Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 51, Number 2, July 2011
Corporate sector practice informs online workforce training for Australian government
agencies: Towards effective educational-learning systems design
Elspeth McKay and Cenie VilelaSchool of Business Information Technology and Logistics
RMIT University
The purpose of this paper is to outline government online training practice. We searched individual research domains of the human-dimensions of Human Computer Interaction (HCI), information and communications technologies (ICT) and instructional design for evidence of either corporate sector or government training practices. We overlapped these domains to investigate primary research outcomes. Corporate sector and government employees encounter barriers to their adoption of web-mediated training. One such barrier is a lack of enthusiasm, possibly due to ineffective instructional design, which in turn affects motivation towards online learning. Although the Australian Government offers training incentives to the general community, a negative attitude towards online training persists in the community, particularly throughout
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the government sector. Adoption of effective ICT training tools is a critical issue for the corporate sector and government agencies worldwide. This paper presents a compelling case for courseware designers to develop sound instructional design principles to enhance web-mediated learning programmes. Keywords: corporate sector, government agencies, online training, instructional systems design, human-computer interaction, workforce training.
Introduction
Thefirstconceptsofonlinelearningweredevelopedinthe1960sattheUniversityofIllinoisthroughthecreationofacomputer-basededucationenvironmentcalledPLATO(ProgrammedLogicforAutomaticTeachingOperations),designedfordeliverytouniversitystudents.SomesayPLATOpavedthewayformuchoftheonlineinteractionseentoday(Woolley1994),includingdiscussionforums,messageboards,interactivetesting,e-mail,chatrooms,picturelanguages,instantmessaging,remotescreensharingandmulti-playergaming.Inmanyplacesaroundtheworld,theonlinelearningenvironmentisnowintegraltohighereducationandtrainingsectors.Whileonlinelearningisyettoreachsomecountries,thenumberofinstitutionsandindividualsaccessingweb-mediatedlearningresourcesisincreasingexponentially(Anderson2008).Flowingfromthisconnection,onemayexpectthatonlinetrainingwouldoccurasanaturalconsequenceinworkforceskilldevelopmentpractice.
ThemainaimofthispaperistoinvestigateonlinetrainingadoptioninAustraliangovernmentagencies.Toinitiateourgovernment-fundedresearch,weexaminedtheliteraturetoprovideacriticalanalysisofcurrente-learning/trainingpracticeinthecorporatesector—withaviewtoinformgovernmentagency
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workforcetraining.Thepaperunravelssimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweengovernmentagenciesandthecorporatesector.
First,weanalysegovernmentreportsandcorporatesectorresearch,beforeoutliningtheimportanceofpriordomainknowledgeandindividualpreferencesinadultlearning.Toclarifyouruseoftheterm‘priordomainknowledge’,wesimplymeanthatpeoplemayknowrelevantknowledgewithinoneparticularareaofthespecifiedlearningcontent.Forafulldescriptionoftheconceptofpriordomainknowledgeandhowitmayinteractwiththecognitiveperformanceoutcomesofeducational-learningsystems,seeYu(2007)andYu,Jan,SimoffandDebenham(2007).Wepresentthecruxofourargumentthroughthehuman-dimensionsofhuman-computerinteraction(HCI)(McKay2008)andinstructionalsystemsdesign.Toidentifypossiblebarrierstotheadoptionofe-learning,weexaminethisconceptatanorganisationlevelandanemployeelevel.Thepaperconcludeswithareviewofmodelsthatareusedtomeasuretrainingeffectiveness.
Current research
Government reports
Establishedin1996,theFlexibleLearningAdvisoryGroup(FLAG)isthekeyAustraliangovernmentadvisorygrouponnationaldirectionsandpriorities.Thisbodypublisheswidelyandpromotesinformationcommunicationstechnology(ICT)toolsinvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)andinadultandcommunityeducation(ACE).TheAustralianFlexibleLearningFramework(theFramework)isoneofthekeyFLAGinitiativesthatleadscollaborativedevelopmentandprovisionofessentialnationalICTinfrastructure.Assuch,itevaluatesandprovidesadviceonemergingtechnologicalopportunities.Italsofacilitatesaccesstoe-learningproductsandpracticesthatenableaninnovative,flexibleandresponsivenationaltrainingsystem[http://www.flag.edu.au/].Tocomparethis
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Australianexperience,itisusefultolookatthetrainingpracticeintheUK.
IntheUK,thereistheNationalSchoolofGovernment’sinitiativefore-learning—apartnershipwiththeMinistryofDefence,supportedbyagrowingsyndicateofdepartments.Itinstigatedamassivee-learningprogramentitledUnderstandingtheCivilService.Thisprogramincludesacomprehensivelistoftrainingmodulesforpolicyandcivilserviceprocesses(usedwithintheEuropeanUnionandthewiderUKcivilservice).Anexamplefromitslonglistofworkforceskilldevelopmentincludesfinanceandethics.Itsonlinetrainingmodulesaredesignedtoprovideasoundandcomprehensiveresourceofknowledgeacquisitionandfoundationskilldevelopment.
