CHATPER – II REVIEW OF REALTED RESEARCH LITERATURE
The review of literature is the exploring phase of research. It
helps the researcher to investigate a specific field of his interest in
respect of researches that has been conducted in India as well as
abroad. It provides insight as well as direction in Indicating and
identifying the research problem in taking a sample in selecting
appropriate methodology and statistical techniques.
To quote John W. Best on review of literature "A summary of
the writings of recognised authorities and the previous research
provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is already
known and what is still unknown and untested. Since effective
researches are based on past knowledge, this step help to estimate the
duplication of what has been done and provides useful hypotheses and
helpful suggestions for citing studies and shows substantial agreement
and those that seem to present conflicting conclusions help to sharpen
and define understanding of existing knowledge in problem area,
provides a back ground for a research project.
Over the last few years many educators have become excited
about using computers to assist teachers in classroom interactions and
to broaden student's intellectual experiences. This excitement has not
only been felt by teachers and administrators, who have never touched
a computer but it has also been shared by curriculum developers,
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computer scientists and others, who have tried to apply the capabilities
of computers to educational purposes for many years. What is so
special in computers to have attracted educators for using it in a
classroom? What kind of problems can computers help solve? How
are computers different from paper, pencil or books as aids to problem
solving? If one goes in search of the answers to above queries, he
would find that computer system is an interactive medium like paper
and pencil. It can store material like books. Yet a third key feature of a
computer system is that it can automatically and rapidly follow a
detailed set of directions involving the input, storage, manipulation
and output of symbols. It is this capability of the computer that not
only puts it as a more powerful aid to problem solving than paper,
pencil or books, but makes it to be regarded as an aid to teachers in
imparting instructions. This use of computers to the process of
teaching and learning is termed as computer aided instructions (CAI).
HISTORICAL REVIEW OF EXPLORATIVE STUDIES IN
INSTRUCTIONAL USE OF COMPUTERS:
Use of computer aided instructions began almost
simultaneously and independently in the areas of computer; system
sciences, engineering and psychology. The first demonstration of CAI
was accomplished by Rath et. al. (1959)1 at the Thomas J. Watson
1 Rath, G.J., Anderson, N.S., & Brainard, R., (1959), The IBM research project
in automatic teaching : The role of the art. Wiley, New York.
69
Research Centre of IBM in New York. They developed the computer
assisted instruction program in binary arithmetic and the program was
good enough to generate its own the exercises, for the practice of the
students according to their need. Another project in the same direction
was initiated in Cambridge by Licklider (1962)2, who looked at the
variety of computer assisted instruction program including language
teaching, math drills, and construction of graphs, in response to
requests entered on a typewriter by students studying analytic
geometry. Yet another initial exploratory effort was taken up by
Coulson (1962)3 at system development corporation in California,
who used computer s to present pages of instructional material, in
order to collect a better research data on students reactions to
programmed instructions. The fourth effort in the sequel was initiated
by Bitzer et. al. (1962) at the coordinated science laboratory in the
University of Illinois. They gave particular attention to the design of
convenient learning setups, which could display text, photographs and
line drawings in computer assisted instructions. Bitzer et al., also paid
attention to the extension of the programming language to cover
specifically the instructional use of computers. The proceedings of
2 Licklider, J.C.R., (1979), "Impact of information technology on education in
science and Technology", in technology in science education : The next ten years : perspective and recommendation, National Science Foundation.
3 Coulson, J.E., (1992), A computer based laboratory for research in development in education. Programmed learning & CBI. Wiley, New York, First Publication (1962).
70
1961 conference on computer based education Coulson (1962)4
provides a detailed survey of the work done at that time on computer
aided instructions.
1960's marked significantly towards the development of
computer assisted instructions. The military services also became
interested in the use of computers in instructions. Each of the three
services in United States instituted research and development projects
to find applications for this new instructional tool in the task of
training the military personnel. The number of samples of CAI
materials had almost doubled by 1963, just 2 years after the
conference on computer based education (Coulsan et.al. 1962).
By the middle of 60's a number of universities directed their
researches towards the instructional use of microcomputers and
launched several development programs. Experimental curriculum
projects in reading and mathematics were initiated in 1963 by
psychologist and mathematicians at the Stanford University institute
for mathematical studies in social sciences Suppes (1966)5, Atkins
(1967). In 1964, a group of educational researchers in Pennsylvania
state university began working on the development of course material
4 Coulson, J.E., (1992), A computer based laboratory for research in
development in education. Programmed learning & CBI. Wiley, New York, First Publication (1962).
5 Suppes, P., (1966), The uses of computers in education, Science American, 215 (3).
71
for computer assisted instructions. Mitzel (1999)6 presented four
college level courses through computer assisted instruction packages
in teaching methods for modern maths, management accounting,
audiology and engineering economics. At the university of Michigan a
program was initiated late in 1964 by the centre for research on
learning and teaching for exploration of instructional use of
computers. Psychologists in the staff, with the help of subject experts,
contributed to the development of instructional materials in physics,
biology, social sciences, journalism, statistics and a number of
professional areas.
Florida State University Institute of Human Learning led to
the establishment of a Computer Assisted Instruction Centre which
started operations in 1965. Hansen (1966)7 alongwith other
educational psychologists developed CAI courses in introductory
college physics, applied statistics, computer languages, chemistry and
social work.
The University of Taxes also established a computer assisted
instruction laboratory in 1965 which gave special attention on learning
through CAI. Early curriculum developments by Holtzman et.al.
6 Mitzel, H.E., (1999), The development and presentation of four colleges
courses by computer teleprocessing, Final report. Computer assisted instruction.
7 Hansen, D., (1996), Computer assistance with educational process. Review of Educational Research, 36(5).
72
(1967) at the CAI laboratory of University of Texas included courses
on remedial math, and exercises in school administration.
The year 1965 emerged as a year of expansion in the field of
computer assisted instructions. In addition to the university
developments and military applications, commercial interests became
quite active in the area, making increasingly large capital investments.
Companies like IBM, Philco-Ford Technomics and Computer Systems
for education announced the preparation of special purpose computer
aided instruction systems. The use of their systems to teach computer
programming and mathematics spreaded rapidly in public and private
schools of Boston and New Hampshire. The year ended with three
significant conferences on computer based education, computer in
college Physics (CCP) (1965), Gerard (1967), Bushnell & Allen
(1967) to consider the problems and potentials of the young
technology in higher education.
By the end of 60's and in early 70's, the efforts to implement
computer assisted instructions began to receive national attention and
recognition in U.S.A. It marked with an invitational conference at the
University of Texas on Testing and Guidance part of computer
assisted instructions Holtzman (1970). The year had another round of
conference activity on topics "Computers in undergraduate and
secondary school curricula Berner (1971) and computers in science
teaching Blum (1971).
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Mustafa (2010)8 metanalysed the various studies in computer
assisted instructions in science and mathematics carried in Turkey.
Johnson and Rubin (2011)9 reviewed various studies done
between 1995 and 2007 regarding the effectiveness of interactive
computer based instructions.
Recently the field of computer aided instructions has grown to a
very big size in different directions like curriculum development,
computer literacy, counseling, tutoring and testing etc. that it would
not be possible to cite all the researches and developments in the
present review. We therefore confine our attention to only on the
comparative studies for the two methods of teaching, the computer
assisted instructions and the traditional instructional method. The
further review has been taken up under the following headings:
(A) Researches on implementation of CAI in schools and the
attitude of staff and students towards computers.
(B) Comparative studies on learning through the two methods,
studies on the implementation of CAI on schools and on the
attitude of teacher and students for the two methods of teaching.
8 Mustafa (2010), Metanalysis of the computer assisted studies in science and
mathematics: A sample of Turkey. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 9, Issue 1.
9 Douglas, A. Johnson; Sophie Rubin (2011) Effectiveness of Interactive computer based instructions: A Review of Studies Published between 1995 and 2007. Journal of Organisational Behaviour Management, 1540-8604, Volume 31, Issue 1.
74
(C) Comparative studies on the effectiveness of two methods of
teaching.
(D) Researches on other factors affecting the instructional use of
microcomputers.
(E) Studies concluding against instructional use of microcomputers.
(A) RESEARCHES ON IMPLEMENTATION OF CAI IN
SCHOOLS AND THE ATTITUDE OF STAFF & STUDENTS
TOWARDS COMPUTERS
The advancement in educational technologies have always
paved a way for educational innovations. Cox et.al. (1988)10 observed
that in the early 1980's a microcomputer in a British Primary school
was the exception rather than the rule, but with the inception of
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) primary scheme in 1982, the
situation began to change rapidly and in few years most of the primary
schools had acquired at least one machine. The instructional use of
microcomputers in British primary school contradicted Schenk
(1985)11, for his version that educational innovations often took more
than 20 years to permeate through the system, as they swept into
nearly all primary schools in about as many months.
10 Cox, M., et.al., (1988), The use of computer assisted learning in primary
schools, some factors affecting the uptake. Computer Education, Vol. 12(1). 11 Schenk, C., (1985), Good practice? Times educational supplement, Ist March,
Vol. 37.
