DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 221 512 SP 021 036
AUTHOR Williams, Wes; And OthersTITLE Preparing Educators to Serve Disabled Individuals in
Diverse Community Settings: A TransdisciplinaryResponse.
INSTITUTION American Association of Colleges fOr TeacherEducation, Washington, D.C.; Vermont Univ.,Burlington. Dept. of Special Education, Social Work
and Social Services.SPONS AGENCY Office of Special Education (ED), Washington, D.C.
PUB DATE Apr 82GRANT G008101992NOTE 39p.
EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Agency Cooperation; *Community Services;
*Deinstitutionalization (of Disabled); DeliverySystems;.Disabilities; Elementary SecondaryEducation; *Minimum Competencies; PostsecondaryEducation; *Professional Education; *ProgramDevelopment; Socialization; Teacher Background;*reacher Education Programs; TeacherQualifications
ABSTRACTOver the past decade there has been a growing
movement to deinstitutionalizi disabled persons, and educationalservices should be adapted to fit the needs of these persons. Therehas also been an enormous growth in the prevalence, scope, anddiversity of community services that support them and their families.Increasing proportions of fiscal resources are being allocated tocommunity services through sheltered workshop:4, group homes, earlydetection programs, public school programs, supervised apartments,
and adult education programs. The delivery of these diverse communityservices has required the participation, cooperation, andcollaboration of professionals trained in many different academicdisciplines. Multidisciplinary and/or multi-agency approaches are
being used in programming for the handicapped. The ultimate goal ofthese approaches has been to :mprove the services and support to the
disabled by eliminating the fragmentation of services, increasing thecoordination of actions between agencies, and improving communicationbetween professionals. This paper: (1), identifies and articulates a
set of generic knowledge and skills tHit define a core of competencyclusters around which a preparation program could be organized; (2)describes several alternative methods for teaching the core
competency clusters; and (3) discusses issues and challenges thatremain for programs which choose to prepare such professionals.
(JD)
***********************************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.***********************************************r***********************
Preparing Educators to Serve DisabledIndividuals hi Diverse Community Settings:
A Transdisciplhiary Response
Wes Williams
Steve Rose
Martha Knight
Kevin DeWeaver
Raymond Coward
Departinent of Special Education, Social Work and Social ServicesCollege of Education and Social Services
University of VermontBurlington, Vermontin cooperation with
American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education
U S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION
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"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"
2 '
Preparing Educators to Serve Disabled Individuals
in Diverse Community Settings:
A Transdisciplinary Response
by-
Wes Williams
Steven Rose
Martha Knight
Kevin DeWeaver
Raymond Coward
,Department of Special Education, Social Work and Social Services
College of Education and Social Services
University of Vermont'Burlington, Vermont 05405
(802)656-2936
April, 1982
The authors wish to acknowledge Charles A. TescOni, Dean of the College'of
Education and Social Servpes, University of -Veimont for assistance in the
preparation of this manuscript and the AMerican Association of Colleges for
Teacher Education for initiating and supporting this writing.
Preparing Educators to Serve Disabled Individuals
in Diverse C, Inity Settings:
Transdiscipll. Response
Introduction
Page, 2
Over the past decade there has been a revolution in the methods by
which our society cares for disabled children and adults. In many states
the well established network of large-scale, institutional "warehouses" for
ther physically and mentally' disabled is being dismantled.
"Deinstitutionalization" has become a rallying banner for a multitude of
rel'orms that_ mere, needed to overhaul an antiquated, but entrenched,
treatment approach. The personal needs and life circumstances of disabled
parsons have been swept from the deep recesses of our national
consciousness and thrust into a more prominent position in our societal
Priorities through legislation and law.
As a consequence, there has been an enormous growth in the prevalence,
scope and diversity of services in the community that support disabled
individuals and their families in their quest to live more "normalized"
lives. Whereas two decades ago most human and fisc:l resources for the
disabled were devoured by the institutional care system, today increaSingly
larger proportions of these resources are allocated to commdnity services
through sheltered workshops, group homes, early detection programs, public
school programs, supervised apartments, adult education pm:trams -- or
combinations, modifications and variations of these. No singular service
configuration, widely accepted, has yet emerged as the appropriate
Page 3
community model. Rather, individual states and communities have developed
service delivery systems and networks that reflect their perceived-needs
and uniquenesses.
The delivery of.these diverse commUnity .servicei has required the
participation, aooperation and collaboration of professionals trained in
many different academic disciplines. It is not uncommon for a community's
comprehensive system of services to include educators, social workers,
physicians, (from several different specialty areas), psychologists, nurses,
opthalmologists and physical therapists. Some communities and agencies
have attempted to create muIti-disciplinary and/or multi-agency approaches
to programming for the handicapped (Hart, 1977). The ultimate goal of
these approaches has been to improve the services and Support provided to__ _
, the disabled by eliminating the fragmentation of services; increasing the
coordination of actions between agencies; and, improving communication
between professionals.
This ideal of collaboration between disciplines or agencies on behalf
of tpe disabled is, however, not easily implemented. Attempts to
operationalize and facilitate collaboration and linkages in a wide array of
service contexts have been-fraught with difficulties and failures (Mulford,
Rogers, Halpert, Benson and Whetten, 1979). Within the context of services
for the disabled, the most significant impediments to collaboration
include: philosophical differences, educational background,
Organizational/institutional priorities, and factors related to the
dynamics of siall group processes (Allen-Mearesand Pugach, 19(12). The
first twowe believe, emerge from the training and preservice preparation
of professionals; whereas the last two factors are more problems of actual
Page 14
-implementation under a particular set of circumstances oe in i distinct
service context.