FoundationskillshavebeenexaminedinAustraliathroughtheAdultLiteracyandLifeSkillsSurvey(ALL),toassistindividuals,educators,employersandotherdecision-makers.TheALLsurveycollectedindividuals’dataontheirfamiliaritywithICTtoolusage.Thissurveyinvolvedaseriesofself-assessmentquestionsonperceptionsanddegreeofcomfortinusingthesetools.ThefinaloutcomesexploredtherelationshipbetweentheuseofICTtoolsandassociatedcomputer-literacyskills(StatisticsCanada&OECD2005).Whilethisresearchconcentratedonbasicknowledgeandunderstanding,anotherCanadianresearchteamattheAthabascaUniversitycontinuedtoreviewthetheoryandpracticeofonlinelearning(Anderson2008).
Whilethereisaplethoraofresearchforalleducationlevels(Anderson2008),the(Australian-based)FrameworkfrequentlyreportsthatthepopulationisaginginWesterncountries.Consequently,thisphenomenoniscreatingworldwideinterestinlifelonglearningstrategiestomaintaincurrentworkforceskilllevels(Palmieri2007).Oneofthewaysthisskillretentioncanbeachievedistoacknowledgethespecialneedsofanagingworkforce.AccordingtoBowmanandKearns(2007:1):
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• manyolderworkerswanttogoonlearningandearning,butinwaysthatsuittheirlifestylepreferences;
• thisinterestinlearningofteninvolvespart-timeworkandpart-timecommunityserviceorvolunteering;and
• thedesireamongmanyolderworkerstokeeplearning,includinglearningaboutcomputersandothertechnologies.
Infacilitatingeffectiveandefficienttrainingforanaging/matureworkforce—ontheonehand,itismoredifficultforresearcherstoestablishacommonviewongovernmenttrainingthanitisforthecorporatesector.Often,thegovernmentagencydatamayonlyappearinareportappendixlistingasorganisationsvisitedorinterviewedwithnofurtherdetail.Whenthislackofpublishedinformationoccurs,theresearchercannotspecifydetaileddataduetoprivacylaws(Benninck2004).However,viablepartnershipsaredevelopinginAustraliabetweenVETorganisations,privateindustryoperatorsandgovernmententerprises(AFLF2006)thatenablesagrowthofexpertiseintrainingpractise.
Unfortunately,therearemanyinstanceswhenmarketingcompaniesseizetheopportunitytolinke-learningtoknowledgemanagementtoattractgovernmentagencysponsorship.Theunderstandableattractionfortheindustryoperatorstosuchinitiativesappearstobeintheiropportunitytocashinontheprocurementofgovernmentweb-servicesandmediasupport(Schofield2002:88).Thisisthepoint,webelieve,wheretheAustraliangovernmentinitiativestopromotee-learningsuccessfullynegotiateacrossthegovernment/corporatesectordivide.Byseizingtheselucrativeprospectsandsecuringgovernmentcontracts—thecorporatesectorappearstotreatworkforcetrainingasastand-aloneskillsdevelopmentissue,disconnectedfromthewidercompetitivenatureofcorporatesectorbusinessstrategies.
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Corporate sector
Wefoundthatcorporatesectorresearchismorelikelytoidentifybarrierstoonlinetrainingthangovernmentagencyresearchreports.Unlikethetendencyforgovernmentagenciesnottoreportpubliclyontheirtrainingpractice,thecorporatesectormaintainsamoreopen,transparentattitudetoitsonlinetrainingpractices.Murray(2001)describedafour-stagede-learningplanningprocesssheobservedinherresearchintothecorporatesectorthatinvolvedplanning,building,integrationandimprovement.Murrayarguedthatforward-thinkingCanadianemployerswerestartingtoembracee-learningtobecomemoreproductiveandinnovative,regardlessofthesize,resourcesorsectoroftheirorganisation.Murray(2001)furtherstatedthatatthesametimetheseemployerswereusinge-learningtocreateself-directed,lifelonglearnersamongtheiremployees—andtosavemoney.ThissentimentissharedbytheAustralianVETcommunity.
In2001,networkingmembersoftheVETcommunitydevelopedaFrameworkinitiativeknownasTheKnowledgeTree.Thisnetworkencouragesthesharingofresearchandlearninginnovationinrelationtotheprofessionalpracticeofe-learningdevelopment.Moreover,thegroup’se-journalisseenasausefulresourceforanyonelookingtoidentifyandunderstandbestpractice.Thecommonthreadbetweenthegovernmentreportsandthecorporatesector’sresearchpublicationsistheirfocusonskillsdevelopmentandtheirconsiderationforadultlearning(AFLF2007,Benninck2004).Nevertheless,facilitatinge-learningforanadulttraineecohortrequiresspecialistfacilitation.
Tothisend,Schofield(2002:88)waspromptedbythreefactorstoconductresearchintoonlinelearninginthecorporatesector.ThefirstrelatestotheunilateralweaknessesintheVETsystemtodaythataredisconnectedfromthebroaderbusinesssurvivalobjectives.Thesecondfactoristhatcorporationsplayamajorroleinworkforceskillsformation,alongsideeducationandtraininginstitutions.Thethirdis
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thescarcityofindependentresearchoncorporatee-learning.Instead,whatweknowislargelyprovidedbycompaniesthathaveaninterestinsellinge-learningsolutions.Evenwhentheinformationtheyprovideisobjective,reliableandcredible,perceptionsofaconflictofinterestremain.Withthisinmind,DeRouin,Barbara,FritzscheandSalas(2005)cautionreadersabouttheuseofindependentsurveyresults,acknowledgingthatindustrypartnersmayhaveaconflictofinterestwithregardtofindings.Moreover,theyidentifyaneedforascienceofe-learningthatinformscorporationsonhowtodesign,deliverandevaluatee-learningsystems.