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Learning through computers at the primary or secondary stage
of schooling, attitudes of students, teachers and head teacher and other
factors affecting its uptake etc. have been the issues before the
researchers in education since the very first day the idea was
conceived. Lundgren (1972)12 developed a frame model where one
could consider the different forces in a school which influenced the
success of the innovation. The model had been used by Bliss et. a1.
(1986)13 who investigated through it the use of computers in a
secondary school. Dynan (1984)14 also suggested a simple model
which identified five stages (inception, resources, adoption,
implementation and outcomes) in the process of innovations. Cicchelli
and Baccher (1985)15 suggested that merely using microcomputers in
the classroom was not sufficient for implementation, hardware cost
and the teacher time must also be valued for the successful
implementation of microcomputers in schools. Dynan (1984) observed
that in past, many innovations had failed to be effective because they
had never been adopted into traditional teaching styles.
12 Lundgreen, U.P., (1972), Frames factors and the teaching process. Almquist
& Wiksell, Stockholm. 13 Bliss, J., et.al., (1986), The introduction of computers into a school. Computer
Education. 10(1). 14 Dynan, M.B., (1984), Evaluation of implementation of curriculum
innovations. In Educational Evaluation for Program Improvement. Western Australian Institute of Technology.
15 Cicchelli, T. & Baechev, R., (1985), Introducing microcomputers into the classroom: a study of teachers concerns. Journal of Educational Computer Research, 1(1).
76
He thus pointed out the role of teacher to be central in any
process of change. On the basis of various interviews with the teachers
and their analysis Brown (1981)16 and Bliss et.al. (1986)17 contended
that negative attitudes of teacher could seriously constrain the extent
of computer use in schools. Weaver and Shuker (1986) took up a
research project on ten Inner London Education Authority (ILEA)
primary schools which aimed to demonstrate how microcomputers
could be used successfully in children primary topic work.
Cox et.al. (1988)18 gave their findings from an ongoing
research project, set up to investigate the activities and outcomes of
the ILEA primary projects on the use of microcomputers in primary
schools. The case study investigations were carried out in eight ILEA
Schools. Head teachers and teachers were interviewed and
observations were recorded for the children working with
microcomputers, wherever possible. Factors were isolated which
promoted or inhibited the uptake of computer assisted learning in
primary schools. Many teachers of infant children believed that
microcomputers were in appropriate for children of that age group.
16 Brown, C. (1981), The implementation of curriculum change by schools
curriculum in the 1980's, Aspects of education: 26, J. Inst. Edu. Univ., Hall, 22-38.
17 Bliss, J., et.al., (1986), The introduction of computers into a school. Computer Education. 10(1).
18 Cox, M., et.al., (1988), The use of computer assisted learning in primary schools, some factors affecting the uptake. Computer Education, Vol. 12(1).
77
Some teachers lacked the confidence to initiate microcomputer use in
their teaching without some initial training. The level of uptake was
higher in schools where the head teacher had the positive attitude to
the value of computer assisted learning in the primary curriculum. The
extent of use of microcomputers in schools was found to be affected
by many factors like level of resources, organization and management
of microcomputers, quality of software and teacher training.
Underwood (1985)19 established that computers could be used
in classrooms in liberating and creating ways to stimulate children's
intellectual capacities and not merely as a drill and practice machine.
Jean Underwood (1988)20 carried a survey study on teachers of
primary and secondary schools, who were competent computer users
but not necessarily programmers and who valued the computer in
classroom and wanted to use it effectively in their teaching. The study
was an evaluation of the investigations undertaken by the teachers and
pupils using a number of computer based information handling
packages in eighteen classrooms: and compared the expressed
objectives of teachers using data bases against recorded classroom
outcomes. The similarity between expressed intents and recorded
19 Underwood, J., (1985), cognitive demand and CAI. Teachers, Computers and
the classroom. Machester University Press. 20 Underwood, J. (1988), An investigation of teacher intents and classroom
outcomes the use of information handling packages. Computer Education 12, (1).
78
transitions and outcomes was analyzed using Spearman's Rank-
Difference correlation. Though no consistent relationship was found
between the expressed intents and the educational outcomes, yet the
results were quite encouraging. Teachers were aware of a wide range
of skills and knowledge which could be stimulated by data base use,
and although the recorded outcomes did not match intentions, the
causes of this disparity appeared to be the shift in focus of attention
from global issues during the planning phase to the pragmatics of
learning and classroom management, and the responses of individual
children during the action stage. Underwood conclusively advocated
the use of computer based information handling packages in schools to
be beneficial in the sense that powerful learning situations could occur
and children could begin to develop valued skills and knowledge.
These results and techniques were in conformity with Wood et. al.
(1987)21.
Several research studies were directed towards the
implementations of CAI packages at different levels of schooling, that
is, kindergarten, primary and secondary levels, particularly in respect
of observing the attitude of students towards this new media of
instruction, as against the traditional method of instructions. Piele
21 Underwood, G. & Underwood, J.D.M., (1987), The Computer in the
classroom: A force for change. Information Technology and People (Edited by Blackler F. and Oborne D.) Britishs Psychological Society, Leicester.
79
(1979)22 conducted his study on microcomputer instruction for VI
grade students of schools. His studies were mainly directed towards
the attitude of students for microcomputers. Piele found that the
students who were given instructions through microcomputer were
more enthusiastic than those for whom traditional teaching method
was used.
A similar study towards the attitudes of students was taken up
by Leonard (1989)23, who compared the reactions of students who had
received biology instructions by traditional method and by a videodisc
delivery system. Student responses to a questionnaire indicated that
students were more positive about the videodisc instruction, than the
traditional method. Videodisc students reported that their time was
spent more efficiently, they paid more attention to the instructions and
they understood the results of experiment better. After the instructions
were over Leonard observed that the treatment group students were
more confident than those belonging to the control group.
In another study of biology, Hounshell and Stanford (1989)24
22 Piele, Donald. T., (1979), "Micro computers go to school." Paper presented at
meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, April.
23 Leonard, W., (1989), A comparison of students reaction biology instruction by interactive Video disc or conventional laboratory. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 26.
24 Hounshell, P.B. & Stanford, H.R. (1989), The micro computers & achievement and attitudes in High school biology, Journal of research in science teaching, 26, 543-49.
80
compared the effect of microcomputers on attitude and achievement.
One group of 76 high school students were enrolled in a biology
course that used a microcomputer to expand and supplement a
traditional biology course. Computer simulations were used 60% of
class time and 70-80% of laboratory time. The control group of 126
students received the same biology instruction without computer.
Attitude and achievement were assessed using a comprehensive test of
basic skills, a researcher developed instrument towards the science
course and a science attitude inventory. The authors concluded that the
students in the computer group did significantly better on the test of
basic skills and also had a more positive attitude towards the science
course than the students in traditional biology course. Savenye
(1989)25 also obtained similar results in his year long pilot study of
attitude and achievement on an interactive videodisc delivery system.
The conclusions on attitudes mentioned above have further been
confirmed in a recent study by Woodrow (1991)26 who discussed
computer attitudes as determinants of computer literacy of pupil
teachers.
Cox et.al. (1988) studied the use of computer assisted learning
25 Savenye, W.C. & strand E., (1989), Teaching science using interaction video
disc: Results of the pilot year evaluation of the Texas Learning Technology group project paper presented, Feb., 1-5, AM. ED 308838.
26 Woodrow, J., (1991), Laws of control and computer attitudes as determinants of the computer literacy of students teachers. Computer Education, Vol. 16(3).
81
in primary schools in respect to the factors affecting the uptake. They
observed that the adoption of microcomputers into the education
system necessitates the acceptance of a relatively new technology not
only by the school but by the individual teachers working in that
school. The failure to achieve change in teacher attitude and in teacher
behaviour is an important barrier to successful innovation for CAL.
Chomienne (1988) showed that while teachers may prove to
be receptive to the introduction and use of microcomputers in the
classroom, they end up in all sort of difficulties. Good Courseware is
scarce and technical problems are frequent. Teacher's workload and
the availability time for teachers to become familiar with software
resources are also important factors.
Chandra et.al. (1988)27 pointed out that while it is necessary to
understand the different viewpoints of teachers about CAL, it is also
important to consider the attitude of the head of institution because as
the decision and policy makers within the school they also effect the
implementation.
Khan (1989)28 on the basis of his research findings in respect
of the implementation and use of computers in Behrain's primary
27 Chandra, P. et al. (1988), Introducing computers into the school management
issues, computer education, 12, 57-61 28 Khan, E.H., (1989), The use of Computer-assisted learning in a primary
School. Computer Education, 13(4).
82
schools, contended that the successful use of computer assisted
learning requires a specific set of requirements to be fulfilled such as
change in the attitude of head teacher and class teachers, adjustment of
teaching methods, teacher training facility and redistribution of
workload, adequate hardware resources and availability of quality
software and courseware resources. He also suggested that the
introduction of CAL into school curriculum should be supplementary,
slow and gradual.
The staff of the Dallas Independent School District (DISD)
showed their interest in the attitude of the students towards
computerized instructions. Their research ("Computers storm the
classroom" 1981, pp 46-49) on general perspective repeatedly showed
that students found computers to (a) have infinite patience (b) never
get tired (c) never get frustrated or angry (d) never forget to correct or
praise and (e) to individualize learning.