In addition to the need to manage and organize the formal network of
services, practitioners have become increasingly, aware of the resources and
strengths that lie within the helping community itself that can be
mobilized on behalS of the disabled. The strength and resiliency of
families have proVen -remarkably valuable to treatment approaches. Mutual
help and social support groups have emerged as major resources for disabled
persons and their. families. Similarly, service providers have become
attuned to the positive role that can,be played by extended family members,
vOlunteer organizations and natural helping networks. Professionals who
ser0 -the disabled must be able to utilize and manage the complex network
of formal services that exists; but, must also be prepared to make good
use of the informal helping netwok.
As a consequence of the diversity and complexity of the coMmuniey
serVice network that exists to benefit the disabled, we believe that the
continued growth and development of quality programs will require
educational professionals with the following abilities:
O to function professionally in diverse community serVice
configurationsv
to collaborate with professionals from other disciplines; and
to mobilize informal and formal herOing resources on behalf of the
clients they serve.
To produce professionals with these skills, preservice training programs
Page 5
will need to be more broad-based and eclectic than they tend to be now.
The ioal and focus for .programs in, the future should be to prepare
individuals to handle and-integrate ideas fromeeveral disciplines -! or to
function in a transdisciplinarrjoode.
In the sections that follow we roald freely over a terrain that is
characterized by obstacles. It is not our intent to create a detailed
implementation plan that descibes the "how to" of developing a complete
training srogram. Rather, we want to apply some preliminary, broad strokes
to a canvas that has been relatively ignored. Thus, our goals are:
to identify and articulate a set of generic knowledge and ekills
that define a core of competency clusters around which a
preparation program could be Oitanized;
to describe several alternative methods for teaching the core
competency clusters; and
to discuss issues and challenges that remain for programs whieh
choose to prepare such professionals.
Philosophy, Knowledge Base and Competencies
A program which prepares eduditors to work with disabled individuals
in diverse settings needs to address three broad, but nevertheless
critical, aspects of the training: (1) the philosophical tenets that
underpin the program; -(2) the knowledge bac. on which the program is
constructed; and (3) the specii.ic skills or competencies to be taught.
Page 6
These three broad aspects of training-are consistent with the framework for
common education functions presented by Corrigan (1979) and the Commision
on Programs and Projects (1980). The following sections discuss these
dimensions.
Philosophy. Although many philosophies are relevant to the education
of human services personnel, several seem particularly appropriate for
working with handicapped individuals in diverse settings. It is essential
that training programs articulate and clearly define the philosophical
principles which they intend to impart to their students.(
For example, humanism would.provide the stUdent with the view that all
persons, including handicapped individuals, are worthy and deserve respect.
Similarly, the ideas associated with normalization (although not in
themselves a philosophy) promote the acceptance of handicapped individuals
s'a6 full members of society who participate with others in daily life.
From the philosophy of pragmatism would flow the essential idea that
handicapped and non-handicappea persons can influence, change ana".:4ntrol,
their environment. Empiricism, on the other hand, emphasizes that
knowledge is gained through the senses by means of observation and provides
\.
a basis for andlyzing the functioning level of handicapped individuals as
Well as providing.the basis for a scientific approach to intervention.
Thus, it could *be argued that the philosophy of humanism and the
ideals of normalization promote education ter life in society whereas
ragmatism and empiricism provide, further bases of understanding.
handicapped' individuals as well as the means of helping them attain maximum
independence.
Positive professional and personal values in service Providers can be
eV.
Page 79
molded and enhanced through the philosophicai foundations of a program.
Humanism, for example, provides a philosophical framework for believing in
the growth potential of persons and the inherent value and dignity of all
human beings. It enriches the maxim that aNdi§abled inciividual is a
person, first and foremost, and handl:capped second. An understanding of
the philosophical sYstems_of humanism, prgiatism and empiricism, along
with the Ideals associated with normalization, will help students become
more competent practitioners wiih disabled persons.
It is our contention that'individdals.trained In fAhat appear .to be-
similar program?, but with-different philoiophical foundations, will emerge
as distinctly different professionals. Thus, it is incumbent upon the
program to determine what. philosophical roots are most consistent with
their ultimate image of a professional capable of working with the
disabled.
Knowledge Base. The second area to be defined when building a program
for practitioners who wish to wdrk with disabled individuals in diverse
settings is the knowledge base. Again, the ability of the program buirders
4
to clarify the knowledge foundation that underpins the programs will
enhance their attempts to create individuals with particular skills and
competencies. In general, the knowledge base for educators serving
disabled individuals in diverse community settings should include the
folloviing /bur overlapping componerys: (1) theories of intervention with
disabled persons, including learning theory, to guide practice; (2)
empirical research findings in sueh areas as human development to inform
practibe with disabled individuals of all ages; (3) tfie structure and
functions of organizations and their management, to guide practice in a
9
Page 8
variety of human service settings;, and (4) professional ethics, to.enhance
practice and decision-making.
Educators of disabled people should be able to discuss critical issues
Ln education, have a firm knowledge of different approaches 'to
intervention, and underst4and= Aft relationships between handicapping
conditions and intervention. Such educators should demonstrate that they
odn synthesize*information obtained from related dispiplines to augment
assessment, program planning, intervention,and monitoring of edupational
progrlms for disabled people:
Competencies. The final dimensidh of a training promm is the
articulaticin of 'a specific set of compeEencies to be taught -- those
interVention skills that the professional must acquire and demonstrate
before thorare judged able to practice in the community. The.competencies
are the observable tasks that transform philosophy and knowledge into
action.,
We assume that there are certain competencies 'for the professional
?ihich, when acquired, will in turn promote positive growth and m9imization
for the handicapped per-Son, e.g., to help the disabled person obtain
relative independence and to facilitate their participation in community,
recreational, vodational, domestic and general community settings. A
specific set of competencies provides the professional with a means for
sefecting and translating philosophy and knowledge to enhance practice, anu
also, provides the trainers of student-practitioners with guideposts for
measuring success--for individuals and for the program in general.
