Chapter 22-1Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
SectionsSections
Chapter 22. Nucleic AcidsChapter 22. Nucleic Acids
Human egg and sperm.Human egg and sperm.
Chapter 22-2Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Chapter 22. Nucleic Acids-SectionsChapter 22. Nucleic Acids-Sections
22.1 Types of Nucleic Acids22.1 Types of Nucleic Acids22.2 Nucleotides: Building Blocks of Nucleic Acids22.2 Nucleotides: Building Blocks of Nucleic Acids22.3 Primary Nucleic Acid Structure22.3 Primary Nucleic Acid Structure22.4 The DNA Double Helix22.4 The DNA Double Helix22.5 Replication of DNA Molecules22.5 Replication of DNA Molecules22.6 Overview of Protein Synthesis22.6 Overview of Protein Synthesis22.7 Ribonucleic Acids22.7 Ribonucleic AcidsChemistry at a Glance: DNA ReplicationChemistry at a Glance: DNA Replication22.8 Transcription: RNA Synthesis22.8 Transcription: RNA Synthesis22.9 The Genetic Code22.9 The Genetic Code22.10 Anticodons and tRNA Molecules22.10 Anticodons and tRNA Molecules22.11 Translation: Protein Synthesis22.11 Translation: Protein Synthesis22.12 Mutations22.12 MutationsChemistry at a Glance: Protein SynthesisChemistry at a Glance: Protein Synthesis22.13 Nucleic Acids and Viruses22.13 Nucleic Acids and Viruses22.14 Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering22.14 Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering22.15 The Polymerase Chain Reaction22.15 The Polymerase Chain Reaction22.16 DNA Sequencing 22.16 DNA Sequencing
Chapter 22-3Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Molecule of Adenine, a Molecule of Adenine, a nitrogen-containing nitrogen-containing heterocyclic base present heterocyclic base present in both RNA and DNA.in both RNA and DNA.
Adenine, a nucleic acid baseAdenine, a nucleic acid base
Chapter 22-4Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Two purine bases and Two purine bases and three pyrimidine three pyrimidine bases are found in bases are found in the nucleotides the nucleotides present in nucleic present in nucleic acids.acids.
Nucleic acid basesNucleic acid bases
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Table 22.1 Table 22.1
NucleotidesNucleotides
Chapter 22-6Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Nucleic acid basesNucleic acid bases
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Fig. 22.3 Fig. 22.3 The general structure of a nucleic acid in terms of The general structure of a nucleic acid in terms of nucleotide subunits.nucleotide subunits.
LipidsLipids cont’dcont’d
Chapter 22-8Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
(a) The generalized (a) The generalized structure of a nucleic structure of a nucleic acid. (b) The specific acid. (b) The specific backbone structure backbone structure for a for a deoxyribonucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). (c) The (DNA). (c) The specific backbone specific backbone structure for a structure for a ribonucleic acid ribonucleic acid (RNA).(RNA).
Backbone structure for nucleic acidBackbone structure for nucleic acid
Chapter 22-9Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
A four-nucleotide-A four-nucleotide-long segment of DNA.long segment of DNA.
DNA FragmentDNA Fragment
Chapter 22-10Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
A comparison of the primary structures of nucleic acids A comparison of the primary structures of nucleic acids and proteins.and proteins.
Protiens and DNA ComparisonProtiens and DNA Comparison
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A schematic drawing A schematic drawing of the DNA double of the DNA double helix that emphasizes helix that emphasizes the hydrogen the hydrogen bonding between bonding between bases on the two bases on the two chains.chains.
DNA double helixDNA double helix
Chapter 22-12Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Hydrogen bonding Hydrogen bonding possibilitiespossibilities
Hydrogen bonding in Base PairsHydrogen bonding in Base Pairs
Chapter 22-13Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
DNA replicationDNA replication
Chapter 22-14Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
One strand of DNA grows continuously in the direction of One strand of DNA grows continuously in the direction of the unwinding, and the other grows in the opposite the unwinding, and the other grows in the opposite direction.direction.
DNA ReplicationDNA Replication
Chapter 22-15Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
DNA replication usually occurs at multiple sites within a molecule, DNA replication usually occurs at multiple sites within a molecule, and the replication is bidirectional from these sites.and the replication is bidirectional from these sites.