Clement (1981)29 found that the students liked computers
because they (a) were self paced; (b) did not embarrass students who
made mistakes (c) gave immediate feedback and (d) ·left a general
feeling that students learned better through the computer system.
Students also felt that computers were more objective than teachers.
29 Clement, F.J. (1981), Affective considerations in computer based education.
Education technology, April, 28-32.
83
A group of DISD found that computers worked because (a)
computers were impartial to ethnicity (b) computers were great
motivators (c) computers were excellent for drill and practice (d) were
able to enhance spelling and (e) the teaching process was structured to
teach students in small increments. (Small computers get big results in
Dallas classroom, Computer 82, No.3, 1981, pp 54-55.
A variety of empirical studies on computerized instructions is
also found in the literature. Burns and Bozeman (1981) concluded that
no ultimate answer related to CAI effectiveness or guarantors of
success could be presented. They noted that CAI effectiveness could
be influenced by a host of variables, some of which were controllable
and others were not. Menis, Snyder and Ben Kohav (1980) studied
402, tenth grade students with low grades in the ninth grade. They
found that the better students did not on an average improve their
grades while the weaker students improved their grades. The use of
computer has a home drill aid influenced positively the self confidence
of the weaker pupil. Gershman & Sakamoto (1981) observed that the
'Computer Assisted Remediation and Evaluation' (CARE) project
demonstrated a positive effect on both student achievement and
student attitudes. They pointed out that all the teachers and 96% of the
students who were surveyed wanted to continue their use of CARE. In
a longitudinal study of student attitudes comprising 126 CAI and non
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CAI users in both reading and mathematics Griswold (1981)30 found
that the CAI users showed more internal responsibility and a greater
sense of control over their learning. He also observed that female CAI
users were more positive than both male CAI users and non CAI
users.
A program using computerized instructions and involving
3800 students and 275 teachers was implemented in Lyons Township
Illinois. Lewis (1978)31 described it as a most beneficial experiment.
Hoffman & Waters (1982)32 on the basis of above experiment pointed
out that the success of CAI depended on personalities and also on
many other factors. Researchers like Burn, Bozeman and Clements
(1981) on the basis of their separate studies pointed out that CAI could
not significantly enhance the achievements of average level students
or the experienced users.
The effectiveness of computer assisted instructions to teach
reading strategies to university students was studied by Mikulecky
30 Griswold, P.A., (1981), Longitudinal patterns of students attitudes in a
computer assisted instruction curriculum (Rocky Mountain Educational Research Association) unpublished manuscript.
31 Lewis, C.L. (1978), A study of preschool children's use of computer programmes proceedings of the third national educational computing conference. Denton, Tx: North Texas state University.
32 Hoffman, J.L. & Waters, K., (1982), Some effect of student personality of success with Computer Assisted Instruction. Educational Technology, March, 20-21.
85
et.al.(1989)33. The authors concluded that the students in the treatment
group were better at identifying key concepts.
The computer aided modeling in science courses provides
opportunities to apply the general concepts to a variety of special
cases. The role of computer aided modeling in learning of physics was
discussed by Niedderer et. al. (1991)34. They showed that an iconic
model building software like STELLA could be used to help students
gain a deeper qualitative conceptual under standing and also facilitated
their orientation of physics instructions.
The computer assisted learning package combined with the
videodisc technology make a uniquely versatile interactive visual
medium that may prove to be a very powerful educational resource.
Ross (1991)35 through his review paper explored the teaching and
learning potential of interactive video with reference to science
courses and described some of the programs currently in use.
Barton & Rogers (1991)36 discussed microcomputers as an aid
to practical science, by studying a computer assisted instruction
33 Mikulecky, L., et. al., (1989), Teaching concept mapping and University level
study strategies using computers. Journal of Reading, 32 (8). 34 Niedderer, H. et. al., (1991), The role of Computer aided modelling in
learning Physics, Journal or Computer Assisted Learning. 35 Ross, S.M., (1991) Interactive videodiscs for science education, Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning, Vol.7. 36 Barton, R. & Rogers, L., (1991), The Computer as an aid to practical Science
studying motion with a computer. Journal of CAL, (7).
86
package in physics discussing motion. They discussed the use of two
types of physical sensors which enabled the microcomputer to be used
as a measuring instrument for practical experiments in motion, thereby
increasing the effectiveness of CAI package. Fox (1990)37 worked on
a microcomputer based approach for developing language reading
skills. He found this approach useful for training in second language
reading.
Adorn John et.al. (1998) studied the use of computer in
secondary schools. They observed that the adoption of computers into
the education system necessitates the acceptance of a relatively new
technology not only by the school but by the individual teachers
working in the school. The failure to achieve change in teacher
attitude and in teacher behaviour is an important barrier to successful
innovation for CAL.
Sharma et. al. (1999)38 studies of mathematics, compared the
effect of computers on attitude and achievement. One group of 100
secondary level students were enrolled in Mathematics course that
used a computer to expand and supplement a traditional Mathematics
course. Computer simulations were used 70% of class time and 75-
85% of laboratory time. The control group 100 students received the
37 Fox, J. (1990), A microcomputer based approaches to training in second
language reading skills, computer assisted language learning, 1, 29-40. 38 Sharma R.A. (1999), Distance Education, Loyal Book Depot, Meerut.
87
same Mathematics instruction without computer achievement.
Attitude and achievement were assessed using a comprehensive test of
basic skills, a researcher developed instrument towards the science
course and a science attitude inventory. The authors concluded that the
students in the computer group did significantly better on the test of
basic skills and also had a more positive attitude towards the science
course than the students in traditional Maths course.
Two recent studies Bayrak and Bayram (2010)39, Sengulec and
Azar (2011)40 are involved in figuring out the change in attitude of
students towards science and physics respectively when they are
taught through CAI. They conclude that there is a slight positive
attitude post exposure to CAI as the students are able to grasp abstract
facts easily.
(B) COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON LEARNING THROUGH
CAI & TRADITIONAL METHODS OF TEACHINGS
Elder (1973)41 observed through his studies that only few
researches had been done on learning through microcomputers, as
39 Beyza, Karadeniz Bayrak, Hale Bayram (2010) Effect of computer aided
teaching of acid base subject on the attitude towards science and technology class. Procedia Social and Behavioural Science, 2194-2196.
40 Ozlem Aydin Sengulec, Ali Azar (2011) Computer Assisted and Laboratory – Assisted Teaching Method in Physics Teaching: The effect on students physics achievement and attitude towards physics. Journal of Physics and Chemistry Education, Special Issue.
41 Elder, C.D., (1973), Problems in the structure and use of educational stimulation, Sociology of Education, 46, 335-354. New Publication (1999).
88
against the learning through traditional teaching methods. He on the
basis of his survey concluded that in most of such studies, whatever be
the number, a significant difference in learning could not be found,
however as regards to the attitude of students for microcomputers, a
definite improvement had been observed.
Scheepmaker and Zinn (1971)42 considered the contributions
of microcomputers to learning and teaching of different subjects at
different levels. They found a positive orientation of learning and
teaching through a microcomputer in all subjects at all levels. The two
researchers finally concluded that computer aided activities created
active learning situations for both students and teachers.
Encouraging results of research have been produced on the
impact of computer based methods on learning by Kulik, Kulik and
Cohen (1980)43, who had compared the computer assisted instruction
system with traditional method of instruction. They categorically stated
that the computer medium added measurably to the learning process as
against the traditional methods. These results were no doubt helpful in
indicating the usefulness of microcomputers as tool of learning in a
general way, however they did not reveal as to which computer related
42 Scheepmaker, B & Zinn, K.L., (1971), Proceeding of the IFIP world
conference on Computer Education, Amsterdam. 43 Kulik, J.A., et. al., (1980), Effectiveness of computer based college teaching.
A Meta-analysis of findings. Review of Educational Research 50(4).
89
variables, were responsible to enhance or impede learning.
Computer based learning environment was also studied by
Yasaki (1981)44. He used visual, pictorial and graphic media in his
studies and found that these media created a better learning
environment than the traditional blackboard use. Yasaki concluded that
computer terminal gave not only the advantage of active participation
of leaner but also added towards a learning environment because of the
available facilities of visual, pictorial and graphic media.
The idea of using software graphics was further explored by
Rieber (1989)45 who tried to observe the effect of the medium on
children's understanding for a physical concept of Newton's laws of
motion. Since the software graphics vary in levels of visual
elaboration, he selected three forms of such elaboration in his study
and concluded that the lower order objectives were easier to learn than
higher order objectives, regardless of the type of animation in
computer graphics. Reiber, Boyce and Assah (1989) replicated the
above study with a sample of adults. They observed no effect of
graphics in the learning of adults. He also pointed out that there was no
difference in the achievement for either type of graphics (stationary or
44 Yasaki, Edward, (1981) Kids love the D.P. Scene, Datamation. 45 Rieber, L.P., et. al., (1989), The effects of Computer animated lesson
presentation and cognitive practice on adult learning in Physical science. A.M. ED 308834, Feb., 1-5.
90
animated) in computer assisted instruction package.