We have delineated seven clusters of competencies which we believe are
generic to educating a heterogenous population of disabled individuals in a
'
Page y
wide variety of settings. The cOmpetency clusters,tliat are offered bplow
are _na_mutually exclusive nor..presented in order of priority. 'Also, they
have not been worded in sufficient detail to permit ncompetency-based"
cinsiruction; rather, we expect that taken collectively,they will give form
to the major content areas. We. offer, therefore, the following
perspectives' not as the whole answer but as one step t6wards the answer.
The seven clusters include:
\1. Foundations of Services, to the Dpabled;0
2. Physical and D.evelopmental Characteristics of the Handicapped;
3. Curriculum Development for the Disabled;
k. Deyeibping Service Plans for the Disabled;
Intervention-Implementation Strategies;
6. .Advooacy for tOe Disabled; and
-* -7. Knowledge Dissemination and Professlimal Development.
We believe that students will need extensive field expeviiences to
demonstrate their_acquisition of the competency clusfers elaborated above.
In addition, training programs stould provide students with the opportunity4
to practice their skills with individuaft with different handicapping
conditions and in diverse service settings. For example, students might
teach mildly handicapped individuals in adult education settings; train
e profoundly handicapped in a group home; educate moderately and
severely handicapped individuals in a vocational setting; and edu ate .
*tK
11
.e
1
Page 10_
multi,ihandicapped persOns in a public schoorsetting.. The opportunity to
-0,40141MiCtt ,an array Of disabilities and,service contexts is*crftical for
students so that they cantdecOnstratthattheyare competent-educators of
disableth'indiviiduals- in diverSe settings. Lastly, we believe that these
"hands-on" exPerience,J should occur early in the tra ing process` ,and be
sustained throUghbut the preparation period.
AnotherLkey to training competent educators, we believe, is. the
selectio4 mi. recruitment 9f bright,-able and dedicated persona who possess
the .potentiak to.obecome high quallty teachers:6f' thet disabled. Although
"this is "easier said-than done," neVertheless, it4; imPortance °should not
be underemphasized. The quality of selection and recruitment will. bear a
direct relationship to
The following a
The categorization of
thweneral success of the program.
narrative descriptions of each 'competency cluster. ;
specific skills in a cluster varies and clusters are
not all inclusive in regards to coiapetencies.
*Foundations of Service to.the Aisabled
gducators-/-of disabled individuals, should halre a knowledge and
understanding of (1) the historical and Social context in which services -
are provided; and (2) the life span development of the handicapped person.
Within' the first area, educators should demonitrate knowledo of the
following: historical trends and events related to 'services for _the
disabled; philosophicalmodels (s.g., humanism and normalization) that
underlie different service strategies; current legislation and litigation
relative to the handicapped; economic issues of service development and
Page 11
delivery; implications of different residential environments; approaches
to a3sessment and intervention (e.g., developmental, ecological analysis,. _
and learnIng theory); multi-culturalism; systems for classifying
handicapping conditions; and, the roles of various disciplines and-:
agencies in the provision of services. in addition, educators should
4 demonstrate knowledge of service4 delivery models for: prevention,
identification and early education; services to parents and families;
vocational services; recreational/leisure services; reSidential services;
educational services; and characteristics of comprehensive service
delivery systems.
Furthermore, educators should be able to demonstrate a knowledge of
lifespan development. Since practice with disabled individuals encompasses
work with .children, youth °and adults, an understanding of the
characteristics of persons at each stage of development is essential for
Sound practice (Bloom, 1980). Practitioners should be informed about- the
physical, c,cognitive, motoric, and language characteristics of persons at
each stage of the lite cycle. A comprehension of feeding, sleeping, and
sensory patterns in childhood and bodily changes in youth and adulthood
permits the practitioner to understand the capacities of individuals as
they develop. Similarly, knowledge of *activity levels and motor
rmance capacities can help the educator develop, an understanding of
-
the ptential abilities of clients at various ages. Learning about the,
affective,development of individuals permits an understanding of the
normative emotional reactions of disabled persons. An understanding of
intellectual'and cognitive development allows the practitioner to gauge
present functioning and areas of growth.
Page 12
An appreciation of normative social and personality development
enablea the practitioner to Understand the impact of parents and,peers and
---their_eiPectatiOns about the social role behaviors of disabled and
nondisabled individuals. Understanding the psychosocial stages of hdolan-
<' growth enables the practitioner to be aware of the interrelationships
between personal development and social forces (Erikson, 1963; Levinson,
1978). Accepting sexual development and fostering adjustment in disabled
populations can help them lead more satisfying lives. Knowing the path of
moral development is useful in promoting responsible social interaction.
Educators should have knowledge of the interrelationships between life
span development and the onset and impact of disabling conditions.
Practitioners should understand the differential effects of disabling
conditions on children, youth and adults and their adaptive functioning..
_Knowledge of the impact of the handicapping conditions upon the receptivity
and use of educational services is an area of competence to be developed.
Recommendation: The preparation of professionals for etployment in
diverse community settings serving the disabled should include (1)
knowledge and understanding of the context of service delivery in diverse
settings, and the role of educators Snd other professionals in the delivery
of services in divew;se settings; and (2) an understanding of the
relationship between life span development and service needs.
a
Physical and Developmental Characteristics of the Handicapped
Educators should have knowledge about, and underitanding of,
Page 13
handicapping conditions and their relationship to educational assessment
and intervention. Educators should be able to demonstrate and apply
.knowledge about (1) the physical/developmentai assessmentof-disabled
individuals; (2) physical management of motorically impaired individuals;
and;, (3) first aid and emergency procedures.