Inkeepingwiththeconcernforevaluation,inaUS-baseduniversityreport,Mungania(2003)employedaweb-basedsurveytocollectdatawiththeaimofdemonstratingtheviabilityofweb-basedsurveysasaneffectivetool.Herresearchidentifiedthechallengesfacingallstakeholderswhichresultfromtheincreasingdemandsplacedonemployees.Thus,thepressuretoimproveonlinetrainingandprofessionaldevelopmentwilllikelyincrease,andconsequentlytherewillbeincreasedinvestmentsintime,peopleandfinancialresourcesdesignatedfore-learning.
YetcoursewarecreationisintegralwiththeavailabilityofappropriateICTtools.Eklund,KayandLynch(2003)reviewedtheliteraturetoexaminearangeofissuescoveringtechnology,teachingandlearning,andorganisationalissues.TheyofferedgeneralrecommendationsonprioritiesthatwillpromotethesuccessfuldeploymentofICTtoolsinVET.Theyarguedthatorganisationsmustconsiderfactorsanddevelopmentsofatechnical,organisationalandpedagogicalnaturethatarelikelytogeneratechangeintheuseoftechnologiesineducationandtraining.
Morerecently,Jasinski(2007)conductedappliedresearchonembeddinginnovativepracticeine-learning.Theaimsofherresearchwereto:
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• identifyfactorsthatcontributetoembeddinginnovativepractices;
• informfuturedecision-makerswithregardtotheconsiderationsandpotentialimpactofembeddinginnovativepractices;and
• developmodelsforongoingembeddingofinnovativepracticestobeutilisedbyfutureVETproviders.
AccordingtoJasinski(2007:57),therearehealthysignsofprogresstowardsembeddinginnovativee-learning.Inhersurvey,86%ofrespondentsconsideredtheyweresomewhatmoreinnovativethantheaverageperson,and44.7%believedtheyweredeliveringinnovativee-learningpracticesandtechniquestoahighorveryhighextent.While53.1%believedtheirorganisationwasextremelyorsomewhatinnovative,respondentsbelievedtheirorganisationwasusingonly25.7%ofe-learninginnovationstoahighorveryhighextent.Thisdisappointingresultmeansthatbecauseorganisationsarefailingtoimplementinnovativee-learningpractice,itisasignthatthey(organisationalmanagement)reflectapoorunderstandingoftheimportancethatadultsplaceonhavingappropriateopportunitiesforpractice(Reigeluth&Carr-Chellman2009).
Ourinvestigationofgovernmentreportsandcorporatesectorresearchhasrevealedthereismoreevidencefromthelattertostimulateandsupportgovernmentsectortraining.WereviewedvaluablescholarlycontributionsfromCanadaandtheUKtohighlightthecollaborativenatureofthecorporatesectortowardsgovernmentsectortraininginteractions.Wealsoidentifiedtwoothermajorareasofinter-relatedresearchthatarerelevanttoourinvestigationofonlinetrainingadoptioninAustraliangovernmentagencies.Theyinvolvethehuman-dimensionsofHCIandinstructionalsystemsdesign.Wethereforedrawonboththeseimportantaspectstohighlightthespecialneedsofadultlearners/governmenttrainees.Thentoteaseoutwheretheproblemsmaylie,wereviewtheorganisationalbarrierstowardsadoptinge-learningandfinishthe
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discussionbypresentingmodelsthatareusedtomeasuretrainingeffectiveness.
Adult learning
Knowinghowtolearnnewskillsissomethingthatimprovesaswegrowolder.Forthemostpartaswetravelalongourlifelonglearningpath,itbecomeseasiertodifferentiatewhichinstructionalstrategiesarelikelytosuitusbest.Thedifficultieswearelikelytoface,especiallywhenlearninginweb-mediatedinstructionalenvironments,willdependonwhetherthereareanyfast-trackingoptionsforthelearningtasks.Itiswellknownthatnovicelearnersrequirethefullrangeofrulesandinformationrelatedtolearningsomethingnew,whereasanexperiencedlearnermightonlyrequireaquickrevision(McKay2008).Novicelearnerswillthereforerespondbesttomeasuredamountsofguidance—throughprogressivelymorecomplexinstructional/learningcontent—withstrategicopportunitiesforinteractivepracticeexamplesalongtheway(Tennyson&Bagley1991).Alternatively,apersonpossessingamorecompletegraspofthetaskwilllikelywanttoexperimentfirst,preferringtorefertotherulesandbasicinformationonlywhentheyneedthem.Unfortunately,therearemanyweb-mediatedinstructionalstrategiesthatdonotcaterforbothmodesoflearning.Wheninstructionalsystemscannotadapttothisimportantrequirement,theyruntheriskofdemotivatingbothgroupsoflearners(Tennyson&Bagley1991).Theresultmaybeconfusionfornovicelearnerswhentheprimaryrulesandexamplesarenotsufficientlyexplicit,andboredomandfrustrationfortheexperiencedlearnerwhoisforcedintofollowingthecomplete,step-by-step,instructionalstrategy.