Pea and Kurland (1984)46 also studied learning through
computers using LOGO. His findings categorically stated that a
computer could make such learning conditions for school children
which ultimately result in larger gains.
Turkle (1984)47 stated that learning meant, making sense of
experience and the information technologies were the tools, one used
to learn about the world. These were the devices that human used to
make public conceptions that were obtained from domain of
experience. According to Turkle, the electronic technologies like
computers not only influenced our social and technological
environment but also challenged the psychological environment.
Some basic principles of learning are obvious : instructional
methods should involve students actively in the learning process;
practice is a major element of learning; correct performances should
be reinforced; and student motivation is an important affective
component that effects the efficiency of cognitive learning. Brown
(1977)48 opined that knowing these principles of learning did not help
46 Pea, R.D. & Kurland, D.M., (1984), Logo Programming and the development
of planning skills. Tech. Report, New York. 47 Turkle, S., (1984), The second self computer and human spirit, New York. 48 Brown, John Seely, (1977), "Uses of artificial intelligence and advanced
computer technology in education", Computers and Communication, Robert J. Seidel and Martin Rubin, eds N.N. Academic Press.
91
a great deal in formulating computer programs that would improve
learning effectiveness over traditional methods, he rather enumerated
several practical problems that have to be addressed before fully
intelligent computer assisted instruction can be realized.
Grubb (1997)49, Merrill (1980)50 tested empirically an adaptive
CAI and a more learner control oriented CAI. They concluded that
learner control had not proved to be more effective at increasing
achievement than the more traditional CAI in which the computer
programs choose the sequence of tasks.
Since the conclusions of Grubb and Merrill are not
substantiated by the research that has compared various tutorial
models, one can still place an argument that learner control helps
students gain skills in learning how to approach new learning tasks.
Gagne suggested that the proportion of instruction that should be
under learner control is a function of age and grade level (quoted in
Hickey 1974).
Tennyson and Rothen (1979)51 have shown that when students
control the learning program they often terminate instructions too
49 Grubb, Ralph, E., (1997), Student control : exploration of CAI, Computers
and Communication, Robert J. Seidel and Martin Rubin, Academic Press. 50 Merill, M.D., (1980), Learner control in computer based learning. Computer
and Education. 51 Tennyson, R.D., & Rothen, W., (1979) Management of computer based
instruction Design of an adaptive control strategy. Journal of Computer based Instruction, Vol. 5.
92
early and thus fail to learn the proposed objectives. In contradiction to
above, Tennyson, Tennyson and Raman (1990) suggested that in any
learner control management strategies the student could be an
adequate judge for selecting the learning strategy and that would result
in effective learning. However, the instructional researches of David
(1995), Raman and Thomson (1998) and also the applied project of S.
Burt (1997) dealing with variables of learner control have failed to
demonstrate that students could make and carryout the decisions of
content selection and personal assessment. Hallid (1997) also had
similar views that poorest decision makers were students who knew
little about the learning task or who were performing poorly on it.
To account for such problems in CAI management systems
Tennyson and Rothen (1979)52 designed and tested Minnesota
Adaptive Instructional System (MAIS). Research of MAIS has
demonstrated the effectiveness of a program control management
system in selecting the appropriate amount and sequence of instruction
for individual students. Although these adaptive system may eliminate
the problem of premature termination of study, yet they neglect the
important educational goal of student responsibility in learning. Glaser
52 Tennyson, R.D., & Rothen, W., (1979) Management of computer based
instruction Design of an adaptive control strategy. Journal of Computer based Instruction, Vol. 5.
93
(1977)53 suggested that students in learner control mode who receive
meaningful information about their own learning development may
adopt reasonable learning strategies. Using this proposition, and in an
attempt to help students make and carry out appropriate content
selection and learning assessment Tennyson (1980) and Tennyson and
Buttrey (1980) combined a learner controlled mode of computer
assisted instruction system with the diagnostic and prescriptive
information generated from the MAIS. The results of their research
showed that a learner control condition could be a valuable CAI
management strategy, if students received sufficient information about
their learning development information that continuously showed
them what progress they were making toward mastery of the objective
and provided meaningful advice on appropriate stimuli necessary to
obtain that.
To continue development of a theoretical basis for students
self assessment in reference to learning specific objectives, Tennyson
(1981)54 proposed two research schemes: (i) to replicate and extend
the research of Tennyson (1980) and Tennyson and Buttrey
53 Glaser, R., (1977), Adaptive education: Individual diversity and learning.
New York : Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. 54 Tennyson, R.D., (1981), Use of Adaptive information for advisement in
learning concepts and rules using computer-assisted instruction. American Educational Research Journal, Winter, 18(4).
94
(1980)55 by testing directly the information procedure in reference to
both program and learner control CAI management strategies, and (2)
to test the learner control strategies over several, separate units of
instructions.
The data analysis of two proposed research experiments,
consisted a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with
univariate tests (ANOVAS) on each dependent variable, followed by
mean comparison tests (students Newman Keuls). Findings from the
two experiments of Tennyson (1981) showed that the students can
effectively manage their learning needs in a computer assisted
instructional system, which provided continuous, updated information
about their achievement (diagnosis) and instructional needs
(prescription) in relation to the objectives. In first experiment, high
school students receiving instruction (learning four concepts of
Physics) via a learner adaptive-control management strategy that
included advisement, performed better on the post-test than students in
a learner control "strategy (p>.001) and needed Iesws instructional
time than students in a program managed, adaptive-control strategy
(p>.001). Experiment 2 replicated the effectiveness of the learner-
adaptive control strategy by showing that students were able to make
55 Tennyson, R.D., & Butterey, T., (1980), Advisement and management
strategies as design variables in computer based instruction. Education Communications and Technology Journal, Vol. 26.
95
increasingly better self-assessment and management decisions during
three separate instructional units (learning nine punctuation rules) than
either a learner-partial-control-strategy (p>.001) or a learner-control-
strategy (p>.001).
The author finally concluded that computer assisted
instruction package could be a valuable instructional management
system, if students were given sufficient information and advise about
their learning development: information that continuously showed
than the progress they had made toward mastery of the objective and
provided meaningful advice on appropriate stimuli necessary to obtain
mastery. He also observed that students with low aptitude (or low
prior achievement) or low motivation (or low interest) required more
program management support than students with high aptitude and
motivation. Tennyson (1981) suggested need of a further research on
students ability to make individual assessment to identify means of
transferring such skill to learning situations in which advisement is not
provided.
Different learning theories, when combined with the
capabilities of microcomputer, produce ideal conditions for learners.
Vygotsky (1962, 1972)56 stated that learner must play an active part in
the learning process, if an effective educational system was desired.
56 Vygotsky, L.S., (1962), Though and language. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge,
Mass.
96
The empirical observations of Piaget (1981)57, Perry (1970)58 and
Fischer (1980)59 confirmed this belief. Owens (1981)60 on the basis of
expectancy theory contended that to produce intended educational
outcomes the individual student must possess (a) the necessary
abilities and traits, and (b) an accurate perception of the students role
to back up the effort.
The computer helps students achieve their educational and
career goals and satisfy their needs by requiring active learner
participation in the process of education. Self directed learning
activities developed by using computers are the integral part of the
adult education. Liao (1978)61 confirmed that the interactions with the
computer and resultant self directed learning lead to increased
achievement and higher test scores. The interactions with the computers
must be self directed. Students who use the computer must direct the
machine what to do by taking some action like forming an answer,
typing a word or letter or just striking any key on the key-board.
57 Piaget, J., (1981), The psychology of intelligence. Little field, Adams & Co.
Totowa, N.J. 58 Perry, W.G. (1970), Forms of intellectual and Ethical Development in the
college years : A scheme, Holt, Richart and Winston, New York. 59 Fisher, K.W., (1980), A theory of cognitive development : the control and
construction of hierarchies of skills, Psychological Review, 87. 60 Owens, R.G., (1981), Organizational behaviour in education, 2nd edn.
Prentice-Hall, Engle Wood Cliffs, N.J. 61 Liao, S.S., (1978), Learner directed instruction : additional evidences. The
Accounting Review 53 (January).
97
One of the significant capability of computers is in allowing
the student user various options about when to interact, when and how
long to learn a lesson etc. This important ability to direct when and
where of learning, encouraged the educators to use computer
instructions in different courses at college level. Thomson and Seda
(1995) set up a trial of computer assisted instruction at college level
accounting course. Alaah (1995) also carried out an experiment to
teach cost accounting through micro-computers. Petrello (1995)62
worked on the effectiveness of a computer assisted practice set in the
first year accounting course. Thomson (1995) also used the word
processors in accounting and business courses and observed that
scholars who used the word processing system once, never wanted to
be without them.
Collier et.al. (1987)63 through their work integrated the theory
and practice of adding microcomputers into an accounting curriculum.
They found that the use of microcomputers as a tool for accounting
education helped produce more knowledgeable accounting graduates.
They also observed that with the use of computers in instruction
accounting skill increased, students became comparatively better
62 Petrello, GJ. & Sedki, S.S., (1995), An analysis of the effectiveness of a
computer assisted practice set in the first year accounting course. Paper presented at NEAAA Syracuse, New York.