In the area of physical/developmental asSessment of disabled
individuals, educators should have a knowledge and understanding of at
least: the effect of prenatal, perinatal and postnatal factors and
environment influences on the disabled; the educational implications of
health and disease of the disabled; the role of the physician, nurse,
physical therapist and occupational therapist in the total management of
the disabled; the educational implications of seizures and seizure
management; methods of detecting and accommodating for vision and hearing
impairments; and, the relationship of assessment and intervention
strategies to motor, communication/language, and/or cognitive delays and
dysfunctions. Physical management of the motorically impaired person
should include knowledge of: handling and positioning; principles of
lifting, carrying and transfers; educational implications of oral-motor
dysfunctions; and, toileting.
Educators should be able to use their knowledge of handicapping
conditions and their treatment to communicate with a variety of specialists
serving disabled persons. The educator should be able to gather and
synthesize information from a variety of sources and incorporate it into
effective intervention strategies.
Recommendation: Educators serving disabled persons should have an
Page 14
understanding of the physical, medical and developmental characteristics of
disabled individuals and should be able to relate these trends to
___assessmentl_program planning, and intervention. There should be an
emphasis on the complementary roles of diverse professions (physicians,
phyildSl therapists-,--occupational-therapists,_ etc..). in assessment, program
planning and intervention. Opportunities for direct experience in
gathering, synthesizing and using information from other professionals for
the benefit of disabled persons should be provided.
Curriculum Development for the Disabled
In order to use their expertise as educators, practitioners who help
disabled people in diverse settings need a knowledge of curriculum'.
Educators should demonstrate skills and knowledge in evaluating, selecting,
implementing and adapting curriculum to meet the individual needs of
learners. They should appreciate the relative strengths and weaknesses of
various, basic curriculum approaches -- such as
edological analysis, criterion referenced, norm
referenced curriculum. Educators should be
the developmental, remedial
referenced and performance
able to match curriculum
approaches and content to the individual needs of particular learners.
Tney should be proficient at adapting' the curriculum performance
requirements And materials to meetAhe needs of motorically, sensory and
intellectuallif impaired people.
In addition to general skills in developing, evaluating, selecting and
adapting curricalum, educatori should have a basic knowledge of curriculum
content areas and the skills to independently research and acquire an
Page 15
in-depth knowleage thi---ctirriculum--areas--for- -which theyhave_
responsibility. Automomously researching and acquiring a substantial
knowledge of a curriculum content area is a particularly essential skill
since the educator will likely interact with heterogeneous populations
which_ will reflect_individual and unique curriculum needs. Areas in which
educators should have a basic knowledge of curriculum content include
motor, cognitive, communication/language, reading, math, spelling, writing,
recreational, vocational, domestic living, social, lf-care, ,general
community survival and sex education.
Educators should be skilled at working with other professionals with
expertise in 'particular curriculum content areas, to devlop and adapt
sk
curriculum to meet individual needs. For example, the educator should be
able to synthesize and" integrate input from physical and occupational
therapists for the curriculum of motorically impaired people.
Recommendation: Educators of disabled people in diverse settings
should have skills in evaluating,- selecting, implementing and adapting
curriculum which oan be employed across curriculum content areas. They
should have a basic knowledge of "dd.) variety-of curriculum content and
be adept at incorporating information from other professionals into the
curriculum for individual learners. Educators should demonstrate that they
have the skills and knowledge to independently research and develop
in-depth knowledge of curriculum content areas.
V-
Developini Service Plans for the Disabled
Page 16
The basis for providing services to disabled individuals in most
settings is a service plan. Depending upon the agency providing the help,
service plans.have different names. For_ exakole, Individual Education
Plans (IEPs) are used in public_school, special education programs.- In
contrast, group homes, supervised apartments, and work activity centers may
'use Individual Habilitation Plans (IHPs) -or Individual Program Plans
(Ms). Service plans, under whatever name, typically \have the common
components of: a delineation of the functioning level o the clients; a
Aatement of the annual goals; an articulation of short term objectives
leading to each annual goal; a dascription of what aervices will be
provided by whom; a date for the initiation and termination 'of services;
specification of the intervention strategies to be employed; a schedule of
periodic reviews of the plan during the service year; and, a process for
evaluating of the plan at the end the service year. Service plans are
usually developed by a group comprised of educators, parents, clients, and
as needed, occupational therapists, physical therapists, psychologists, and
social workers.
One professional, often the educator, plays the role of a case
manager The case management of an educational service plan typically
involvesrcoordinating-the-implementationoftheplan- bythevarious
professionals involved; periodically monitoring the progress of the plan
and the client; and, evaluating the results of the plan at the end of the
service period.
Educators-of-disabled-individuals-need-to-demonstrate that they can
Page 17-
competently develop and manage an individual service plan. Competencies
-required- todevelopserviceplans--include:.---assessing the_ourrent_
functioning level of the client; setting and prioritizing goals; writing
instructional objectives for each goal; translating instructional
objectives into short-term task-oriented objectives; monitoring progress
in___relation to short-term _objeotivesi synthesizing information from
parents, the client and other professions into A oogent plan; conducting_
service plan meetings; and, evaluating the'plan at the end of the service
period.
Recommendation: Educators of disabled learners should acquire and
demonstrate the competencies necessary to develop, implement and evaluate
service plans. These competencies should be demonstrated in diverse
service settings and across a variety of disabling conditions.
intervention: - Implementation Strategies.