Yetbecausesomepeople’sabilitytoimmediatelyrecallpriordomainknowledgemayslowastheyage,weincludecontributionsherefromcognitivepsychologyresearchtoenhanceourargumentforbetterunderstandingofcognitiveperformance.
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RepovsandBaddeley(2006)havecontributedavaluablebodyofworkonpeople’sworkingmemory.Theysaythatworkingmemoryhasproventobeanimportantpartofthehumancognitivesystem,providingtheabilitytomaintainandmanipulateinformationintheprocessofguidingandexecutingcomplexcognitivetasks.Cognitivetasksthatincludepastexperiencesareencodedandheldinourmemoryasretrievableinformation.AccordingtoKalyuga(2005),animportantprincipleofacquiringappropriatepriordomainknowledgeisthattheinstructionalstrategyisintegratedintoourworkingmemory,whiletheinformationwereceive(Riding&Cheema1991)isheldinourlong-termmemory.Therefore,thedesignofinstructionalmaterialsforonlinedeliverymustincludeconsiderationofthelearners’levelofexpertise(priordomainknowledge).Researchshowsthatadultsoftenhaverelevantexperiencesthateitherdrivethem(ordemotivatethem)tolearn,andthat,whenthecontentanddesignofinstructionalmaterialsdonotchallengeorinterestthem,theycanbecomedemotivated(Tennyson&Bagley1991).
Regardlessofthefactthatanadultmayrequirespecialstrategiestoassistthemwiththeirrecallofpriordomainknowledgeforeverydayevents,wemustask:whatisknownabouttheinteractiveeffectofindividuallearningpreferencesandadultcognitiveperformance,whenengagedwithe-learningprograms?
The human-dimensions of HCI
Whilemanyorganisationshavee-learningwebsitesthatincludecoursewareandotheronlinelearningartefacts,thesesitesoftenlackacoherentandeffectivebroad-based,e-learningstrategy(Rosenberg2001).Wearesuggestingthatthehuman-dimensionsofHCIofferthestrategic‘glue’forsuccessfulonlinetrainingwhichRosenberghasnotedislacking.Assuch,thehuman-dimensionsofHCIarebutonepieceofthecomplicatedcomputer-usabilityor‘techno’puzzlethatinvolvestwodistinctcontexts(McKay2008).Onerelatestothehuman-dimensionorsocialcontextofcomputing,whiletheother
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relatestothemachine-side,wherepeople’sperspectivesareshapedbytheperformanceofthetechnicalcomputingcomponents.Theliteraturedealsmoreoftenwiththelatter.Itisonlyinrecenttimesthatvoicehasbeengiventocomputer-usabilityissuesthatinvolvethehumandimensions.
ThehumandimensionsofHCIprovideausefulframeworkforunderstandinghowadultlearnersprefertoparticipateinonlinetraining.Attentiontopriordomainknowledgeincreasesalearner’swillingnesstotakepart.Itisessentialtoofferfast-trackingopportunitiesasdiscussedabove.Yetdespitetheampleevidencethatthecorporatecoursewarecreatorsincludesomeoftheprinciplesofinstructionaldesign(Merrill2002),thereislittleevidencethatthegovernmentsector’sonlineprogramsencourageapositiveattitudetowardssuchlearner-centredparticipation.Wediscusssomeoftheseissuesbelow.
Instructional systems design
Beforewedothis,itisimportanttodifferentiatebetweenlearningtheoriesandinstructionaldesigntheories.Theformerareaboutthe(internal)processesofthelearning,whilethelattercoverthemethod(external)natureoftheinstruction(Reigeluth1983).OurdiscussiononinstructionalsystemsdesignprinciplesthereforedrawsontheviewsofestablishedexpertssuchasMerrill,ReigeluthandTennyson.Thelong-standingprinciplesdevelopedbytheseexpertsareapplicabletobothtraditionalandcomputer-enablededucationalsystems(Anderson2008).Asbefore,webaseourdiscussiononthemultimedialearningprinciplesrecommendedbytheexpertsfromtransdisciplinarydomains,whichincludeadultlearningwithICT-mediatedtools.
Itwillbeadvantageoustoeducational-learningsystems’designifthecoursewarecreatorsadheretotheprinciplesofinstructionaldesign(Merrill2002).Forexample,Merrill’sFirstPrinciplesofInstruction
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involvefiveprinciplesthatpromotelearning.Thesewell-knownstrategiesareeffectivetoolsforcoursewarecreatorstonotewhenconsideringhowtocaterforlearnercharacteristics(Merrill2002).Moreover,whendevelopingtrainingmaterials,theseprincipleshelptodeterminethesequencingofthelearningcontent.
