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Chapter 3 Argument
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Introduction
The Essential Ingredients
of an ArgumentPersuasion vs. Argument
Aristotle‟s Rhetoric
Toulmin‟s model of
argumentation
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At the end of this chapter, you should
able to :Know what is argument?Identify Aristotle‟s RhetoricUnderstand Toulmin‟s model of
argumentation
Know the difference betweenPersuasion vs. Argument
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An argument involves the process of establishing a
claim and then proving it with the use of logical
reasoning, examples, and research.When people think of an argument, they usually
think of a fight between two people („they‟re having
an argument‟).
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• An issue open to debate
• Your position on the issue
•
Your reasons for that position• Evidence to support your reason
– Experience, expert opinion, research and
statistics
The Essential Ingredients
of an Argument
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Persuasion and argument are often usedinterchangeably
Persuasion is a broad term, whichincludes many tactics designed to movepeople to a position, a belief, or a courseof action
Argument is a specific kind of persuasionbased on the principles of logic andreasoning
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In everyday life… Appealing a grade, asking for a raise, applying for a job, negotiating the price of a
new car, arguing in traffic court
In academic life… Defending your ideas, engaging intellectual debate
On the job…
Getting people to listen to your ideas, winning buy-in, getting your boss to notice,getting cooperation, moving people to action
In writing… Irrefutably making your point, writing to be read
In reading and listening…
Critically evaluating other‟s arguments, protecting yourself from unethicalpersuasive tactics, recognizing faulty reasoning when you see it.
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Rhetoric:
The art of discovering allthe available means of
persuasion
*Notice the positive connotations of the term in
Aristotle‟s theory vs. the negative connotations often
associated with the term “rhetoric” nowadays.
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Logos Pathos Ethos
The 3 Types
of Artistic Appeals
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Logos are appeals to logic.
In using logos, the rhetoricianappeals to the audience‟s rational side.
Logos involves building argumentsthrough evidence, inferringlogical conclusions from theevidence.
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Aristotle was a firm believer in logic.
However, he was enough of a realist to recognizethat humans are emotional beings who makedecisions based, in part, upon emotion.
Thus, Aristotle acknowledged that a rhetoricianwould be neglecting some of the “availablemeans of persuasion” if the rhetorician did notalso appeal to the audience‟s emotion.
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Pathos are appeals to emotion
With pathetic appeals, the
rhetorician attempts to move theaudience by tapping into their
emotional side.
Often, pathos involves appealingto the audience‟s sense of
empathy, compassion, sympathy,
pride or even anger or outrage.
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Ethos are arguments or statementsmade by the rhetorician that aredesigned to build his or her credibility with the audience
With ethical appeals, the rhetorician“ingratiates himself with an audience--and thereby gains their trust andadmiration--if he manages to create the
impression that he is a person ofintelligence, benevolence, and probity”(Corbett and Connors, authors ofClassical Rhetoric for the ModernStudent).
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Stephen Toulmin, originally a British
logician, is now a professor at USC. He
became frustrated with the inability of
formal logic to explain everyday arguments,which prompted him to develop his own
model of practical reasoning.
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Claim (assertion or proposition)
Grounds (proof, grounds, support)
Warrant (inferential leap)
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A claim is the point an arguer is trying to make. The
claim is the conclusion, proposition, or assertion an
arguer wants another to accept.
The claim answers the question, "So what is yourpoint?”
example: “Rosario is an American citizen, because she was born
in the United States.”
example: “Barack Obama doesn‟t wear a flag pin on his lapel, sohe must not be patriotic.”
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Grounds refers to the proof or evidence an
arguer offers.
Grounds can consist of statistics,quotations, reports, findings, physical
evidence, or various forms of reasoning
example: “I‟m a vegetarian. One reason is that I
feel sorry for the animals. Another reason is for
my own health.”
example: “I made the dinner, so you can do the
dishes.
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The warrant is the inferential leap thatconnects the claim with the grounds.
The warrant is typically implicit(unstated) and requires the listener torecognize the connection between theclaim and grounds
The implicit nature of warrants meansthe “meaning” of an argument is asmuch a part of the receiver as it is apart of the message.
Some arguments are “multi-warranted,”e.g., based on more than one inferentialleap
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An argument is an attempt to persuade
someone of something, by giving reasons for
accepting a particular conclusion as evident.
The general structure of an argument in a
natural language is that of premises (typically
in the form of propositions, statements or
sentences) in support of a claim: the
conclusion.
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Questions?
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• Note taking
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