63 Collier, H.W., et.al., (1987), Microcomputer : A successful approach to teaching business courses. Computer Education, 11(2).
98
writers communicators and decision makers, improved in financial
statement preparations and analysis because they had an independent
experience of everything due to the self directing learning process in
the use microcomputers.
Two projects, one in late 1960's by the university of Illinois
and the other in early 1970's jointly by the Navy personnel Research
and Development Centre and Defence Advanced Research Project
were initiated respectively to prepare computer assisted instruction
lessons on macroeconomics college students and CAI study
management system for the same course. This lead Alessi et. al.
(1974)64 to developed and implement the computer assisted instruction
study management system on economics course for college students.
Anderson et. al. (1975) had then an experimental evaluation of these
CAI study management systems and found them to be useful and
effective in terms of learning of students. Paden and Barr (1981)65
carried out an empirical study on 400 students in two lecture sections
of principles of economics. The material on the computer consisted of
(i) a series of seven review and expository lessons (ii) three hour
multiple-choice type examination (iii) a record keeping system for
64 Alessi, S.M. et. al., (1974), Development and implementation of the
Computer Assisted Instruction study Management System (AISMS). Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency, Technical Report.
65 Paden, D.W., & Barr, M.D., (1980), Computer Assisted Instruction in an elementary college economics course. Computer & Education, Vol.4.
99
tallying such information as the time spent by the students on the
system, numerical scores on the lesson, and scores and grades of the
three hour examination. The package was delivered by PLATO (the
University of Illinois version of computer assisted instruction). Their
findings showed a reasonably impressive evidence of the fact that
students in a controlled situation who depended upon the computer
assisted Instruction package for roughly one-seventh of the input in
the beginning course in economics, scored higher on the final
examination than those who did not use computer assisted
instructions.
Aremu and Sangodoyin (2010)66 recently explored the effect
on achievement of Nigerian senior secondary school students of
biology when they were taught through computer animations. They
were of the opinion that the bright colours and depictions of animation
facilitated learning hence aiding achievement.
(C) COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
TWO METHODS OF INSTRUCTIONS
Systematic comparisons of outcomes of computer based and
conventional teaching began appearing in print in late 1960's or early
66 Ayotola Aremu, Abiodun Sangodoyin (2010), Computer animation and the
academic achievement of Nigerian senior secondary school students in Biology. Journal of the Research Center for Education Technology, Vol. 6, No.2.
100
1970's. Researchers divided a class of students into an experimental
and a control group. Members of the experimental group received part
of their instructions at computer terminals whereas the students in the
control group received their instructions by conventional teaching
methods. At the end of the experiment researchers compared
responses of the two groups on a common examination or on a course
evaluation form. Such studies were carried out many times in different
settings. Most of the reviewers have generally supported the
effectiveness of computer based teaching as a supplement to
conventional instructions in elementary schools.
Vinsonhaler and Bass (1972)67 summarized results from 10
independent studies of computer supported drill and practice involving
more than 30 separate experiments with about 10,000 subjects. They
concluded that CAI drill and practice at the elementary school was more
effective than traditional teaching in raising the standardized test scores.
Edwards et. al. (1975)68 also concluded that normal teaching
supplemented by computer assisted instructions was more effective
than the normal teaching alone. Jamison et al., (1974)69 also drew
67 Vinsonhaler, J.F. & Bass, R.K. (1972), Summary of ten major studies on CAI
drill and practice. Educational Technology, 12, p 29-32. 68 Edwards, J., et.al., (1975), How effective is CAI? A review of the research.
Educational Leadership, 33. 69 Jamison, D., et. al. (1974), The effectiveness of alternative instructional
media : A survey. Review of Educational Research, 44.
101
similar conclusions on the basis of their experiment for supplementing
conventional teaching by computer instructions at primary school
level. They concluded that at the elementary level, the computer
assisted instruction was apparently effective as a supplement to
regular instructions. Hartey's (1977) research synthesis showed that
CAI was one of the most effective ways of teaching mathematics at
the elementary and secondary levels. Murphy and Appel (1999)70;
Alderman (1978)71 reported the outcomes of a major evaluation study
of the two systems, that is CAI method and traditional method of
teaching carried out by a group of researchers at the Educational
Testing Service. The evaluation was based on field tests of the
TICCIT system in two community colleges in Arizona and Virginia
and test of the PLATO system five community colleges in Illinois.
The evaluators of PLATO reported that though both students and
teachers reacted favorably to the CAI system, yet it had no significant
effect on student achievement. The evaluators of TICCIT system had
the view that the system resulted in an improvement in student
achievement, but students in it were more likely to drop out than those
in conventionally taught classes. They finally concluded that none of
70 Murphy, R.T., & Appel, L.R., (1999), Evaluation of PLATO IV Computer
based education system in the Community College (ETS PR-10). Princeton, N.J. Educational Testing Service.
71 Alderman, D.L., (1978), Evaluation of the TICCIT Computer Assisted Instructional System in the Community College (ETSPR 78-10), Princeton, N.J. Educational Testing Service.
102
the two (PLATO & TICCIT) had reached the potential claimed for
computer based education.
Many systematic and well monitored research evaluations
have found that in the subject like mathematics were more drill and
practice is required, CAI could produce increased student achievement
in comparison to control group treatments. Ragosta et al. (1981)72
observed that CAI had a positive effect on computational mathematics
but the positive difference in conceptual understanding of
mathematics was sometimes greater and sometimes less than the
control group students. The language and reading results, although the
students in the middle elementary grades did show strong
improvement with CAI use. They concluded that the overall
superiority of the results for maths as compared to language learning
could be due either to the difference in the ability to computer based
drills to provide useful practice or due to the difference in the quality
of the particular CAI package used.
Melmed (1980) had also worked on similar type of problem,
using CAI package on microcomputer and had pointed out that
computer assisted instruction more clearly simulated practice of maths
than the practice of reading on language use.
72 Ragosta, Marjorie, Holland, et. al., (1981), CAI and compensatory education :
Final Report, Educational Testing Service.
103
Cacllenbach et.al. (1975) compared the effect of CAI to
traditional teaching method on cognitive and affective development
thought the use of experimental and control group. Lenger (1975/85)
found the instructional usefulness of microcomputers to assess the
teacher in drill and practice for the remedial teaching in subject. He
suggested that in the subjects like Physics and Chemistry, a teacher
could demonstrate experiment once in the class and then allowed
students to use simulation CAI to perform additional experiment.
Goodwin et.al. (1974/86) conducted an experimental study to
investigate the cognitive and effective effects of various types of
microcomputer uses on preschool children. They used three treatment
conditions viz. adult assisted microcomputer instruction, unassisted
microcomputer instruction and no computer instruction.
Goodwin et.al. used commercial CAI package and applied the
multivariate analysis for covariance for their data-analysis. They found
no significant difference in the treatment effects, however the attitude
data analysis revealed significantly greater interest in microcomputer
among the control group children. The educational advantages of
computer assisted instructions at higher levels of education, defined to
some extent, in having a similar summary to that of elementary or
secondary levels of education. Jamieson et.al. (1974) carried their
studies on computer assisted instructions at college level, in courses
operated as part of research and development projects and could draw a
104
conservative conclusion that computer assisted instruction was about as
effective as traditional instruction, when used as a replacement. They
finally concluded that at higher level of education most of the alternate
methods of instruction are equally effective.
Computers have been used to assist reading instructions by
Green et al. (1968)73 as early as in 1968. With every improvement in
the generations of computers their capabilities also increased.
Learning, recognizing and. pronouncing unknown words through the
computer assisted instruction package was perused by many
researchers like Atkinson (1984)74, Obertino (1974)75, Lysiak,
Wallace and Evans (1976)76, Mason & Blanchard (1979)77, Mason
(1980)78, Thompson (1980)79 and Marsh (1983)80. Alessi et.al.
73 Green, D.R., et. al., (1968) Learning to recognize words and letters on a CAI
terminal. Artington, VA: DRIC document Reproduction Service, No. ED 027197.
74 Atkinson, R.E. (1984) Teaching concepts and properties of parallelogram by a CAI program and a traditional classroom setting. Dessert. Abs. Int. 44, 7.
75 Obertino, P., (1974), PLATO Elementary Reading Curriculum. Urbana: Computer based Education Laboratory, University of Pllinois.
76 Lysiak, R., & Wallace, S., (1976), Computer-Assisted Instruction. Arlington, VA ERIC Documentation Reproduction Services, No. ED 495.
77 Mason, G.E., & Blanchard, J.S., (1979), Computer Application in Reading. New York, D.D. : International Reading Association.
78 Mason, G.E., (1980) Computerized Reading instruction : A Review Educational technology 20 (10).
79 Thompson, B.J., (1980), Computers in Reading: A Review of Applications and Implications. Educational Technology, 20(9).
80 Marsh, M., (1983) Computer-Assisted Instruction in Reading. Journal of Reading, 26.
105
(1982)81 studied the effectiveness of computer based reading
comprehension program for adults.