Reigeluth(2008)presentskeymarkersforchangeineducational-learningsystemsbycontrastingtheindustrial-agewithknowledge-ageorganisations.Thesekeymarkersprovideageneralconceptualisationofthewaysinwhich‘learningsystems—andtheinstructionaltheoriesandstrategiesthatguidetheirdesign—needtochange’ (Reigeluth2008:209).Herecommendsfivefactorsthatpointtotheneedforchangeininstructionaltheories:thegrowingcomplexityoftasks;theincreasingrelianceoncollaborationinperformingtasks;thegrowthofweb-basedlearning;theincreasingpowerofperformancesupportsystems;andtheemergenceofpersonaltutorialsystems.Reigeluthalsopointsoutthatdevelopinganindividual’slearningcapacitymustincludeequippingthemwithskillsthatenablethemtoadapttodevelopmentsineducational-learningtechnologies.
Tennyson(2008)recommendsthatinstructionaltheorybeusable,valid,theoreticalandlinkedtolearningtheory.By‘usable’hemeansthatinstructionaltheoryshouldbestatedwithsufficientclaritytoallowsuccessfulimplementation.Avalidinstructionaltheoryshouldundergoempiricaltestingandpracticalevaluation.Suchtheoryshouldexplainhowaparticularinstructionalprocedureworks.Theliteraturehighlightstheimportanceofunderstandinglearningtheoriesandinstructionaldesignforimprovingorganisationaltraining.
Wehaveseenthatadultlearningrequirescoursewarecreatorstopayattentiontolearners’specialneeds.Thismeansthate-learningartefactsandinstructionalstrategiesshouldbeflexibleenoughtopromotechoiceofknowledgenavigation(lockedintoastep-by-step
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skilldevelopmentpathforanovice)orhavingtheabilitytopickandchoosewhattodonext(brushinguponrustypriordomainknowledge).Havingsaidallthis,fromourreviewoftheresearchliterature,wehaveidentifiedparticularcategoriesof‘resistance’towardsadoptinge-learningforworkforcetraininginthecorporatesector.
The way forward
Barriers
Acommonthreadobservedintheliteratureisconcernedwith(perceived)barrierstotheadoptionofonlinetraininginthecorporatesector.Wearesuggestingthatonemethodtoovercomesuchbarriersastheymaypertaintogovernmentagenciesistogainanunderstandingofhowthesebarriersareaffectingworkforcetraininginthecorporatesector.Wecategorisesuchbarrierstowardsadoptionofe-learningintwolevels:theorganisationlevel(Table1)andtheemployeelevel(Table2).Attheorganisationlevel,thebarriersincludecosts,relevance,trainingeffectivenessandtechnicalsupport,whiletime,contentandtrainingeffectivenessarethemainbarriersidentifiedbyemployees.
Wenoticedthesebarriersarerelatedtotheeconomics,trainingrelevance,policies,regulations,compliance—the(lackof)IS-relatedstandardsseemtobefactorsthatdeterorganisationsfromachievingtheirtraininggoals.Foremployees,thebarriersarerelatedtothelearningcontentandassessment,technicalandprofessionalsupport,limitedtimeandaccesswhichmaypreventparticipation,andachievingqualitylearningoutcomes.Ourgeneralimpressionarisingfromtheliteraturereviewisonethatcoursewarecreatorsincorporateorganisations(andgovernmentagencies)needtoovercomeallthesebarriers,aswebelievetheyaffectthesuccessfuldeliveryandimplementationofe-learningprograms.
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Organisation-level issues
Costisanissueamongsmallandmediumenterprises(Murray2001).Theinitialcostsincurredindevelopingtrainingmaterialsandpurchasingtherequisiteinfrastructurecanbeprohibitive.Thisfinancialburdencanbefurtherexacerbatedonceane-learninginterventionisintroduced.Itthenbecomesanongoingcostingissueduetotheimplementationandmaintenanceoftheeducational-learningsystem(Murray2001).However,inlargeorganisations,costisnotseenasbeingsomuchofaproblem,becausethevalueofe-learningisrecognised(Schofield2002).Yetsomeorganisationsareconcernedaboutreturnoninvestment(ROI)issues(AFLF2006).
Table 1: Organisation‑level barriers
Adopting online training—organisation level
Barriers Source Description
Cost AFLF(2006,2007)Brownetal.(2006)Murray(2001)
Infrastructurecost,developmentofe-learningmaterials,implementationcost,ROI
Relevance AFLF(2006,2007)Benninck(2004)Callan(2009),Murray(2001)
Relevancetobusiness,relevanceoftrainingcontent,benefittoorganisation,limitedunderstandingofe-learning,compliance
Trainingeffectiveness
AFLF(2007)Grant&Danziger(2005)Schofield(2002)
Trainingoutcome,meetingtrainingexpectations
Technicalsupport AFLF(2006),Benninck(2004)
Lackofaccesstoindustrypartners,unavailabilityofin-houseexpert
Therelevanceofthee-learningoutcomestoorganisationsisanotherissueidentifiedintheliterature(Benninck2004).Benninck
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assertsthatoneoftheissuesfacedbyorganisationsistheirlimitedunderstandingofthe(educative)natureofe-learning,andwhatbenefitstheymaygainfromsuchinitiatives.Thisdilemmaisapparentinsmallandmediumenterprises,astheydonotfinde-learningtoberelevanttotheirneeds(AFLF2006).However,e-learningisemergingasapromisingindustry(Rosenberg2001).Thus,organisationsmaysuccumbtothepersuasivemarketingproposalsmadebye-learningproductvendors,astheypromisebettersolutionstotrainingprograms(Benninck2004).Thistypeofpersuasivebehaviourpresentsadilemma, asorganisationsmaybevulnerabletosuchfalseclaimsthataparticular(genericoroff-the-shelf)e-learningcourseisrelevanttotheirspecifictrainingneed.Inreality,someemployersmaynotfindanappropriatee-learningprogramontheopenmarket.Evenwhenthedesiredlearningcontentseemstobeavailable,theinstructionalmodulesareusuallydesignedfortraditionalmethodsofdelivery(thatmeansface-to-face),andassuchareunsuitablefore-learning(Murray2001).
