CHAPTER 3: Ethical Research
Objectives
Discuss the three ethical principles outlined in the Belmont Report: beneficence, autonomy, and justice
List the information contained in an informed consent form
Discuss potential problems obtaining informed consent
Describe the purpose of debriefing research participants
Describe the function of an Institutional Review Board
Contrast the categories of risk involved in research activities: exempt, minimal risk, and greater than minimal risk
Summarize the ethical principles in the APA ethics code concerning research with human participants
Discuss how potential risks and benefits of research are evaluated
Discuss the ethical issue surrounding misrepresentation of research findings
MILGRAM’S OBEDIENCE EXPERIMENT
Study of the phenomenon of obedience to an authority figure
Examined the effects of punishment on learning (Shock treatment for mistakes)
Results challenged beliefs about our ability to resist authority
Important for understanding obedience in real life situations, e.g. the Holocaust
BELMONT REPORT
The Belmont Report (1979): Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research Beneficence Autonomy (respect for
persons) Justice
ASSESSMENTS OF RISKS AND BENEFITS
Risks in Psychological Research Physical harm Stress Loss of privacy and
confidentiality
INFORMED CONSENT
Informed Consent Form
Autonomy Issues
Information Issues: Withholding Information and Deception
Is Deception a Major Ethical Problem in Psychological Research?
THE IMPORTANCE OF DEBRIEFING
Opportunity for the researcher to deal with issues of withholding information, deception, and potential harmful effects of the participation
Explain why deception was necessary
Provide additional resources, if necessary
Make sure participant leaves the experiment without any unresolved feelings
Provides an opportunity to explain the purpose of the study and anticipated results
Most participants report positive experience
Research suggests that it is effective
ALTERNATIVES OF DECEPTION
Role-Playing Asks participants how they would
respond to a certain situation or to predict how others would respond
Simulation Studies Variation on role-playing that
involves simulation of a real world situation
Honest Experiments Participants are made completely
aware of the purposes of the research
JUSTICE AND THE SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS
Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972)
Justice principle requires researchers to address issues of equity
Any decisions to include or exclude certain people from a study must be justified on scientific grounds
RESEARCHER COMMITMENTS
“Contracts” with Participants
Punctuality
Summary of Details to Participant
Course Credit
Details that Maintain Trust Between Participants and Researchers
FEDERAL REGULATIONS AND THE INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD
Exempt Research Research in which there is
no risk of harm
Minimal Risk Research When the risk of harm is
no greater that risk encountered in daily life or routine physical or psychological tests
Greater Than Minimal Risk Research
IRB Impact on Research Increased time for
approval of study Submissions often need to
be revised or clarified Very cautious around
approval
APA ETHICS CODE
5 General Principles Beneficence Responsibility Integrity Justice Respect for the rights and
dignity of others
APA ETHICS CODE
Ten Ethical Standards Address Specific Issues Concerning: Conduct of psychologists in
teaching Research Therapy Counseling Testing Professional roles and
responsibilities
RESEARCH WITH HUMAN PARTICIPANTS
8.01 Institutional Approval
8.02 Informed Consent to Research
8.03 Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research
8.04 Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants
8.05 Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research
8.06 Offering Inducements for Research Participation
8.07 Deception in Research
8.08 Debriefing
MISREPRESENTATION
8.10 Reporting Research Results
8.11 Plagiarism
Chapter 4: Studying Behavior
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define variable and describe the four categories of variables: situational, response, participant, and mediating variables
Define operational definition of a variable
Describe the different relationships between variables: positive, negative, curvilinear, and no relationship
Compare and contrast nonexperimental and experimental research methods
Distinguish between an independent variable and a dependent variable
Discuss the three elements for inferring causation: temporal order, covariation of cause and effect, and elimination of alternative explanations
Discuss the advantage of using multiple methods of research
VARIABLES
Four General Categories Situational variables Response variables Participant or subject
variables Mediating variables
MEDIATING VARIABLE
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF VARIABLES
Variable is an abstract concept that must be translated into concrete forms of observation or manipulation
Studied empirically
Help communicate ideas to others
Relationships
Positive Linear Relationship Increases in one variable
relate to increases in another
Negative Linear Relationship Increases in one variable
relative to decreases in another
Curvilinear Relationship Increases in one variable
relative to both increases and decreases in another
No Relationship Correlation coefficient
Relationships and Reduction of Uncertainty
FOUR TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES
NONEXPERIMENTAL VERSUS EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Nonexperimental Method Direction of Cause and Effect The Third-Variable Problem
(confounding variable)
Experimental Method Experimental Control Randomization
NONEXPERIMENTAL VERSUS EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
The causal possibilities in a non-experimental study
COMPARISON OF NONEXPERIMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Independent = CauseDependent = Effect
Dependent variable
y-axis
Independent variable x-axis
Choosing a Method: Advantages of Multiple Methods
Artificiality of Experiments
Ethical and Practical Considerations
Participant Variables
Description of Behavior
Successful Predictions of Future Behavior
Advantages of Multiple Methods
Critically Evaluating Research
Construct Validity External Validity
Evaluate the adequacy of the operational definition. Is the operational definition sufficiently measuring the construct it claims to measure?
Evaluate the extent that the results can generalize to other populations and settings. Can the results be replicated with other participants? Can the results be replicated in other settings?
Internal Validity
Evaluate the extent that it was the independent variable that caused the changes or differences in the dependent variable. Are there alternative explanations (confounds)?
Chapter 5: Methods in Behavioral
Research
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define reliability of a measure of behavior and describe the difference between test-retest, internal consistency, and interrater reliability
Describe the problem of reactivity of a measure of behavior and discuss ways to minimize reactivity
Describe the properties of the four scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
RELIABILITY OF MEASURES
Test-Retest Reliability Assessed by measuring the
same individuals two points in time
Vulnerable to artificiality Vulnerable to maturation
RELIABILITY OF MEASURES
Interrater Reliability Correlation between the
observations of raters
Reliability and Accuracy of Measures Reliability indexes do not
indicate whether a particular measure is an accurate measure of the variable of interest
A measure can be highly reliable, but not accurate
RESEARCH ON PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Systematic and detailed research on validity is most often carried out on measures of personality and individual differences
Should use measures of personality that have demonstrable validity and reliability Example: Mental
Measurement Yearbook
REACTIVITY OF MEASURES
Measure Is Reactive if Awareness of Being Measured Changes an Individual’s Behavior
Measures of Behavior Vary in Terms of Their Potential Reactivity
VARIABLES AND MEASUREMENT SCALES
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Interval and Ratio Scales
The Importance of the Measurement Scales
EXAMPLE OF A NOMINAL SCALE
_______Not Attractive _______Attractive
EXAMPLE OF A INTERVAL/RATIO SCALE
Very Unattractive-----------------Very Attractive