DNA replication at multiple sitesDNA replication at multiple sites
Chapter 22-16Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Identical twins share Identical twins share identical physical identical physical characteristics characteristics because they because they received identical received identical DNA from their DNA from their parents.parents.
What in Common Twins Have?What in Common Twins Have?
© Erica Stone / Peter Arnold, Inc.
Chapter 22-17Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
DNA replication…DNA replication… cont’d cont’d
Chapter 22-18Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
A hairpin loop is produced when a single-stranded A hairpin loop is produced when a single-stranded RNA doubles back on itself and complementary RNA doubles back on itself and complementary base pairing occurs.base pairing occurs.
RNA hairpin loop RNA hairpin loop
Chapter 22-19Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Types of RNATypes of RNA
Chapter 22-20Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
The transcription of DNA to form RNA involves an unwinding The transcription of DNA to form RNA involves an unwinding of a portion of the DNA double helix.of a portion of the DNA double helix.
Transcription of DNA to form RNATranscription of DNA to form RNA
Chapter 22-21Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Heterogenous nuclear RNA contains both exons and introns.Heterogenous nuclear RNA contains both exons and introns.
Exons and Introns of RNAExons and Introns of RNA
Chapter 22-22Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
An hnRNA molecule containing four exons.An hnRNA molecule containing four exons.
Exons and Introns of RNAExons and Introns of RNA cont’d cont’d
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Codes for Amino AcidsCodes for Amino Acids
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A tRNA moleculeA tRNA molecule
tRNA moleculetRNA molecule
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An aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase has an active site for tRNA and a An aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase has an active site for tRNA and a binding site for the particular amino acid that is to be attached to binding site for the particular amino acid that is to be attached to that tRNA.that tRNA.
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetaseAminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
Chapter 22-26Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
The interaction The interaction between anticodon an between anticodon an codon.codon.
Anticodon and CodonAnticodon and Codon
Chapter 22-27Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Ribosomes have structures that contain two subunits.Ribosomes have structures that contain two subunits.
Ribosome StructureRibosome Structure
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Initiation of protein synthesis begins with the formation of an initiation Initiation of protein synthesis begins with the formation of an initiation complex.complex.
Protein Synthesis: InitiationProtein Synthesis: Initiation
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The process of translation that occurs during protein synthesis.The process of translation that occurs during protein synthesis.Protein Synthesis: TranslationProtein Synthesis: Translation
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Effects of AntobioticsEffects of Antobiotics
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Several ribosomes can simultaneously proceed along a single Several ribosomes can simultaneously proceed along a single strand of mRNA. Such a complex of mRNA and ribosomes is strand of mRNA. Such a complex of mRNA and ribosomes is called a polysome.called a polysome.
PolysomePolysome
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Protien Synthesis SummaryProtien Synthesis Summary
Chapter 22-33Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Image of an influenza Image of an influenza virus.virus.
Influenza virus.Influenza virus.
NIBSC / SPL / Photo Researchers
Chapter 22-34Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Recombinant DNA is made by inserting a gene obtained from DNA of Recombinant DNA is made by inserting a gene obtained from DNA of one organism into the DNA from another kind of organism.one organism into the DNA from another kind of organism.
Recombinant DNARecombinant DNA
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Cleavage patterns resulting from the use of a restriction enzyme that Cleavage patterns resulting from the use of a restriction enzyme that cleaves DNA between G and A bases.cleaves DNA between G and A bases.
Cleaving DNA patterns using restriction enzymesCleaving DNA patterns using restriction enzymes
Chapter 22-36Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
The “sticky ends” of the cut plasmid and the gene are The “sticky ends” of the cut plasmid and the gene are complementary and combine to form recombinant DNA.complementary and combine to form recombinant DNA.
““sticky ends” of recombnantssticky ends” of recombnants
Chapter 22-37Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Polymerase chain reaction processPolymerase chain reaction process
Chapter 22-38Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Polymerase chain reaction processPolymerase chain reaction process
Chapter 22-39Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Selected steps in the DNA sequencing procedure for the 10-base DNA Selected steps in the DNA sequencing procedure for the 10-base DNA segment 5’ AGCAGCTGGT 3’.segment 5’ AGCAGCTGGT 3’.