Intermsoftrainingeffectiveness,organisationswanttobeassuredthattheirinvestmentsintrainingwillbeworthwhileandwillachievetheirbusinessgoals(AFLF2007,Schofield2002).Hence,itisnecessarytoquantifythegeneraltrainingandoverallcourseeffectiveness.InastudybyGrantandDanziger(2005),theyprovidesuchanexampleusingDonaldKirkpatrick’sfour-levelmodelthatwasfirstdevelopedin1959(wedescribethismodellaterinthepaper).Theyexploredthetangibleandintangiblebenefits(whetherrealisedornot)ofe-learninginfourlargecompanies.GrantandDanzigerrevealevidencethatthecorporationspaidattentiontoemployeesatisfactionwiththee-learningcourseware,yettheindicatorstheyemployedtomeasuresatisfactiontendedtobeinformalandunreliable.Bettermodelsthatareusedtomeasuretrainingeffectivenessaredescribedseparatelybelow.
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Alackoftechnicalsupport(AFLF2006,Benninck2004)isalsoshowntobeabarrierforsomeorganisations.Theyfinditdifficulttoimplemente-learningprograms,especiallyifthetrainingpertainstotechnical(i.e.ICT)issues.Itisclearthatsuchorganisationsneedassistancefromasubject-matterexperttooffertechnicalsupportandindependentadvice(Benninck2004).
Employee-level issues
Oneoftheproblemswithe-learningthatemployeeshighlightistheamountoftimetheyareexpectedtospendontraining(AFLF2007,Murray2001).Employeesreportthattheydonothaveenoughtimetodevotetoworkplacelearning.Tothisend,Mungania(2003)rankedsituationalbarriersfacingemployeescontemplatinge-learning.Accordingtothisresearcher,situationalbarriersrelatetoanemployee’senvironmentandlifecircumstances.Morespecifically,thesebarriersresultfromalackoftimeforstudy,timemanagementproblems,over-commitmenttomultiplerolesandresponsibilities,andinterruptionsduringstudy.Similarly,Jasinski(2007)findsthatavailabletimeandcompetingprioritiesarelimitingfactorsforengagingwithe-learning.
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Table 2: Employee-level barriers
Adopting online training—employee level
Barriers Source Description
Time AFLF(2007)Jasinski(2007),Murray(2001)
Lackoftime,situational,timemanagement,availability,priorities
Content AFLF(2007)Benninck(2004)BowmanandKearns(2007)Callan(2009),Jasinski(2007)Mungania(2003)Murray(2001)
Relevance,suitability,quality,designissues
Trainingeffectiveness
AFLF(2007)Brownetal.(2006)BergeandGiles(2008)Grant&Danziger(2005)Mungania(2003)Schofield(2002)
Learningstyle,instructional,learningmotivation,personal,dispositional,organisational,deliverymedia(preferenceforblendedlearning)
Technicalissues
Mungania(2003) LackofICTskills,cultural
Lowqualitye-learningcontentiscitedbyemployeesasproblematic(seeTable2).Thesenigglingissuesinclude:relevance,quality,designandsuitabilityofthematerials.‘Therewaslittleunderstandingofthehumanelementthatisneededtodesigneffectivelearningactivitiestobeusedinconjunctionwithrelevanttechnology.Technologyaloneismeaninglessanduseless’(Benninck2004:3).However,e-learningisthoughttobeparticularlyrelevanttothelearningandskillsdevelopmentalneedsofolderworkers,forexample,‘whenusedinappropriatestrategies,andwhencarefullymanagedtotakeaccountofthediverseneedsandpreferencesofmatureageworkers’(Bowman&
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Kearns2007:30).Thesespecialrequirementscallforthecustomiseddesignofrelevantlearningmaterialsthataresuitableandengagingforadultlearners.
Trainingeffectivenessisalsoidentifiedasabarrierforemployees(AFLF2007,Brownetal.2006).Employeeswanttoperformbetterandviewe-learningasaskillsbuildingtool.Yetmanypeoplestillfeelunabletoadopte-learningprogramsatworktoimprovetheirskillsandperformance(Murray2001).
Itisreportedthatmature-ageemployeesencounterdifficultieslinkedtotechnicalissuesasbarriers(Mungania2003).Oddlyenough,theseolderworkersaredescribedaspeopleover45yearsofage(Bowman&Kearns2007)—accordingtothisresearch,mostmature-ageemployeeshavedifficultycopingwiththeuseofcomputersfortraining.FrequentlytheylackICTandcomputerliteracyskillsthatarenecessaryfordealingwithe-learningprograms.Furthermore,thoseemployeeswhohavebroaderorganisational,managerialresponsibilitiesoftenfaceculturalbarrierscausedbystereotypingbasedontheirageorthedifferingattitudesthatemanatefromemployersandyoungerworkers(Bowman&Kearns2007).Itisthereforeimportanttoreducethedifficultiesexperiencedbymature-ageemployees.Designingcomputerinterfacesthatareeasytofollowmayhelpolderworkerstoenjoyusinge-learningprograms.Anotherbenefitistoimprovetheirunderstandingofthetechnology, whilemaintainingtheirproductivityandusefulnessintheworkplace.