Educators sbould demonstrate competence in implementing, monitoring,
and emaluating intervention strategies designed to achieve, the annual goals
and short-tera objectives identified ih- the service plans of disabled
,individuals. Competence in the following areas should be demonstrated:
designing intervention programs; directly implementing interventions
strategies; training and monitoring others in implementing interventions;
frequently assessing the effectiveness of interventions; changing
interventions on the ba5i6 of assessment data; coordinating and monitoring
interventions completed by other professionals; and, managing learning__
environments.
Page 18'
In the-area_of-designing and_implementing interventions, educators
should demonstrate competencies in: increasing the skills of learners
(e.g., teaching learners to work at a faster rate or to complete a higher
percentage of a task correctly); teaching new skills; reducing and
eliminating inappropriate behaviors; maintaining and extending skills
(i.e., ensuring that once a skill is learned it is consittently performed
over an.extended period-of time); generalizing skills (i.e., ensuring that
learners can .perform skills across settings, people, tasks and dues to
perform the skills); teaching concepts; using appropriate
adaptive/assistive 'devices and devising interventions for learners iMpaired
in motoric, sensory, and cognitive domains; selecting appropriate tasks.
and materials;-- and designing and implementing one-to-one and small group
(two or.more learners) interventions. The educator should demonstrate
competency in directly implementing the interventions such that clients_
,Make progress towards goals.and objectives.
Intervention strategies should be frequentl aasessed to 'determine
their relative effectiveness. Based upon frequent assessments, decisions
should be made aato'whether an intervention should be continued because it
is working, changed because it is not working or terminated because the
learner has achieved the objectiye. The implementation gf interventions
directly related to the objectives detailed in a learner's service plan may
te oarried-out by a variety of professionals. For example, a speech
therapist may implement intervention for speech/communication objectives
and a physical therapist may implement interventions for specific motor
objeftivei. The educaiOr must be'competent in monitoring and coordinating
Page 19
the - interventions conducted by other professionals. Similarly,
interventions- in--diversesettings (-6--.-11:-; group homes, schools, work,
activity centers) are often designed bran educator but carried out by
para-professionals, volunteers, student teachers., parents,sand peer tutors.
The educator should be competent in teaching others how to carry out
interventions and monitoring their performance.
Furthermore, the educator should be competent in. managing learning
environments. Learning environments are the settings in which educational
interventions take place and include classrooms, group homes, and
vocational training sites. The competencies related to learning
environment management that should be demonstrated include: maintaining a
clean, orderly and efficient environment; maintaining and adjusting daily
and weekly schedules for educational activitiea; implementing health and
emergency procedures; scheduling interventions implemented by
paraprofesSicriala, volunteers,- peer tutors, and ancillary personnel with
specific learners; implemmting seizure management procedures;
collecting, recording, and filing data on learner progress; reviewing each
learner's progress on, for example, a weekly basis; scheduling times to
monitor interventions conducted by others; maintaining contacts with
parents; scheduling and, participating in meetings; and, participating in
the service plan process.
0Re4ommendation: Professionals in training to be educators of disabled
*have extensive supervised_practicum experiences with
NNlearners who have & wide range of handicapping Conditions in a variety of
different service cOhtexts. They should gain proficiency in doveloping,
Page 20
implementin g and evaluating interventiolis strategies across a bpoaarray
of skills.
dmocacy_for_the_Disabled
-
As a practice technique, advocacy is useful to all professionals who'_
work with disabled individuals. Advocacy is an inclusive term which refers
to an "act of pleading for, supporting, or recommending active espousal.0-
An advocate, in turn, is "one who pleads for or in behalf of another"
(Scheerenberger, 1976, pp. 151-152). Although there are many 'forms ahd
types of advocacy, e.g., social advocacy (Rothman, 1979), state level
advocacy progrw (Bradley, 1978), legal advocacy (Scheerenberger, 1976),
and citizen advocacy, the form of advocacy that is most relevant to
educators in diverse settings is centered around the individual (at least
,initially), and thus referred to as individual advocacy. Scheerenberger
(1976) has summarized the purpose of an individual in the advo§ate role:
"The primary function of an advocate is to assist the retarded person to
exercise his rights" (p. 154). The form of individual advocacy differs
from citizen advocacy in that the latter usually does not include
professionals adting in professional roles (Wolfensberger and Zauha, 1973).
Educators serving aS individual advocates for _disabled persons _in
diverse settings should be prepared.to perform the following, activities:
Serve as a friend and .companion tn the individual on a
one-to-one basis;
22
Page
Monitor the training programs of the indiVidual;
Speak on behalf of the indiyidual with regard to any
requested participation in experimental research;
Monitor 'the rights of the individual defined by law; and
ixamine the personal financial accounts_of the individual andraise any questions which may be appropriate (Scheerenberger,
1976, pp. 199-200).
21
Recommendation: Educators trained for practice with disabled
individuals in diverse settings shOUTreceive preparation regarding the
nature of advocacy, types of relevant activities and strategies, and should
be able to demonstrate that 'they can effectively advocate for appropriate
educational service for disa'lled individuals.
Knowledge Dissemination and Professional Development
Educators who serve disabled individuals in diverse settingi need to
be competent in providing direct servicer to disabled people, but must alSo
serve as disseminators of information. These professionals may be called
upon to publicize their efforts, disseminate information about services and
advocate for disabled persons. To effectively share information and
advocate,_educatorsneed-to -be Skilled in written and oral communication.
They must be prepared to speak to small or large groups and to write
descriptions of services and programs which may be published through
brochures, school newspapers, local.newspapers and journals.
