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Part IThe lexical Approach Language is basically its
lexicon: Words or wordcombinations. The key principle of a lexical
approach is that languageconsists of grammaticalizedlexis, not lexicalizedgrammar
Lexis is central in creatingmeaning, grammar plays asecondary role in managingmeaning.
We should spend more timehelping learners developtheir stock of phrases, andless time on grammaticalstructures.
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There are some hints about how theteaching looks like within thisapproach.
Successful language is a widerconcept than accurate language.Emphasis is on successfulcommunication not grammaticalmastery.
Language is not learnt by learningindividual sounds and structures andthen combining them, but by anincreasing ability to break downwholes into parts. We can also usewhole phrases without understandingtheir constituent parts.
Noticing and recording language
patterns and collocations. Grammar is acquired by a process of
observation, hypothesis andexperiment. That is, the Observe-Hypothesise-Experiment cyclereplaces the Present-Practice-Produce
Paradigm.
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Grammar exploration instead ofgrammar explanation.
Intensive and extensive listeningand reading in the targetlanguage. Teachers create theenvironment.
First and second languagecomparisons and translationcarried out chunk-for-chunk,rather than word-for-wordaimed at raising languageawareness: Guessing the meaningof vocabulary items from context.
Repetition and recycling ofactivities. The language activitiesconsistent with a lexical approachmust be directed toward naturallyoccurring language and towardraising learners awareness of thelexical nature of language.Students as discourseanalystordiscoverers
Working with dictionaries andother reference tools.
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Part IIThe CALLA approach CALLA is based on cognitive learning
theory in which students are viewed
as mentally active participants in theteacher-students interaction.
The mental activity of learners isdescribed by the application of priorknowledge to new problems, the
search for meaning in incominginformation, higher level thinkingand the developing ability to adjustonesown learning (special methodsor TRICKS)
The CALLA model recommendsways in which the teacher can makethe most of this mental activity byasking students to reflect on theirown learning and expand a strategyapproach to learning and problemsolving (learning strategies)
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StrategyInstruction
AcademicLanguage
Skills
Content
Topics
Allow students tosee how language
works in different
encvironments.
Language skills areused for learningacademic subject
matters.
Strategies providestudents with tools
to work different
tasks.
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Enables students torepresent information ontheir prior knowledge oftheir native language tounderstand informationin English
Help students to controltheir emotions in order towork with theirclassmates or otherpeople to apply cognitive
skills
Enable learners determine
which learning strategiesare best suited to a giventask. Useful forprocedural knowledge.
Enable learners tomanipulate informationby categorizing,summarizing or linkingnew concepts to priorknowledge. Useful fordeclarative knowledge
CognitiveMeta -
cognitive
Cross -
Linguistic
Social -
Affective
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Types of knowledge
Declarative
Knowledge
Consist on what we know or declare.Includes facts, dates, etc and it is best
learnt through linking old with newinformation to form associations.
Procedural
Knowledge
Consist on the things that we knowhow to. Includes processes and
procedures. It is best learnt throughpractice applied on meaningful tasks.
Metacognitive
Knowledge
All these types of knowledge are stored in the
long term memory to be used for life.
Consist on applying previous
experiences to solve new problems.
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Language across the curriculum: Learn the
language through the language. Subjects matterstaught using the target language. Language Experience Approach: My life is my
learning. Based on reading and writing ofexperiences.
Whole language: Four skills ONE language. Basedon interaction with literature and opportunities touse language in communicative purposes.
Process writing: Thinking about the writing process.
Cooperative learning: There is no I on a TEAM.Provides active practice of language and context.
Cognitive instruction: Critical thinking throughchallenging questions modeling the learning process.
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Part IIITeaching Listening Listening is the language
modality that is used mostfrequently. It has been estimated that
adults spend almost half theircommunication timelistening.
Students may receive as muchas 90% of their in-schoolinformation through listeningto instructors and to oneanother.
Listening is a very active skillbecause as people listen , theyprocess what they hear andconnect it to already knowninformation.
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Principles
Expose Ss. todifferent
ways ofprocessing
information
Expose Ss. todifferent
types oflistening
Teachvariety of
tasks
Considerdifficulty
andauthenticity
Teach
listeningstrategies
Top down
Bottom up
Listening forspecific
information
Listening for
gist
Listeningbetween the
lines
Practice withnatural
authenticlanguage
Adjust the level
of difficulty
Predicting
Inferring
Monitoring
Clarifying
From simple tomore complex
tasks
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Part IVTeaching Speaking
Speaking is also a very active skill because it
happens in real time. Different from writtenlanguage. Language learners need to recognize that
speaking involves three areas of knowledge: Mechanics (pronunciation, grammar, and
vocabulary): Using the right words in theright order with the correct pronunciation.
Functions (transaction and interaction):Knowing when clarity of message isessential (transaction/informationexchange) and when precise understandingis not required (interaction/relationshipbuilding).
Social and cultural rules and norms (turn-taking, rate of speech, length of pausesbetween speakers, relative roles ofparticipants): Understanding how to takeinto account who is speaking to whom, in
what circumstances, about what, and forwhat reason.
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Audiolingual Method:Repetition drills to learnstructural patterns(grammar). Based on
behaviorim. Form overfunction was the goal.
CommunicativeLanguage Teaching:
Students learnthrough the act of
communication.Comprehensibleinput is necessaryfor real intake tohappen. The goal isintelligibility.
Weakversion
Strongversion
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Part VTeaching Reading The goal of reading is
COMPREHENSION. In language instruction, reading
materials have traditionally beenchosen from literary texts thatrepresent "higher" forms of culture.