Wehavediscussedwhethertherearesimilaritiesbetweentheperspectivesoftheorganisationandtheemployeestowardsadoptionofe-learningintwolevels.Attheorganisationlevel,thebarriersappeartodenoteawiderbusinessstrategicattituderelatingtocosts,relevance,trainingeffectivenessandtechnicalsupport.Withanemphasismoretowardsinstruction/learning,time,contentandtrainingeffectivenesswereidentifiedasbarriersbyemployees.
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However,arealissueforconcerniswhetherwecantellifthee-learning/trainingiseffectiveornot.
Models used to measure training effectiveness
Theliteraturerevealsthatresearchersdousearangeofmodelsandapproachestomeasuretheeffectivenessoftraining.AmongthesemodelsareKirkpatrick’sfour-levelapproach,Phillips’sFive-LevelROIFramework,theIBMACEModelandthePEL-IRTmodel.
AccordingtoAguinisandKraiger(2009),Kirkpatrick’sfour-levelapproachisthemostpopularevaluationmethodusedbyresearcherstomeasuretrainingeffectivenessincorporateorganisations.Thefourlevelsrelatetoreaction,learning,transferandresults(Kirkpatrick1998).LevelI—Reaction—measuresparticipants’reactionstolearning,andquestionsthemaboutwhattheythinkoftheprogram.LevelII—Learning—referstothelearningthatisgainedandmeasureshowmuchadditionalknowledgeisacquiredthroughthetrainingandwhetherparticipantshavelearnedtodosomethingdifferently.LevelIII—Transfer—concernstheapplication/transferofthelearningintoanewenvironment,providingawayoftrackingwhetherpeoplewhohavebeentrainedimprovebyusinge-learningtechniquesandmaybeabletosharetheirlearningwithotherpeople.LevelIV—Results—measurestheimpactoflearningandwhetheritcontributestoimprovementofthe(corporate)business.Insummary,theKirkpatrickmodelisfocusedonthelearningeventitselfanditseffectiveness.
SomemodificationstoKirkpatrick’smodelhavebeenintroduced.Forinstance,PhillipsextendedKirkpatrick’smodeltoLevelV—ROI(Kramer2008,Phillips2003),andthisisknownasthePhillipsFive-LevelROIFramework.Nevertheless,forIBM,theirlatestinnovationeffectivenessmodelgoesbeyondthatofKirkpatrick(Tai2008).Assuch,itisknownastheIBMACEModel(ACEstandsforaccountability,contextandeffectiveness).Thisaccountability
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modelreflectsthatmotivationanddiligencetolearnshouldbetheresponsibilityofthelearner,identifyingfourpartnerswhosharetheaccountabilityforalearningprogram:thelearner,thedesigneroftheprogram,theinstructororfacilitatorwhodeliverstheprogram,andthemanagerwhosupportstheprogram(Tai2008).Contextinvolvestheorganisation’slearningthatsupportstheemployees’needs.Effectivenessisachievedwhenemployeesaregiventrainingthatisfocusedonandrelevanttotheirworkenvironment,accordingtoTai(2008).
Chenetal.(2005)personalisetheire-learningsystembasedontheItemResponseTheory(IRT)—callingitPEL-IRT.Thismodelestimatestheperformanceabilitiesofonlinelearnersandrecommendsappropriatecoursematerialsforthem.Experimentalresultsshowthatthisadaptive,educational-learningsystemcanprovidepersonalisedcoursematerialrecommendationsforonlineimplementationbasedonlearnerabilities.AccordingtoChenetal.(2005),thislearner-centricfeatureacceleratesthelearner’slearningefficiencyandeffectiveness.Itprovideslearnerswithadaptiveandpersonalised,web-based,instructionalstrategiesaccordingtothecoursematerialsthatarevisitedbyeachindividuallearnerandhis/herresponses.
Thestudiesmentionedaboveindicatethattheeffectivenessoftrainingcanbemeasuredusingdifferentmethodsandmodels.Moreover,inmeasuringtrainingoutcomes,itisimportanttoquantifytheeffectivenessofthetraining.Evenso,therestillremainsaneedtoenhancetheeffectivenessoftheinstructionalstrategiesthatareoftenemployed.Wesuggestthatthisimprovementcanunlockthecorporateknowledgeofadultlearners(DeLong2004),whichalltoooftenliesdormant.Weareproposingthat,duetotheunresolvedbarrierstotheadoptionofe-learningdescribedearlierinthispaper, thesuccessofonlinetrainingiscurrentlyrathertenuous.YetwealsoseethereisnoreasonwhyefficientandeffectiveICTtrainingtools
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cannotprovidethenecessaryadaptiveandflexible,learner-centred,e-learningthatisrequiredbyadulttrainees.