A systematic comparison of the relative effectiveness of
teaching unknown reading words by human tutor and that by a CAI
terminal was carried out by lcabone and Hannaford in 198682. They in
their empirical study with 32 fourth grade students used speech
synthesizer (a device which when coupled with microcomputers gives
the net effect of computer talking) in their CAI package to teach
unknown reading words to students. Students were given another
intervention by a human tutor. They concluded the microcomputer
with speech synthesizer equally as effective as a human tutor in
eliciting both the recognition of previously unknown words and in the
later recall of these words.
Further reading is also a basic skill needed to succeed in all
school subjects. The handicapped student's major area of weakness is
often in reading. Studies of Herjanic and Penick (1972)83 and Black
81 Alessi, S.M. et.al. (1982), Effectiveness of a Computer based reading
Comprehension Program for Adults. Journal of Educational Technology System, 11.
82 Icabone, D.G. & Hannaford, A.E., (1986). A comparison of two method of teaching Unknown Reading Words to fourth-graders: Microcomputer and tutor. Educational Technology.
83 Herjanic, B.M.. and Penick, E.G., (1972), Adult outcome of Disabled Readers. Journal of Special Education, 64.
106
(1974)84 reveal the problems that the handicapped students experience
in reading during school years lead to even greater problems once they
leave school. These problems have caused the handicapped adult to
lack self esteem, experience depression and often to face limited job
opportunities. This lead the special educators to study the performance
of CAI package for reading instructions to handicapped children.
Edwards et.al. (1975)85 and Goldenberg (1979)86 suggested that
computer assisted instructions appeared to be more effective with low
ability students than with the high ability students. Hasselbring
(1982)87 reported positive results using CAI to teach spellings to
learning disabled students. Ragosta (1983)88 and Appell and Hurley
(1984)89 also concluded positively in favour of computer assisted
instructions for handicapped students.
84 Black, W.F., (1974), Self concept as Related to achievement and Age in
Learning Disabled Children. Child Development, 45. 85 Edwards, J., et.al., (1975), How effective is CAI? A review of the research.
Educational Leadership, 33. 86 Goldenberg, E.P., (1979), Special Technology for special children. Baltimore:
Park Press. 87 Hasselbring, T.S., (1982), Remediating spelling problems of learning
Handicapped Students Through the use of Microcomputers. Educational Technology, 22(4).
88 Rasgosta, M., (1983), Computer-Assisted Instruction and Compensatory Education : A Longitudinal Analysis. Machine Medicated Learning 1 (1).
89 Appell, E.S. & Hurley, K.M., (1984), Individualizing instruction with computer software. Focus on Exceptional Children, 16(5).
107
Harper and Ewing (1986)90 gave an empirical rational for the
use of microcomputers rather than more traditional forms of
instruction for the high incidence handicapped students. They
compared the effectiveness of microcomputer and workbook
instructions on silent reading comprehension performance of high
incidence handicapped students. The effectiveness was measured by
percentage of correct responses to reading comprehension questions
(productivity) and observing the attention to task behaviour. The
authors concluded CAI as the most effective treatment in terms of
productivity while no distinct difference in visual analysis of task
behaviour.
Computer assisted learning (CAL) had been a part of the
curriculum in the tertiary sector of Education in U.K. for 'many years
(Hartley 1978)91. Most programs were either simulations of processes
or models or complex analytical packages. Nearly all required main
frame computers and the large majority had been written by skilled
professional computer personals, who paid little heed to educational
necessities. Hence most of the programs lacked user friendliness,
though they performed their tasks fast and reliably. Ayscough
90 Harper, J.A. and Ewing, N.J., (1986), A comparison of the effectiveness of
Microcomputer and workbook instruction on Reading Comprehension Performance of High intelligence Handicapped Children. Educational Technology.
91 Hartley, S., (1978), Meta-analysis of the effects of individually paced instruction in Mathematics. Dissertation Abstracts International, 38(7-A).
108
(1981)92, Butcher and Ayscough (1983)93 developed the authoring
language STAF-2 (Science Teacher's Authoring Facility Version 2)
that provided an easily understandable simple compressed syntax and
which could be used to rapidly produce an instructional program
without the necessity to understand much about programming at all.
Though the STAF -2 programs were in use for quite some
time in Leeds University and Open University London but not much
attention was paid to their educational value in relation to student
performance. Whiting (1982, 1984, 1985)94 through his different
studies, tried to have a cognitive assessment of these instructional
programs in STAF-2 in terms of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational
Objective (1956) in conjunction with mastery learning strategies of
Bloom (1968) and Block (1980). Whiting in his studies in 1985
examined the effects of replacing human tuition by STAF-2 tutorial
programs for under-graduate biology course and compared the two
forms of teaching in cognitive terms. Two groups of students were
used, one taught by the human teacher and the other by the computer.
A similar topic was taught to both groups of students by the usual
92 Ayscough, P.B., (1981), STAF Author guide. CALCHEM. University of
leads and Imperial College Computer Centre, London. 93 Butcher, P.G. & Ayscough, P.B. (1983), STAF2 Reference manual VAXCAL
CHEM, University of Leeds. 94 Whiting, J. (1982, 1984, 1985), The use of a computer tutorial as a
replacement for human tution in a mastery learning strategy. Computer education, 9 (2), 101-109.
109
means of teaching, in order to act as a control. The students taught by
computer attained significantly higher scores for retention of
knowledge, its application and evaluation when compared with those
taught by a human teacher. Whilst there was no significant difference
between the groups in terms of comprehension, analysis and synthesis.
Out of several studies concerning the use of computers with
young children, many have been exploratory and thus their results are
merely tentative. Many researchers like Caudle (1965)95, Green et.al.
(1968), Banet (1979), Lewis (1981), Piestrup (1981)96, Swigger and
Campbell (1981)97, Spencer and Baskin (1983)98 and Casey (1984)99
had evaluative studies to examine the effects of computer assisted
instruction and determined its usefulness for teaching young children.
Most of the above mentioned studies were on the area of reading
readiness and instructions.
Hungate (1982)100 conducted his research study for the
95 Caudle, F.M. (1965), Pre-reading skills through the talking typewriter. The
instructor October, 38-39. 96 Piestrup, A.M., (1981), Preschool children use Apple II to test reading skills
programs. Portola Valley, CA : Advanced Learning Technology Erice No. Ed 202-476.
97 Swigger, K.M., & Compbell, J., (1981), The computer goes to nursery school Educational Computer Magazine.
98 Spencer, M, & Baskin, L., (1983), Micro computers in early childhood education. Urbana, ILERIC D.R.S. ED 227 967.
99 Casey, J.M. (1984) Beginning reading instruction: Using the LEA approach with and without microcomputer intervention ERIC DRS NO. ED 2455192.
100 Hungate (1982) Computer in Kindergarden. The computing teacher, 9 (5), 15-18.
110
effectiveness of computer assisted instruction in teaching the
beginning concepts of mathematics to very young children. Six
prewritten programs were used that focused on basic mathematics,
visual discrimination, and name & telephone number practice.
Subjects worked with the computers 15-35 minutes once a week
during 8 month period. Hungate found that the proportion of the
correct responses for the computer group was equal to or higher than,
children who had not used the computer. She reported that the
learning effects appeared to exist over a considerable time and that the
computer enhanced the development of kindergarten children's basic
mathematical concepts.
Vonstein (1982)101 compared a conventional method of
instruction with computer assisted instruction in a study designed to
determine "whether the microcomputers facilitate indirect learning as
effectively as a more traditional method. She used an investigator
developed program and a microcomputer with a device that allowed
the computer to give oral instruction. 32 kindergarten subjects in the
experimental group were encouraged to manipulate small wooden
blocks, while working at the computer. Same number of the subjects
in the control group were taught the same concepts of counting and
101 Vonstein, J.F., (1982), An evaluation of the Micro computer as a facilitator of
indirect learning for kindergarten child. Dissertation Abstracts International. 43.
111
patterning shapes through the traditional style of chalk and
blackboard. Criterion- reference tests of counting and pattern shapes
were used for both pre-and post tests. Analysis of covariance revealed
no significant difference between scores of children in the control and
experimental groups. She noted, however, that there was a 'ceiling
effect' on the shape counting test that had affected the outcome of
results. Von Stein finally concluded that the microcomputer was as
beneficial a tool for small-group instructions as a more conventional
method.
Davis (1998) pursued similar study to test for difference in the
effects of computer assisted instruction and teacher assisted
instruction on numeral recognition and cardinal counting scores of
preschool children. In designing her study Davis tried to remove the
shortcomings of previous studies such as 'small sample size' and
'ceiling effect' on concepts presented. 52 pre-school children of 3 to 5
years of age from middle socioeconomic background were her
subjects. Children were taught either the number 1-10 or 11-20
according to their pretest scores. Analysis of variance, with blocking
on pretest scores, failed to detect a significant difference between the
computer assisted and teacher assisted treatments for either numeral
recognition or cardinal counting. Davis reported, however, that
children's scores improved after they used the computer and that the
computer was one effective method of facilitating beginning
112
arithmetic concepts.