Public school and nonpublic school services for disabled persons have
experienced, and will likely continue to experience, developments along
such dimensions as legal entitlement to services, medical dervices, funding
sources for services, service delivery models, curriculum, and,
instructional technology. In order to erfectively change as the field
changes, an educator needs:to design and implement a professional
development plan._ At a minimum, the,professional should join ,professional
organizations and demonstrate an ability to utilize and contribute-to
_ --information dissemination-networks. Educators should be able to eValuate
their own strengths and yrknesbes and meet_their profeepional,development
needs through attending local, regional and national conferences,
participating in workshops and,completing advanced coursework.
Recommendation: The professional educator of disabled persons should
demonstrate, prior to graduating from a training program, the ability to
disseMinate information about services to the disabled in written ind oral
form. Educators should learn to evaluate themselves and devise
professional development plans.
Preparation Routes
These clusters of competencies could constitute the core of an entire
training program or could be integrated into a broader based training
program. Table 1 illustrate& five -examples of different Vehicles tor
providing training on these competencies. The tr&ining plans representedlamp
in Table 1 are ha meant to represent an exhaustive list of the possible
Page 23
alternatives. Rather, the five illustrations are offered merely to
emphasize that there are several different, and acceptable, routes to the
saMe end point. Individual institutions will need to decide which of
these, or others that they devise, are most appropriate for their
particular circumstances.
See Table I
Routes A and. B illustrate training in the Competencies through
traditional undergraduatel-degree formats. Route A would lead to a degree
specificallyi, in educating.disabled individuals in diverse settings. In
contrast, Students in Route B would receive their degree in, for example,
elementary education, with a concentration or specialization in educating
disabled individuals in diverse settings. .Preparation Routes C and D, sic:411d,
utilize the competencies as the complete core of an inservice, non-degree
training program: Route C would be structured through a sequence of
continuing education course work offered for college credit while Route -D
would involve service agencies providing inservice training on the
competencies for their staff without linking the training to the granting
of college credit. The last plan, Route E, illustrates how the competency
clusters could be linked to a Masters Degree Program. The Masters Degree
Program would include training on-certain advanced competendies that go
beyond_the seven. basic- cc etencrolus4ei ied above -- these would
include suCh- areas as leadership Skills, administration, counseling and
research methodology. To receive the Masters Degree, stu ants would have
to demonstrate their acquisition of the seven basic competency clusters.
L,
Table I
PREPARATION ROUTES
A B C D E
CHARACTERISTICS undergraduate
broad-based
undergraduate
intensive
non-degree
certificate
-,
non-degree
on-the-job
graduate
leadershippreparation
-----17-4/TR
'REQUIREMENTS
Ism.
collegeenrollment
,
collegeenrollment -
d
courseenrollment
_ ___
.......,,1~111IME-warm....p.............ow-wwwnesgrr.t.r.r.nals-10
careerplacement
0
--------diperience'
bachelOr's'degree
basiccompetencies
prtiessional_ _
EI1TCREDEiTIALS
.
4.bacheloe4
degree'bachelor's
degreecollege
certificatecareer
advancement-------
master's degree
.
EXITCOMPETEN014g .
basic
_ ,
basic basic basic basic and
'.advanced.e
ITITICAL....
'PAM&preservicedolrege
, .
courses. -,. _ .
.
/
Oreservicecollegecourses
preservice orinservice
college courses
innervice staffdevelopment
preservide or,inservicecourses
CREDIT FOR .
'EXPERIENCEOPTION
no P no.
,,,,
yes does not apply no
r
Page 24
plus a set of more advanced skills and knowledge.
The attainment of the competencies should be linked, we believe, to
some form of professional certification and/or career advancement. Routes
A and B and E, for example', are immersed in programs of study lcading to
the awarding of a degree. Students in,Routes A And B who demonstrate the
competencies in classroom settings can apply the coursework toward
oertifioation as a_special_eduCation_teacherSimilarly, .students-who
demonstrate the oompetencies in tther settings could earn a different type
of professional certifioation perhapi as a mental retardation or,
developmental disabilities specialist. Students in Routes C anit, D could-
have the aoquisition and/or career ad-In:moment linked to completion of the
oompetenoies. Community service agenoies oould linN the demonstration of
the oompetenoies to advanoement through a oareer ladder withrn the agency.
In the following narrative example, the preparation routes are described in
more detail.
Route A: An Undergraduate Devoe Alternative
Route,A would require four years of undergraduate study. The program
of study would inolude a core of :Arms _constituting a major in
educational services for diaabled persons in diverse settings. The core .
courses of the program would be augmented by foundational courses drawn
froia the social, behavioral and health sciences. Foundational and core
courses would be offered in an.integrated sequence woes the four year
period.
It is most likely that a oollege of education would provide the
Page 25
administrative home for this broad based program of study, since provision-
of educational service is the ultimate professional preparation goal.
it is oonoeivable, depending mpon
non-education unit could assume
responsibilities for this broad based
But
faoulty and fisoal resouroes, that a
administrative and advising
program. Another school, college or
department engaged in preparing huMan service professionals may be the more
appropriateunittohousethemajor-on-a-given-Dampue7--Prograaa whidh-4
prepare social workers or allied health professionals are examples of units
which have compatible service goals and may therefore be appropriate units
through whioh this major oould be offered.
N-The-major advantage of ROute A is that it allows the student to
develop a broad foundational base in the social, behavioral and/or health
sciences concurrent with preparation for Profeseional work. The student
would begin the freshman year-with a professionil goal and a presoribed
four yearprogram of study through which, basic professional competencies
could,be cquired. At the same time the student would be advised to select
foundationel coursesthat would strengthen.and exte..d generic knowledge in
one of several related disciplines.