DNA sequencingDNA sequencing
Chapter 22-40Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Nucleic Acids - RNA and DNANucleic Acids - RNA and DNANucleic acidNucleic acid is a complex, high-molecular-weight is a complex, high-molecular-weight
biochemical macromolecule composed of biochemical macromolecule composed of nucleotidenucleotide chains that convey genetic chains that convey genetic information. information.
The most common nucleic acids are The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and and ribonucleic acid ribonucleic acid (RNA). (RNA).
Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and viruses.viruses.
Chapter 22-41Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
NucleotidesNucleotides are the building blocks of DNA and
RNA.
• Serve as molecules to store energy and reducing power.
• The three major components in all nucleotides are phosphoric acid, pentose (ribose and deoxyribose),
and a base (purine or purimidine).
• Two major purines present in nucleotides are adenine (A) and guanine (G), and three major
purimidines are thymine (T), cytosine (C) and uracil (U).
Chapter 22-42Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Chapter 22-43Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
RibonucleotidesRibonucleotidesAdenosine triphosphate (ATP) and guanosine triphosphate Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and guanosine triphosphate
(GTP), which are the major sources of energy for cell (GTP), which are the major sources of energy for cell work. work.
- The phosphate bonds in ATP and GTP are high-energy - The phosphate bonds in ATP and GTP are high-energy bonds. bonds. - The formation of phosphate bonds or their hydrolysis is - The formation of phosphate bonds or their hydrolysis is the primary means by which cellular energy is stored or the primary means by which cellular energy is stored or used.used.
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
The two most common carriers of reducing power The two most common carriers of reducing power for biological oxidation-reduction reactions.for biological oxidation-reduction reactions.
Chapter 22-44Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is formed by Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is formed by condensation of condensation of deoxyribonucleotidesdeoxyribonucleotides. .
The nucleotides are linked together between the 3’ and 5’ carbons’
successive pentose rings by phosphodiester
bonds
3
5
Chapter 22-45Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
- DNA is a very large threadlike macromolecule DNA is a very large threadlike macromolecule (MW, 2X10(MW, 2X1099 D in D in E. coliE. coli). ).
- DNA contains adenine (A) and guanine (G), DNA contains adenine (A) and guanine (G), thymine (T)thymine (T) and and cytosine cytosine ((CC).).
- DNA molecules are two stranded and have a DNA molecules are two stranded and have a double-helical three-dimensional structure.double-helical three-dimensional structure.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Chapter 22-46Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
DNA Double-helical Structure
Chapter 22-47Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Double Helical DNA StructureDouble Helical DNA Structure
The main features of double helical DNA structure are as The main features of double helical DNA structure are as follows: . follows: .
- The phosphate and deoxyribose units are on the outer The phosphate and deoxyribose units are on the outer surface, but the bases point toward the chain center. surface, but the bases point toward the chain center. The plane of the bases are perpendicular to the helix The plane of the bases are perpendicular to the helix axis.axis.
-- The diameter of the helix is 2 nm, the helical structure The diameter of the helix is 2 nm, the helical structure repeats after ten residues on each chain, at an interval repeats after ten residues on each chain, at an interval of 3.4 nm.of 3.4 nm.
- The two chains are held together by The two chains are held together by hydrogen bondinghydrogen bonding between pairs of bases. between pairs of bases. Adenine (Adenine (AA) - thymine () - thymine (TT),), guanines (guanines (GG) - cytosine () - cytosine (CC).).
- The sequence of bases along a DNA strand is not - The sequence of bases along a DNA strand is not restricted in any way and carries genetic information, restricted in any way and carries genetic information, and sugar and phosphate groups perform a structure and sugar and phosphate groups perform a structure role. role.
Chapter 22-48Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Regeneration of DNA from original DNA segments.Regeneration of DNA from original DNA segments.
DNA ReplicationDNA Replication
http://www.ncc.gmu.edu/dna/repanim.htm
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072437316/student_view0/chapter14/animations.html#
http://www.lewport.wnyric.org/jwanamaker/animations/DNA%20Replication%20-%20long%20.html
Chapter 22-49Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
DNA ReplicationDNA Replication
- DNA helix unzips and forms two separate DNA helix unzips and forms two separate strands.strands.
