Chapter17-AimsoftheCriminalJusticeSystemDueProcess:referstothevalues,rulesandpracticeswithintheCJSthatupholdthelegalrightsofapersonsuspectedoraccusedofcommittingacriminaloffenceExample:therighttoconsultwithalawyerbeforequestioningortherighttoafairhearingincourtDiscretion:thedecision-makingpoweroflegalandcriminaljusticeofficialstointerpretlawandadministrativerules(theabilitytochoosebetweenoptionsinaparticularsituation)Accountability:thecapacitytobeheldresponsibleforone’sactionsorstatementsThefunnellingeffect-Ateachstageofthecriminalprocess,thenumberofcasesinvolvedintheCJSbecomesmallerandsmaller-Thisisaresultofcumberofdiscretionarydecisionsonthepartofthepolice,theprosecutorsandthecourts

Chapter18-PolicingandLawEnforcementHistory:

• Policinginitiallyperformedbyarangeofgroupsincludingthemilitary,convictnight-watchmen,indigenous‘nativepolice’

• Controlwaslocalisedupuntilcentralisationofpoweroverpolice• SydneyPoliceAct(1833)–firstprofessionalcitypoliceforce• Otherstatesfollowedinsuccession

Image vs. Reality - are police a force or a service?

• There is considerably a stronger federal presence in policing Police safety and use of force decisions during critical occurrences are an ongoing source of concern for both police and the public. With the recent increasing amounts of weaponry given to police officers, the public perceives the police as more of a force than a service. PoliceCulture:

• Cultureconcernstheinformaloccupationalnormsandvalues,acceptedpractices,rulesandprinciplesofbehaviourwhichhavebeencharacterisedasconsistingofasenseof“mission”asawayoflifethatisseenasavaluedcontributiontomaintainingsocialrelationsandprotectingvictims;

• Anactionorientation• Isolationfromthegeneralcommunity• Andselfportrayalasattheborderinbetweenorderandanarchy

PoliceAccountability:

• Equallyaccountabletothelaw • Oftenunaccountableasmuchpoliceworkisunobserved � • Internaloversight–ProfessionalStandardsCommand • Media �

TheJurySystem: � • Operatesaccordingtothe

JuriesAct(2000) • Comprisescitizens

randomlychosenfromelectoralroll

• Criminaltrialshave12jurormembers,exceptinlongtrialswheretheremaybe 15jurors.

Peoplemaybe:-ineligible -excused-disqualified ThePurposeofSentencing: �Thereare5purposestosentencing(SentencingAct1991),

1. JustPunishment:topunishtheoffendertoanextentandinamannerwhichisjustinallofthecircumstances

2. Deterrence(GeneralandSpecific):todetertheoffender(specific)orotherperson(general)fromcommittingoffencesofthesameorsimilarnature.

3. Rehabilitation: �toestablishconditionswithinwhichitisconsideredbythecourtthatthe�rehabilitationoftheoffendermaybefacilitated.

4. Denunciation:�todenouncethetypeofconductengagedinbytheoffender. �5. CommunityProtection: �toprotectthecommunityfromtheoffender. �

TheVictimsroleinSentencing: Thecourt‘must’considertheimpactofthecrimeonthevictim/sinsentencing.Thisincludes: • Theimpactoftheoffenceonthevictim/s � • Thepersonalcircumstancesofthevictim/s � • Anyinjury,lossordamageresultingdirectlyfromtheoffence. � • Onewaythecourtdeterminestheimpactofthecrimeonthevictimisthrough �Victim

ImpactStatements. • Sentencingmustbalancejusticeforthevictimandthecircumstancesoftheoffence

andtheoffender.Forvictimsandmembersofthepublicsentencingisthemomentwherejusticeisseen(ornotseen)tobedone. �

EnvironmentalCrimePrevention:

Focusesonpreventingcrimethroughmanagingtheenvironmentinwhichcrimetakesplace-thetargetandguardianshipaspects.CPTED-‘CrimePreventionThroughEnvironmentalDesign’

• Preventionthroughbroad-basedurbanplanning&architecture1)Planningand‘naturalsurveillance’(Jacobs)2)Territorialreinforcementof‘defensiblespace’(Newman)3)Accesscontrol4)Activitysupportandimagemanagement