Critioal to the success of Route A is the availability of appropriate
foundationel courses and ongoing intensive advisement. The availability of
courses woUld be contingent upon: (1) the presence of multiple, related
disoiplineei oh the campus, (2) the willingness of faculty from those
disoiplinc; to admit students from Route A into their courses; and (3) the
ability of faculty from diff d sciplines to adapt their gourees to the
-needs andinterests of stud from this plan. Student advisement would
then be a critical component in e learning process that would integrate
Page 26
the foundational studies courses with the major studies.
Route B: A Specialization or Second Major Alternative
Undergraduate students taking Route B would study educational services
for disabled persons in diverse settings as a second major, a
concentration, or a specialization. For example, students majoring in
elementary or' secondary education would fulfill all,the requirements of
their' major and, additionally, take the necessary courses to acquire the
basic competencies 'outlined earlier. Students majoring in a noneducation
field such as psychology, sociology, social work or one of the allied
health professions might also pursue as a specialization the area 17if
educational services for disabled- personsin- diverse-settings,
Route B offers the advantage of being less disruptiVe to the college
administrative structure than Route A. The ultimate magnitude of the
disruption, however, will depend upon the prior existence and accessibility
of courses that would help students acquire the desired competencies.
Although some adaptation of existing courses and/or the development of new
courses would peobably be -necessary in even the most ideal of
oiroumstanoes, the relative extent of such development will vary from
campus to nampus.
.A limitation of Route B is that it may severely reddce
of students to choose courses. Since both areas of study would be
prescribed by a set sequence of distinct course requirements, the student
would be left with relatively few opportunities for individually selected
electives.
Route Cs An Adult, Continuing Rducition Alternative
Page 27
a
Route C would consist of a sequence of undergraduate level courses
offered at convenient times and places for adult students. The sequence
would require approximately one year of full time,study or several years of
part time Study.
A unique feature of Route C could be the option of obtaining college
Credit for prior experience. If the student could'document a satisfactory
level icf knowledge and performance in one dr more of the required clusters,
credit would be given for those codpetenoies, thus reducing the preparation
time and cost for the student. Documentation of prior experience-would be
accomplished through an extended period of 'faculty advisemeit-in*which
students would identify and document areas of competence. A portfolio
containing the documentation would be.reviewed andAudged. by a committee of
faculty. Coursewörk would not *be required in those subject matter areaa
where oompetence had been demonstrated.
The program of study could be administered by the continuing education
division of a oollege or university in cooperation with the participating
academia departments. As with Routes A and )31. one .department would be
responsible for coordination of coursework and student advisement.
Upon the.suocessful oompletion of the program, students would receive
a certificate of competence from the college or university. Graduates of
.the oertificate program would be judged competent to deliver educational
caerYi0041 for disabled persons in diverse settings.
The mi.jor advantage of Route C-is its exclusive focus on the besic
competency clusters through its competencY-based courses and the credit for
Page 28
experience option. This focus on specific-competencies 11111 be Viewed by
some as a disadvantage because it does not include foundational or
supplementary courses that result in a more "well-rounded" professional.
Route D: Ari-In-Service Alternative
Route D. is an alternative designed for the already employed provider
of educational services for disabled persons. In this scenario, the
employing agency sponsors and administers staff development programs that
are designed to either (1) upgrade the competencies of workers for their
current positions; or (2) prepare workers for another position in the same
agency.
The employing agency might contract with a college or university to
provide assistance with the staff development programs. This assistance
might take several forms; developing competencies for specific 'job
functions, assessing performance relative to the COMpetencies and/or
conducting training Sessions which includes guided "on-the-job" practice.
Route D is more job related than the earlier degree and certificate
plans that were described. For the working participant, job security may
be directly contingent upon participation in the staff development
activities. Rodte D is, at the same time, less reliant upon a college or
university. /n fact, a contract with an institution of higher education
might include the training of agency employed trainers who would carry out
the training independent of the college or university.
An advantage of Route D is its potential for collaboration between the
college and the practice community. This collaboration could serve to
Page 29
strengthen agency based staff development activities. A disadvantage of
Route D, as- in Route C, is its exclusive focus on skills training, with
little or no opportunity to acquire related knowledge and skills that might
strengthen and supplement the targeted basic competencies.
Route E: A Graduate Program Alternative
Route E presumes either prior acquisition of the'basic. competency
clusters (through Routes A, B, C or D) or the willingness tOacquire-these
competencies before the awarding of the graduate degree. The fooda of
RoUie E is on the acquisition of the basic competencies plus advanced
leadership competencies Telated to the administrative, counseling and
consulting functions of providing services for disabled persons in diverse
settings.
Like Routes A, B and C, Route E would draw its faculty from several
different academic departments but would be administered by one unit.
Appropriate areas of,study Icould include counseling, special education,
psycW,logy or social work. The advanced competencies would be intergrated-\
into the graduate coursework, practicum and thesis requirements of the
degreo.
Route E allows full implementation of a "trainer of trainers" model
throUgh (1) the prerequisite requirement of direct service competence and
experience; and (2) tqle development of competencies that will allow the
graduate to provide "on-the-job" training for direct-service providers.
The graduate of Route E would have expertise and experience as both a
szlirect service provider and as a trainer of direct service providers.
\ Page 30
Implications for Sohools Colleges and Departments of Education
In this seOtion the diaoussion will foous_ on -a few- of the many\\\\
implioatioes Which thie propoaal may have for schools, colleges and
departments of &Ideation (SCDEa). The section is intended to stimulate
dialogue on the many_ohallangesand-obstaeles-that-exist-in-creatiffg a
program to train transdisciplinary professionals to serve the _disabled.