MacMillon et.al. (1998, 99) made attempt to continue with
Pine's studies with 53 subjects in an effort to determine if Pine's
findings would replicate using kindergaten children. They started with
the null hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in the
numeral recognition or cardinal counting scores of children who
received computer assisted instruction when compared to those who
received teacher assisted instruction. Their two factored ANOVA
utilizing a 2x3 (treatment x levels) factorial design indicated a
significant difference in favour of computer assisted instruction for
numeral recognition and no difference were found between treatments
for cardinal counting. Results of MacMillon et.al. reaffirmed the
findings of Hungate, Von Stein and Pine what computer could be an
effective method for teaching selected beginning mathematics
concepts and skills. MacMillon et.al. concluded that for children
having a good understanding of the concept of numeral recognition,
CAI would be superior to the traditional method, however, for the
other category teacher assisted instructions appeared to be more
appropriate. These results tend to support Johnson's (1985)102
conclusion that microcomputer might not be equally beneficial to all
children.
102 Johnson, J.E., (1985), Characteristics of preschools interested in
microcomputers. Journal of Educational Research, 78, 299-305.
113
Mohmmad Imran Ahmad (2010)103 have brought out the
effectiveness of innovation methods of teaching over traditional
method of teaching at junior college level in biology teaching.
(D) RESEARCHES ON OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING THE
INSTRUCTIONAL USE OF COMPUTERS
Kulik, Kulik and Cohen (1980) conducted their study to observe
the relationship between the use of computer instruction and
achievement for students of basic level and also for those who became
more mature and skilled. Their findings suggested that the computer
use could enhance achievement at the basic level but the computer
influence diminished when students became more skilled. Dryfus and
Dreyfus (1984)104 working on a similar problem confirmed the
conclusion of Kulik et al. (1980).
Macken, Suppes and Zanotti (1980)105 pointed out that the
effectiveness of any educational projects, in general, and computer
assisted instructions in particular had been done on the basis of
classical statistical theories such as analysis of variance and
103 Mohmmad Imran Ahmad (2010) Effectiveness of Innovative and traditional
methods of teaching biology in Junior college Shodh Samiksha aur Mulyankan, Vol.II, 18.
104 Dreyfus, H.L. & Dreyfus, S.E., (1984), Putting computers in their proper place: Analysis Vs intuition in the classroom. Teachers College Record, 85.
105 Macken. E., Suppes, P., & Zanotti, M., (1980), Considerations evaluating individualized instruction. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 14(1).
114
regression, which were global in nature in the sense that they
described behaviour of a group but not that of an individual member.
Suppes, Fletcher and Zanotti (1976)106 demonstrated the use of micro-
theory developed by them to describe student performance in highly
individualized CAI package. Many researchers like Suppes et al.
(1976, 1978); Macken and Poulson (1978), Malone et.al (1979) and
Macken et. al. (1980) then applied this theory on hundreds of students
in U.S. with computer assisted instructions and found it to have an
accurate representation of performance with the outcoming suggestion
that CAI could be very useful in individualized instructions.
Morgan (1978)107 pointed out that a common problem to
individualized instruction was the heavy reliance on programmed
instruction which became boring to students. Computer based
programs which became boring to students. Computer based prorams
were of interactive nature and their flexible and visually appealing
display formats made them a more enjoyable experience particularly
in case of individualized instructions.
106 Suppes, P., Fletcher, J.D. & Zanotti, M., (1976), Models of individual
trajectories in computer assisted instruction for deaf students. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 67.
107 Morgan, Robert., (1978), Educational technology adolescence to adulthood, Educational Communication and Technology Journal, Vol. 26.
115
Stammer and Morrison (1985)108 made a detailed examination
of different modes of computer based learning as a part of their project
investigating the provisions of training for future command and
control systems. The discussions were restricted to the variety of
learner instruction interactions that would take place in fairly
individualized manner, with opportunities of practice in both the
knowledge and skill area. Stammer and Morrison observed that the
computer terminal offered a great deal of flexibility for information
presentation and forms of practice. The flexibility of being able to
present written material, graphics material or even dynamic
representations of various aspects of the tasks made computers
important, in the sense that it had some part to play, whatever to the
complexity of learning material. Stammer (1985)109 suggested
computer to a good natural media for individualized instruction.
Some effects of students personality on the success with the
computer assisted instructions were studied by Duby and Giltrow
(1978), and Cafarella et al. (1980). Their studies indicated that
personality of the student effected CAI effectiveness. They also
examined factors that effected student learning and rates of
108 Stammers, R.B. & Morrisore, G.C. (1985), Operator training in future
command systems: final Report, division of Applied Psychology. Aston University Birmingham.
109 Stammers, R.B., (1985), The effects of self-monitoring in training situations, Programmed Learning and Educational Technology 22.
116
withdrawal from self paced instructions. The withdrawal variable
(attrition rate) was not highly related to the particular technical
delivery mode of the course. It was related to certain student
characteristic (demographic or motivational) which student brought to
their learning situations. Retzke (1976)110 found that students with
lower level of dependence proneness showed lower motivational level
and greater gain in motivational level as a result of participating in the
experimental group.
Hoffman and Waters (1982)111, in their study, examined more
specifically the motivational aspect of the personality of the student.
The purpose of his study was to see, if any, relationship existed among
personality types and student performances in a self-pace computer
assisted instruction program. They posed two pertinent research
questions:
(a) Did certain personality types complete the CAI learning task earlier?
(b) Was there any relationship between personality types and
attrition (drop out) rate from the computer assisted instruction
package?
110 Retzke, R., (1976), The effect of experimental treatment using cognitive
styles on motivation of students. Marguette University, Dissertation Abstract International.
111 Hoffman, J.L. & Waters, K., (1982), Some effect of student personality of success with Computer Assisted Instruction. Educational Technology, March, 20-21.
117
The conclusions of Hoffman Kand Waters (1982) favoured the
students who had sensing type personality, that is, who had the ability
to concentrate, were able to pay attention to details, had affinity for
memorizing the facts and could stay with single task till completion.
In regards to the second question they found that those with Extrovert,
Intuitive and Perceiving (ENP) personality types were likely to drop
out.
Pritchard's (1982) observations regarding the instructional use
of computers were similar to Hoffman and Water (1982) and called
for an specific learning style that included: (i) manual dexterity at the
key board; (ii) attention to detail and accuracy; (iii) an aptitude for
learning visibly; (iv) a preference for working along and
independently; and (v) strong intuitive and diagnostic ability.
Winkle and Matthews (1982)112 noted that women's
socialization made them less receptive towards computers. Griswold
(1981)113 in his study noted increased achievement using computer
assisted instruction among boys at the elementary and secondary level
of schooling.
Few studies have also been conducted on retention of
112 Winkle, L.M. & Mathew, W.M., (1981), Computers storm the classroom.
Computer, Nov. 29. 113 Griswold, P.A., (1981), Longitudinal patterns of students attitudes in a
computer assisted instruction curriculum (Rocky Mountain Educational Research Association) unpublished manuscript.
118
achievement gains. The relationship of achievement retention with
methods of teaching was first proposed in proceeding of International
Congress of Psychology in the year 1955. The achievement retention
with computer based teaching attracted Evans (1982) to conduct his
studies in this direction. He compared the retention rates for learners'
who used computer assisted instruction with the traditional method of
teaching and workbook based method. He noticed that the retention
curve of computer teaching resembled with that of traditional teaching
method upto first 24-36 hours and deviated after that.
Kulik, Kulik and Cohen (1980) also examined as to whether the
computer based instructions resulted in greater retention than methods
of teaching. They obtained varied results with equal or greater
retention levels and their studies needed some more work in the area
to confirm their findings.
The effect of delayed information feedback under conditions to
maximize the retention, has been the subject matter of various
researchers like Kulhari and Anderson (1972)114 and Surber and
Anderson (1975) for their research studies. They utilized a variety of
material and wide range of information feedback delays, varying
between 8 seconds to 4 days, to finally established the superiority of
retention following delayed information feedback.
114 Kulhari, R.W., & Anderson. R.C. (1972), Dealy-retention effect with multiple
choice tests. Journal of Educational Psychology 63.
119
Retention of learned material with feedback devices was also
studied by Gaynor (1981)115. She found that immediate feedback
facilitated students working at knowledge level and that end of session
feedback facilitated learning at comprehension and application level.
Bordwell (1981)116 also found that immediate facilitated short term
retention.
The potential capacity of computers to provide feedback at any
chosen interval of time, attracted Rankin and Trepper (1987) to study
retention and delay in feedback in a computer assisted instruction task.
They presented instructions though computers in sex knowledge to 30
college students under varying conditions of informational feedback
delay. Immediate feedback following each response was compared
with feed back following a 15 seconds delay for each response and
feedback following a completed series of trials. Their dependent
variable was a 24 hours retention test. Their results also confirmed
earlier findings in this regard indicating improved retention as
function of delaying informational feedback. Rankin and Trepper
(1987)117, on the basis of their work finally suggested the use of
115 Gaynor, P., (1981), The effect of feedback delay on retention of computer
based maths., Journal of C.B.I., 8. 116 Bordwell, R., (1981), Feedback: How does if function? The Journal of
experimental Education. 117 Ranking, R.J. & Trepper, T., (1987), Retention and delay of feedback in a
computer assisted instructional task. Journal of Experimental Education, 56, (1).
120
interactive computer assisted instruction package for improved
retention of the learned material.