Conclusion
Corporateorganisationswishingtoinvolvetheiremployeesinonlinetrainingrequireathoroughunderstandingofthee-learningparadigm.Whenorganisationsembracee-learning,theydoneedtobeassuredofthequalityoftrainingthattheeducational-learningsystemofferstotheiremployees—forexample,thatthetrainingwillassistthebusinesstoachieveitsgoalsandimprovecustomerservice.Inthemajorityofstudiesreviewedinthispaper,itwasnotedthatthebarrierstoadoptinge-learningthatweremostfrequentlyidentifiedbyemployeeswerelearningcontentandqualityofdeliverytechniques.Thesebarriersmustbereducedifnoteliminated—particularlyinlightofthesignificantinvestmentsine-learningmadebysuchorganisations.Bothgovernmentandcorporateorganisationsinvestlargeamountsoffunds,resourcesandemployeetimeintovariousformsoftraining.Clearly,thereisalackofevidenceregardingwhichstrategiesareeffectiveindifferentenvironmentstosupportonlinetrainingindiversegovernmentagencycontexts(McKayetal.2007).
Contentandqualityofe-learninginstructionsalsoneedtobedesignedwiththeutmostconsiderationfortheeffectivenessofthetrainingoutcomes.Toachievethisworthyimpact,itisperhapsusefultothinkthatthe‘e’ine-learningrefersto‘how’anonlinecourseisdigitised,whilethe‘learning’refersto‘what’thecoursecontentinvolves.Theinstructionalstrategiesshouldbecarefullyexaminedtoensuretheyachievetheexpectedtrainingoutcomes.Furthermore,the‘why’isabouthelpingindividualsachievetheireducationalgoalsorassistingorganisationstoimproveemployeeskillsandworkforceperformance(Clark&Mayer2008).
Weproposethatemployees/corporatetraineesengagemoreintuitivelywithe-learning.Itisimportantforcoursewarecreators
Corporate sector practice informs online workforce training 323
toconsiderthelearningneedsofadultlearners,andtoeffectivelymeasuretheirlearningoutcomes.Jasinski(2007)assertsthate-learningmayfacilitatehighlyvaluabletrainingandskillsdevelopment.Evenso,ifthelearningachievementisnotmeasuredaccurately,employersandemployeeswillbelessinclinedtoparticipate(orbelievein)thepotentialofadoptinge-learning.Duetotheverbal/visualnatureoftheonlinelearningenvironment,measuringtheeffectivenessofe-learningcanbedifficult(McKay2000); however,thisisaneducational-learningsystems’usabilitygoalandbydefaultisadesignchallengethatissharedbyothertypesoftrainingandworkplacestrategies(Jasinski2007)andshouldnotbebypassed.
Webelievethatcreatingalearner-centred,flexibleandadaptiveonlinetrainingprogramthatintegratesthepowerofICTmultimediatoolswillimprovethedeliveryofe-learningprograms.Alongwiththis,itmightalsoaddresstheneedsoforganisationswhichseektobecomemorecompetitivebybuildingawell-trained,skills-enhancedworkforce.Moreover,wealsosaythatauser-centred,flexibleandadaptivetrainingprogramreliesheavilyongoodinstructionaldesignandalearner-friendlyinterface.Apoorlydesignede-learninginterfacemeansthatthelearnerswillspendmoretimeon‘learningthematerials’thanonmasteringtheinformationandknowledgeprovided(Arditoetal.2006).Finally,wesaythatthedifficultyencounteredinadjustingtoapoorlydesigned,e-learninginterfacewillrenderthewholelearningexperienceineffective,delayingtheinevitablegroundswellagainstimplementinggoodqualitye-learningingovernmentagenciesandcorporatetrainingrooms.
Acknowledgements
Thisresearchprojectwasfundedbythe2009–2011AustralianResearchCouncil(ARC)IndustryLinkageProject(AnIntelligentSoftware-AGENT:InnovatesAdaptiveWorkplaceeTrainingTools)
324 Elspeth McKay and Cenie Vilela
andindustrysponsorsGovernmentSkillsAustraliaandNetEffectiveMediaGroup.ChiefInvestigatorswereAssociateProfessorElspethMcKay(RMITUniversity,SchoolofBusinessITandLogistics,andAdjunctProfessorJohnIzard(RMITUniversity,Education)andAustralianPostgraduateAwardIndustry–InformationTechnologyandCommunicationsscholar,CenieVilela-Malabanan.
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About the authors
Associate Professor Elspeth McKay is passionate about designing effective e-learning resources for the education sector and industry training/reskilling programmes. Her research interests involve investigations of how individuals interpret text and graphics within Web-mediated learning environments. This research involves developing specialist e-learning tools implemented through rich internet applications that include an advanced repurposing pilot system (ARPS) that she has developed for an ARC Linkage research project.
Cenie Vilela is currently undertaking her PhD in Business Computing at the RMIT School of Business Information Technology and Logistics. Cenie was awarded an Australian Postgraduate Award Industry Scholarship to work with Associate Professor McKay on the ARC Linkage project entitled: ‘An intelligent software-AGENT: innovates adaptive workplace e-training needs’.
Contact details
School of Business Information Technology and Logistics, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476V, Melbourne, Victoria 3106Tel: +613 99255978 and +613 9925 1509Fax: +613 9841 5996Email: [email protected] and [email protected]