007–08to2029–30 % 17.4
a Energyproductionandprimaryenergyconsumptionareidentical Source: ABARE2009a,2010
Table 10.5 Proposedsolarenergyprojects
Project Company Location Status Start up Capacity Capital expenditure
SolarGasOne CSIROandQldGovernment
Qld Governmentgrantreceived
2012 1MW na
LakeCargelligosolarthermalproject
LloydEnergySystems
LakeCargelligo,NSW
Governmentgrantreceived
na 3MW na
Cloncurrysolarthermalpowerstation
LloydEnergySystems
Cloncurry,Qld Governmentgrantreceived
2010 10MW $31m
ACTsolarpowerplant
ACTGovernment Tobedetermined,ACT
Pre-feasibilitystudycompleted
2012 22MW $141m
WhyallaSolarOasis
WizardPower Whyalla,SA Feasibilitystudyunderway
2012 80MW $355m
Source: ABARE2009c;LloydEnergySystems2007
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