It is well known that the computer-assisted instructions are
infinite patient and provide students with the opportunity of repeated
trails with explanatory feedback. Myers (1989)118 examined this aspect
of CAI on achievement retention and attitudes of less successful
science students. 184 students were randomly assigned to one of the
four treatment groups for intervention. All computer assisted
instruction programs were tutorial in nature and the content was from
the life sciences. All treatments received positive feedback for correct
results, however for incorrect responses the treatment varied in
feedback. Group I received no additional feedback, group 2 received
feedback that allowed them try again if their original answer were
incorrect, group 3 received feedback that explained why the answer
was correct or incorrect, group 4 received both, the feedback that
allowed them to try again and explanation concerning their answers.
Students were given an attitude and content pretest, a content post-test
and a delayed post test for content to measure the retention. Multiple
analysis of variance was performed for achievement, retention and
attitude by group, sex and ability level. The authors concluded that
118 Myers, B.J., (1989), The effect of trial repetition and explanatory feed back in
CAI on science and Computer attitudes and performance of less successful students in Secondary science. Dissertation abstracts International, Vol. 50.
121
trial repetition and explanatory feedback did not have a significant
effect in either increasing the retention or facilitating achievement or
positive attitude towards science and computers among the sample of
less able students.
Billingham et.al. studied the effect of variation in feedback
assistance to 30 fifth grade students using three types of computer
based reading assistance program when reading a computer presented
science text. The first kind of assistance consisted of prompt telling
students to reread important parts of the text, the second kind of
assistance consisted of prompt and a list of forms of available help
such as definitions or background information. The third kind of
assistance consisted of a prompt and a prescription of the kind of
assistance the students needed. The assessment was a synthesis
question presented to students before they read 150 words text and
which they were to answer after reading the text. The authors
concluded that the prescribed assistance was more effective in
promoting understanding, than the other two forms of assistance. The
result actually predicted whether or not students used definitions and
background informations provided for assistance. They believed that
providing assistance did not guarantee that it would be used.
Intellectually giftedness can be considered as a factor positively
related to learning and planning skills because in terms of Renzulli's
122
(1978)119 definition it can be conceptualized as an interaction between
human traits of above average abilities, high levels of task
commitment and high levels of creativity. The investigation of
cognitive process underlying difference in computer competency
between intellectually gifted and non-gifted students were done by
many researchers. Grover (1989)120 discussed the general planning
skills needed for computer among intellectually gifted and non-gifted
students. Kirby (1984)121 observed that if planning and strategies are
taught to students, some increase in achievement would certainly
follow. White (1984)122 pointed out that computer simulations could
greatly enhance, the level of understanding of complex concepts, if the
learner had appropriate framework and strategies for dealing with
computer input, inorder to benefit.
Grover (1989) carried out an experiment of planning skill
examined whether a task specific measure of planning skill could
predict performance on computer simulation tasks and whether such
planning measures could differentiate between intellectually gifted
119 Renzulli, J.S., (1978), What makes giftedness? Reexamining a definition. Phi
Delta Kappan, 60 (3). 120 Grover, S.C., (1989), General planning skills as a predictor of individual
differences in Computer competency among intellectually gifted children. Journal of Educational Research.
121 Kirby, J.R., (1984), Cognitive strategies and educational performance. New York : Academic Press.
122 White B.Y., (1984), Designing Computer games to help physics students understand Newton's law of motion. Cognition and instruction, 1(1).
123
and intellectually average children's performance on computers. She
performed her experiment with 43 students (24 boys, 19 girls)
distributed in two groups of 29 and 14 as intellectually gifted or
average intelligent group. The groups were distributed on the basis of
standardized intelligence and achievement tests as well as teacher
rating. Grover (1989) reported that problems involving minimal
planning skills were mastered by a vast majority from both the groups,
however, the giftedness facilitated good problem solving. Similar
conclusions were also drawn by Brooks (1990) who used application
software with gifted students.
Cheney (1990) reviewed the uses of computer technology for
students with behaviour disorder. The three major uses pointed out by
them were (i) to enhance academic skills or achievement; (ii) to
modify the behaviour as reinforce; (iii) to improve social skills and
interpersonal deficits. They opined that additional research was
needed in a order to understand more clearly the power and limitations
of the computers. Leigh (1990)123 found computer assisted instructions
to be quite useful in special education.
The tutor, tool and tutee mode of computer assisted instructions
were critically examined by. Adams (1988)124 in their major study to
123 Leigh, H., (1990), Computer in special education : Some curriculum
consideration Australian Journal of Remedial Education, 22 (1-2). 124 Adams, T., (1988), Computers in learning: A Coat of many Colors, Computer
Education, 12, (1).
124
discuss difference ways in which computers can be used in
classrooms.
Plomp et al. (1990)125 conducted case studies in three leading
secondary schools in Netherland, who were using computers to
validate the claims available in literature about the accomplishments
in actual teaching practice when computers were used for instruction.
They pointed out that those schools had hardly passed the stage of
grassroots developments. A telephonic survey study by Plomp et. al.
(1990), with a larger group of leading schools also confirmed the
outcomes of the case studies.
Unfortunately the researcher could not find any empirical study
on the usefulness of instructional use of microcomputers, carried out
in India. However various ways like testing and error analysis, drill
and practice approach, dialogue approach, individualized help etc. in
which CAI may be useful, have been discussed by Atre and Barde
(1987)126 in their paper "Modernizing Education: The Computer Way"
presented at the 13th Annual Conference of Maharashtra State
Secondary Teacher Educator's Association 1985, held at Sholapur.
They suggested the modernization of education in developing
125 Plomp, T., Pelgrum, W.J., & Steerneman, AH., (1990), Influence of computer
use on schools, curriculum limited integration. Computer Education, Vol. 14, (2).
126 Atre, P.S. & Barde, N.R., (1987), Modernizing Education : The Computer way. Journal of Indian Education, (1).
125
countries like India, so that our younger generation could be equipped
to cope with the further challenges and the accelerating pace of
changes.
(E) STUDIES CONCLUDING AGAINST INSTRUCTIONAL
USE OF COMPUTERS
Licklider (1979)127 suggested that efforts should be directed
toward long range developmental studies on using computers to foster
discovery and the ability to organize ideas, rather than trying to use
present equipment for the more mundane applications like computer
managed instructions, drill and practice and question and answer
tutorials.
Ellis (1974)128 observed that computer assisted instructions
could be effective if the CAI packages incorporated into their
procedures the sequence of material, response contingent alternatives,
user controlled options and feedback mechanisms that promoted
learning for the greatest number of students. Yet as Ellis pointed out,
"even the best teacher does not know completely what it is that makes
him a good teacher, our ability to create computerized interactive
procedural environments is limited by what little knowledge we have
127 Licklider, J.C.R., (1979), "Impact of information technology on education in
science and Technology", in technology in science education : The next ten years : perspective and recommendation, National Science Foundation.
128 Ellis Allan, B., (1974), The use and misuse of computers in education. N.Y. McGraw Hill Book Co.
126
about optimizing instruction."
Brown (1977)129 felt that knowledge of principles of learning
only, did not help a great deal in formulating and developing a
computer asisted instruction program that would improve learning
effectiveness over the traditional methods. He posed the following
questions that had to be addressed before a fully intelligent CAI could
be realized:
(a) Suppose the student has no idea about how to solve a problem
what information should the computer provide?
(b) Suppose the student solves part of the problems and gets and
stuck what should the computer do?
(c) Should the computer stop the student as soon as the first error is
made or at what further point?
(d) An intelligent tutor may normally be able to deduce the
intermediate step which caused the error in pupils work. Can the
computer be provided with same kind of skills.
Gagne pointed out (quoted in Hickey 1974) that a big problem
with computerized dialogue was that most students were not facile
with keyboard communications. He felt that to communicate to the
129 Brown, John Seely, (1977), "Uses of artificial intelligence and advanced
computer technology in education", Computers and Communication, Robert J. Seidel and Martin Rubin, eds N.N. Academic Press.
127
computer through the keyboard and video display was one of the
biggest bottlenecks in the whole business. The greater the tutorial's
capacity for dialogue, the more typing skill, spelling proficiency and
the ability to follow directions become prerequisites for adequate use
of CAI.
Panther et. al. (1999) saw the instructional use of computers as
part of a crisis, leading to dehumanization of education. Patterson and
many others like him opined that he claim that the students could learn
more efficiently with computer assisted instruction had not been
adequately demonstrated.
Bakeer (1999) through his survey studies had a strong criticism
centered on the view that computers had too frequently been an
intrusion into the classroom, promoted by zealous people whose belief
and material were insensitive and unsympathetic to school aims and
objectives. He made the point that the available hardware and software
was promoted without regard for the value and validity of the
classroom practice.
Wainwright (1999) evaluated the effects of using a Physics
software package as a supplement to traditional instruction in high
school Physics. Analysis of assessment of Physics knowledge revealed
that there was no difference in the control and supplementary group.
A similar study, investigating the effect of supplemental
128
computer instruction in high school Mathematics class, was made by
Mac. (1999). He compared the levels of achievement in two
instruction formats and found that there was no difference in the
achievement between students who had access to computers outside
the classroom for two hours or less per week and those who did not.