This approach assumes that studentslearn to read a language by studying
its vocabulary, grammar, and sentencestructure, not by actually reading it. The communicative approach to
language teaching has giveninstructors a different understandingof the role of reading in the languageclassroom and the types of texts thatcan be used in instruction.
When the goal of instruction iscommunicative competence, everydaymaterials become appropriateclassroom materials, because readingthem is one way communicativecompetence is developed.
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Reading Processes
Bottom - up
Students startwith thefoundations oflanguage:Phonics, letter
recognition,words, etc
Graded readerapproach.
Intensive reading:
Short passageswith textbookactivities.
Top - down
Thecomprehensionresides on thereader.
Meaning
generatingactivities.
Literature basedapproach
Integrated with
writing. Extensive reading:
Read longer textswith no focus onassessment.
Interactive Model
It combineselements of top -down and bottomup.
Integrates
extensive withintensive reading.
Selection of textsis quiteimportant.
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Principles
Exploitreaders
previousknowledge.
Build a strongvocabularybase through
context.
Teach how tocomprehend:
Reading
strategies andskills
Work onincreasing
reading rate
Grow as areading
teacher.
Buildassessment
andevaluation:RUBRICS
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Part VITeaching Writing Writing is a complex process that
allows writers to explore thoughts
and ideas, and make them visibleand concrete.
"Good writing does not just happen.The best writers spend a great dealof time thinking, planning,rewriting, and editing.
The teaching of writing was thoughtto be the teaching of correctspelling, punctuation and grammar
Then trends like expressivism,cognitivism , socialconstructivism appeared as a
response to different needs ofscience and society.
Lately a principled eclecticismapproach came to light consideringthe best of each trend.
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Principles
Understandstudents
reasons forwriting.
Provide manyopportunitiesfor students
to write.
Makefeedback
helpful andmeaningful.
Make clearhow writing
will beevaluated:RUBRICS.
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Part VIITeaching Grammar Grammar is central to the teaching
and learning of languages. It is
also one of the more difficultaspects of language to teach well.
In past mastering Englishgrammar was considered tomasterthe language.
In the 70 s a new trend led byKrashen argued that grammarinstruction was unnecessary andthat exposure to comprehensibleinput was enough to acquire therules.
Late approaches like focus onform and consciousness raising center on communicationadding grammar within meaningfocused activities.
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Principles
Integrate
deductive andinductivemethods.
Focus on
proceduralrather thandeclarativeknowledge.
Use tasks that
integrategrammar andcommunication.
CONTEXT
P t X S l ti M t i l f
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Part X - Selecting Materials for
Teaching English
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What are materials?
The termmaterials is used tomean anything usedwithin a classroom
environment whichfacilitates theacquisition
learning oflanguage.(Ur, 1996)
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Types of materials Coursebooks.
Supplementarymaterials: CDs, PPTs,
flashcards, dictionaries,websites, graded readers,storybooks, flip charts,posters, etc.
Teacher madematerials: Worksheets,flashcards.
C b k
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CoursebooksThe term coursebook is used to mean atextbook of which the teacher and, usually, eachstudent has a copy, and which is in principle tobe followed systematically as the basis for a
language course. (Ur; 1996)
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Why do we need to use a coursebook?Against using a coursebook
Inadequacy.
Irrelevance.
Lack of interest. Limitation.
Homogeneity.
Over easiness for teachers.
Cambridge University Press,
1996
In favor of using a coursebook
Framework.
Ready made texts
and tasks. Economy.
Convenience.
Guidance.
Autonomy
Cambridge University Press,
1996
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How do we choose a coursebook?Choosing a coursebook is a
very difficult task due to thehuge amount of alternativesin te market.
Before even trying to select acoursebook, teachers shouldhave very clear ideas about
what the objectives towardsthe teaching of English inthe school are and what they
want to get from the book.
Wh t h ld b k ?
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What should any coursebook cover? Pronunciation practice.
Introduction of new vocabulary and
practice. Grammar explanations and
practice.
Recordings for listening practice.
Listening and speakingcommunicative tasks.
Reading and writingcommunicative tasks.
Short and long reading texts. Dictionary work.
Review of previously learntmaterial.
Some entertaining or fun activities. Cambridge University Press, 1996
l i l
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Supplementary materialsBooks are considered as the
conventional and primarylearning materials. While booksare the central technology ofeducation (Barth and Mithchell
1992), there are also other toolsand sources which have nowbecome necessary in education.
Some of these includes CDs,websites, e books, etc. Othersources of learning contents aresupplementary reading materialssuch as big books, graded
readers.
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Teachermade worksheets and flashcardsGood teacher made materials are thebest there are because they are relevant and
personalized, answering the needs of thelearners in a way no other materials can(Jeremy Harmer 1998)
Guidelines for teacher made materials:
They should:
Be neat, clean , clear margins, well spaced.
Begin with short and clear instructionsincluding an example.
Be clear and attractive to look at.
Have a balanced and varied layout.
Be clearly do able by the learners ontheir own.
P XI A i h
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Part XIAction research It is a reflective process
that allows for inquiryand discussion ascomponents of theresearch.
Participant examine their
educational practiceusing scientifictechniques.
The main intention is toinform and make any
suitable changes inteaching practice toimprove teaching andlearning in classroomenvironments.
S f A i R h
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Identifythe
problem
Gatherdata
Interpretdata
Act onevidence
Evaluate
results
Implementchanges
Steps of Action Research