In earlier aeotions we argued that professionals wile serve disabled
individuals must be prepared to function suocessfully in a wide array of
organizational settings and structures. To this end, we noted the
signifioance of the philosophy and knowledge bases which might undftird
such preparatiop; and, we presented in more detail ;even competenny
clustera_whicharticualted- the generio,-knowledge and skills we deemed
necessary for effective practice. Finally, we illustrated several
alternative formats for implementing the program goals and competencies,
with brief references to the advantages and limitations of the different
-program formats.
The praotioe which we advocate utilizes a transdisciplinary approach.
We view' this as a logical extention-of some major trends, rather than a
loperadigm shift."- To be successful, our- model dependa upon the
Oollaboration of several diaciplines. This collaboration is essential
whether the graduatea of the proposed program are employed in school or
pon-sohool settings. Regardlesa of the eventual plage of employment, or
the training site, we believe that the professional should develop a
transdisoiplinary mode of operation.
Team work has been advooated for many years in approaching the needs
Of disabled indi*iduals. The multidisciplinary approaeh was an early
Page 31
attempt at this, with professionals-from different'disciplines evaluating a
disabled person and providing an initial report. This process, however,
:often resulted in a fragmented portrait of the handicapped person -- each
part had value, but too often no total image emer ed.
As a consequence, an interdisciplinary approach was developed, that
introduced eleMents of a group process. After the- initial,
multi-disoiplinary evalUition, group decisionmaking with regard to the
treatment approach, intervention, or other necessary servioes.became a
valuable means for arriving at a more integrated understanding of the needs
of the individual and how to meet those needs._ However, frequently the
reoommendations of this interdisciplinary procesb were to be oarried out hy
an individUal olassroom teaoher or other professional who did not-have
,sufficient knowledge and understanding of all -of the contributin*
peespeotives., In a sense, then, a whole pioture of the servioes needed for
a Person was developed, but' without the professional "personnel" to
transform the rhetorid into practioe.
Thus, some professionals have began to proport a transdisciplinary
approach. In explaining, the advantages of this strategy over the
multidisoiplinary and interdisciplinary approaches, Hart (1977) stated:
In an attempt to redu the compartmentalization and
fragmentizing of servioes... Ohe\person is appointed for direct
contact. This reduoes the number o f\\ professionals involved in
direct care. The approach ... Ma use an interdisciplinary
approach in making the initial plan for implementation. However,
implementation is oarried out by only one of the members in\
cooperation with the others: (p. 393)
3 5
Page 32
Beyond this, we contend that the,key person must possess competencies which
"transcend" all of the dieciplines that are involved in the treatment. The
\
oompetenoies first_mter4pon_the-neede-of-the-dtserhlw person; second,
upon the implementatiOn of programs in unique social settings; and, then,
draw upon the disciplines. The disciplines become, thus, what they
properly should be: tools for a greater good. The positive advantages of
the multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches are maintained, but
the -weaknesses of these_latter two models are recognized and accounte&for
in the transdisoiplinary model.
This approach is not, however, without problems. Considerable.sharing
of professional knowledge and appropriate skills needs to occur. As a
result of this proposal broad-based trairtng program, the issues_ of the.
generalist-viritifeipilailist arise.
Our Approaath to -this issue has been to attempt a synthesis --
presently conceptualized in. sooial work as the "person=in-environment"
configuration. The- professional we antioipate is a "generalist with
specialized skills" -- the skills oomponent is built into the cluster of
oompetencies. This does not mean a "Jaok-of-all-Trades, Master of Hone."
We imagine generalist praotitioners who "possess a distinctive way of
'thinking about emial phenomena. He or she must be able to etee the
interconnections and 9 patterns of relationships within and between sodial
systems and make interventions according to that aseessment" (Irey, 1980,
P. 391).
On another level, our proposal raises the issue of professional turf.
Obviously the professionals who would be trained in these oompetenOies
woad be providing services beyond "oduoation" in the traditional sense.
3b
NN,
Watkins (1982) has stated that:
Page 33
A- growi rs--and --fiddlty members are
-
oonoerned that by adding suoh ^human service" programs, sohooli,
iptcaleges, and-departments of edudation will damage traditional
roher preparation, in part by forcing faoulty members to teaoh
subjects they don't know anythingdbout (p. 9),
Further, the training itself would be subjeot to questions allout whinh
departments or agencies would sossess the authority for various decieions
and respon ibilities. U. also know that neighboring institutions of higher
duoation e oqncerned with duplioation and, thus, increased oompetition
in a tight.nflg. market. Other issues of professional turf arise rom
dieoiplines d professions with their own pregram -- e.g., psychology,
sooial work, end even special education on some Oadpuses.
However, one of the strengths of this proposal is its flexibility.
Deimnding upon individual oampus, this program could be house& in
sev al addinistraiive -structures, e.g., Colleges of Human -* Ecology,
Colleges
eduoatia,
believe t
*non-itegree
of Eduoati n or Colleges of Human Sciences. Obviously, the-
of the progra would affect the underlying philimophy of the
:
i
1 program an the product would ,be altered accordingly. We
t these Poten\ al difficulties could be handled ihrough the
design thet Has been proposed:
We Will be pleased if his monograph stimulates intelligent disdussion
and resear toward the goal of providing,the beat possible education for'\
professionals *who serve disabled.individuals in diverse settings. 'We await
further dialogue.
a
Page 34
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Bloom, M. Life §:ma Deve1op...4AL Bases for Preventive and Interventive
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Corrigan, D. "The practice of eduoation in diverse settings." Presented at
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Iron E. V. The sooial work generalist in a rural context: An ecological
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Scheerenberger, R. C. Deinstitutionalization and institutional reform.
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39