SitCP–SituationalCrimePrevention• MoreFocused/Sitespecific• Targethardening• BasedonRationalChoiceTheoryandRoutineActivityTheory• Thereforefocusesonincreasingeffortsandrisks,andreducingtherewards,as

wellasremovingprovocationsandexcuses.LimitationsofEnvironmentalCrimePrevention:

• Doesnotaddressunderlyingcausesofcrime(e.g.poverty,homelessness)• Canfocusonparticulargroupsdisproportionately(e.g.youth)• PoliticaloverrelianceonCCTVbutweakevidenceofeffectiveness• Onlyfocusesonparticularcrimes–e.g.streetcrimeandpropertycrime,not

domesticviolenceandsexualassault• Displacement–mayjustmovecrimetoanotherarea

SocialCrimePrevention

• ‘Criminalityprevention’• Crimereductionthroughprosocialactivitiesandbehaviour.• Technicaldefinition:‘Approachestocrimepreventionwhichfocus

onunderlyingproblemsinvaluesandsocialdisciplinesperceivedasmakingsomepeoplemorelikelytoincorporatethecommissionofcrime(s)aspartoftheirrepertoireofbehaviours’.

Limitation:Opportunitiesforlabelling’1. DevelopmentalCrimePrevention

o Basedondelinquencystudieso Identificationandminimisationofriskfactorse.g.impulsiveness,earlyanti-

socialbehaviour,abuse/neglecto Strengtheningofprotectivefactorse.g.education,strongparentalbonds,

communityinvolvemento Problemswith‘labelling’

2. Agency-BasedPreventiono Onusandresponsibilityonschoolsandotherinstitutionstobemoreinclusive.o Researchintomainstreamsociallinksandtheissueof‘losingcontact’(Matza

1964).o Schools,‘injustice’andmarginalisationo Recognitionoftheroleofschoolsandotheragenciesinidentifyingandassisting

the‘at-risk’.

Approaches1. Developmental2. Agency-based3. Community

Development4. Diversion5. Education

Chapter25–Experts,LayPeopleandForensicsWhatisforensicScience?

• ForensicshasnowbecomeandintegralpartoftheCJS.• Forensicscienceis“theapplicationofsciencetothosecriminalandcivillaws

thatareenforcedbypoliceagenciesinacriminaljusticesystem”(Safterstein1998:2).

Functionsofforensicscience1. Informslawenforcementduringinvestigationsaboutthenatureofcrimes.2. Assistinthedetectionandprosecutionofknownoffenders.• Informdecisionaboutthelegalguilt,prospectivelegalguilt,orinnocenceofan

offender.ForensicsintheCJprocess:

• “Pre-crime”:crimeisunderstoodintermsofriskorpotentialloss(Zedner2007).Discoursesofsafetyareoftenprominent.

• Investigationasameanstodetect,identify,andintervenebeforecrimesoccur.• Closelinkbetweenforensicsandintelligenceanalysis,data-retention,etc.• “Post-crime”:crimehasalreadyoccurredandisinneedofinvestigationpost

hoc.• Forensicsusedasameanstoretroactivelyidentifyandinvestigateacriminal

event.• e.g.Traditionalcrimesceneinvestigation,orcyberforensics.

TypesofForensicsciences:DNAForensics:

• Bothpre-andpost-crimefunctionsIthasbeennotedthatDNAsamplesrecoveredfromcrimescenes:“…canbederivedfrommanydifferentmaterialsandareas.ItispossibletoobtainsamplesofDNAfromfabrics,cigarettes,toolsandutensilsaswellasfromminuteamountsofbiologicalmaterial,evenwherethismaterialhasbeendepositedmanyyearsearlier,hasbeendegradedorisnotevenvisibletothenakedeye”(DRP,2010:10-11).

Fingerprinting:(‘Dactyloscopy’)• Types

§ Plastic§ Visible§ Latent

• Primaryinvestigativepractice• Pre-crimevspost-crime

Handwriting:• Oftenusedtoconveylegitimacy/powertoinvestigations• Examplesofcase:fraud,suicide,ransom/extortion• Lesspreciseandaffectedbynumerousfactors• Pre-crimevspost-crime

TraceForensicsandBiologicalTraceForensics:• Usedtoidentifywhowasthereandwhathappened• Roleofcontext–wastraceleftasaresultofcriminalact,orsimplyeveryday

behaviour(e.g.hair-brush).• Pre-crimevspost-crime