- Each strand will form a new double strands.Each strand will form a new double strands.
- The two resulting double strands are identical, The two resulting double strands are identical, and each of them consists of one original and and each of them consists of one original and one newly synthesized strand. one newly synthesized strand.
-- This is called semiconservative replication.This is called semiconservative replication.
- The base sequences of the new strand are The base sequences of the new strand are complementary to that of the parent strand.complementary to that of the parent strand.
Chapter 22-50Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is formed by condensation Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is formed by condensation
of of ribonucleotidesribonucleotides..
RNA is a long, unbranched macromolecule and may RNA is a long, unbranched macromolecule and may contain 70 to several thousand nucleotides. RNA contain 70 to several thousand nucleotides. RNA molecule is usually single stranded. molecule is usually single stranded.
RNA contains adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) RNA contains adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and and uracial (Uuracial (U).). A-U, G-C in some double helical A-U, G-C in some double helical regions of t-RNA.regions of t-RNA.
Chapter 22-51Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Classification of RNAClassification of RNAAccording to the function of RNA, it can be classified as:According to the function of RNA, it can be classified as:
Messenger RNAMessenger RNA: (m-RNA) synthesized on chromosome : (m-RNA) synthesized on chromosome and carries genetic information to the ribosomes for and carries genetic information to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. It has short half-life.protein synthesis. It has short half-life.
Transfer RNATransfer RNA (t-RNA) is a relatively small and stable (t-RNA) is a relatively small and stable molecule that carries a specific amino acid from the molecule that carries a specific amino acid from the cytoplasm to the site of protein synthesis on cytoplasm to the site of protein synthesis on ribosomes.ribosomes.
Ribosomal RNARibosomal RNA (r-RNA) is the major component of (r-RNA) is the major component of ribosomes, constituting nearly 65%. r-RNA is ribosomes, constituting nearly 65%. r-RNA is responsible for protein synthesis.responsible for protein synthesis.
RibozymesRibozymes are RNA molecules that have catalytic are RNA molecules that have catalytic properties.properties.
Chapter 22-52Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Summary of Nucleic AcidsSummary of Nucleic Acids
NucleotidesNucleotides are basic units of nucleic acids DNA and RNA. are basic units of nucleic acids DNA and RNA.
Nucleotides include pentose, base and phosphoric acid.Nucleotides include pentose, base and phosphoric acid.
Bases include purine or pyrimidine.Bases include purine or pyrimidine.
Two major purines present in nucleotides are adenine (A) Two major purines present in nucleotides are adenine (A) and guanine (G), and three major pyrimidines are and guanine (G), and three major pyrimidines are thymine (T), cytosine (C) and uracil (U).thymine (T), cytosine (C) and uracil (U).
RibonucleotidesRibonucleotides- adenosine triphosphate (ATP) stores energy. - adenosine triphosphate (ATP) stores energy. - NAD and NADP are important carriers of reducing - NAD and NADP are important carriers of reducing power. power.
Chapter 22-53Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
DNADNA
DNA contains genetic information.DNA contains genetic information.
DNA contains adenine (A) and guanine (G), and DNA contains adenine (A) and guanine (G), and thymine (T), and cytosine (C). A-thymine (T), and cytosine (C). A-TT G-C G-C
DNA has a double helical structure. DNA has a double helical structure.
The bases in DNA carry the genetic The bases in DNA carry the genetic information. information.
Summary of Nucleic AcidsSummary of Nucleic Acids
Chapter 22-54Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
RNA• RNA functions as genetic information-carrying
intermediates in protein synthesis.
• It contains adenine (A) and guanine (G), and cytosine (C) and uracil (U).
• m-RNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.
• t-RNA transfers amino acid to the site of protein synthesis
• r-RNA is for protein synthesis.
Summary of Nucleic Acids
Chapter 22-55Chemistry 121 Winter 2009 LA Tech
Summary of Cell ConstructionSummary of Cell Construction
Biopolymers protein Carbohydrates(polysaccharides)
DNA RNA lipids
subunit
bonds for subunit linkage
functions
Characteristic three-D structure
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