119
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building: A Case Study of
Singaporean Toponyms*
Yun-Tsui Yeh
Assistant Professor, Department of Taiwan and Regional Studies,
National Dong Hwa University
Abstract
As a case study from the viewpoint of critical toponymics and
document analysis, this paper examines Singaporean “erased place
names” (EPNs), which have been deleted or renamed since the 1960s.
Rather than the existing places names that most critical toponymic
scholars focus on, this study emphasizes the significance of EPNs
in place-name politics. Moreover, unlike Yeoh (1996), who
demonstrated the connection between Singaporean decolonization and
nation- building through national toponymic policies, this paper
examines Singaporean nation-building on the basis of the EPNs that
scholars may have overlooked or neglected.
The results show that EPNs in Singapore have not simply been
erased; the reuses of specific terms have modified their toponymic
forms to enable their revival in the contested cultural politics of
everyday life. Because of the reuse of specific terms, old ethnic
memories have been transformed and merged into new local and
regional histories and have afforded new mixed, regional, and
cross-ethnic memories.
Key words: erased place names, toponymic landscapes, cultural
politics, nation-building, Singapore
* The author would like to thank the National Science Council for
financially supporting this research under Contract No. NSC
100-2410-H-259-075. Thanks also go to two anonymous reviewers and
editorial committee for their valuable comments.
120 59 2013.12
1. Place-Naming Motivations
Swanepoel’s (2009: 103) observation about erased and existing place
names is indeed occurring around the world. Especially after a
major change in political atmosphere, the new regime tends to
implement a new place-name system to break with the past and
advocate new ideologies ( Yeoh 1996; Faraco and Murphy 1997;
Azaryahu and Golan 2001; Light, Nicolae, and Suditu 2002; Gill
2005). Indeed, after its independence, such a succession of new
place names replacing old ones occurred in Singapore’s toponymic
politics.
Singapore, a former British colony, gained autonomy in 1959, and
independence in 1963 by joining the newly created Federation of
Malaysia. Almost immediately, Singapore seceded from the Federation
to obtain complete national independence in 1965. After severe
changes in its political situation, Singapore’s cultural landscapes
also underwent major changes. Beginning in the 1960s, old
landscapes constructed in colonial days were eradicated and
replaced by high-rise buildings through government-driven landscape
transformation. The government’s ideological purpose for this trend
of modernization and urbanization was to intervene in landscape
succession to imbue the process with a specific national meaning.
Such landscape and spatial politics exist on various spatial scales
(Yeh 2012). Similar to settlement landscapes in Singapore,
toponymic landscapes have experienced dramatic changes; many
settlement and street names have been erased since the 1960s.
According to Yeoh (1996), under the toponymic policies for
Singaporean nation-building, the new street names had
characteristics of Malayanized, numerical, multiracial, dialectal,
pinyinized, and bilingual forms from different periods.
Place names, textually marked in the cultural landscape, are
significant in cultural landscape study in geography and are a
focus of historical and cultural geographers. To geographers, place
names are
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 121
temporal and spatial impressions produced by people after they
perceive their surroundings; they are products of human–land
interaction, and investigating place names often reveals past
natural or artificial environments. Place names can be not only
evidence of things that have disappeared or changed but also
projections of people’s ideologies. According to Rose-Redwood,
Alderman, and Azaryahu (2010, 457–58), place names are important in
“creating and maintaining emotional attachments to places,” but
they are also very political, often used as a “mechanism for
naturalizing hegemonic power structures.”
Regarding research on Singaporean place names, Yeoh published
articles in 1992 and 1996.1 The 1992 article revealed two competing
sets of street names in colonial Singapore, the official, municipal
street names and the unofficial street names originating among the
immigrant Asian communities. The European colonists named
Singaporean streets based on their perception of the landscape
order and urban function; the unofficial street names were usually
based on the immigrant Asian communities’ conventions and
parameters, and were used in people’s daily lives. By examining the
broader social and economic context, Yeoh’s 1996 article attempted
to explain the post-independence formation and reflection of place
names within Singaporean landscapes. She showed that the
Singaporean government adopted various principles for naming places
to improve national identity, retaining various street names and
naming others at different stages. But imbuing street names with
Singaporean nationalism was not a smooth process; it reflected the
contradictions and the vacillating policies within the Singaporean
nation-building process. Yeoh’s abovementioned studies illustrated
that both street names and naming policies can reflect a colonial
regime or a framework of nation-building. 1 On the basis of these
articles, Yeoh (2003) re-explored the coexisting sets of official
and local toponymic systems of the municipal authority of Singapore
and the Asian communities (Yeoh 2003: 219–242).
122 59 2013.12
Therefore, Singaporean street names could be deemed a spatial
representation of political ideologies.
Similar to Addleton (1987); Yeoh (1996); Faraco and Murphy (1997);
Light, Nicolae, and Suditu (2002); and Bigon (2008) et al., most
scholars have concentrated on places that have been renamed or
newly named by a regime. These scholars then elaborated on the
political ideologies within the toponymic landscapes. However, some
researchers have tried to highlight the more “banal” names’
significance. As Rose-Redwood and Alderman (2011: 3) indicated,
“critical place-name scholars have typically focused on the most
dramatic political conflicts over place naming while ignoring those
namescapes that present themselves as apparently beyond
contestation due to their utter banality.” For instance, Champoux
(2012) argued that Canada used Inuit oral toponyms to name the High
Arctic to assert Canadian Arctic sovereignty; the banal aboriginal
toponyms became part of the Canadian national and political
language. Moreover, unlike recent landscape work on the topic of
presence, Wylie (2009) focused on the motif of absence within
landscapes in his case study of Mullion Cove, southwest England.
From another perspective, if place names have, like palimpsests,
been replaced for nation-building, what type of place names were
erased during the post-colonial period? Moreover, what do they mean
for Singaporean nation-building?
2. Aims and Methodology
Due to the need for greater attention to material geographies
(Jackson 2000; Blunt and McEwan 2002, 2; Cook and Harrison 2003), I
chose toponymic landscapes as the research medium for this study,
which explores the role of erased place names (EPNs) in Singaporean
nation-building since the 1960s from the viewpoint of critical
toponymy. Thus, this study explains changing place-names
according
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 123
to the political and social contexts. It is deemed that EPNs were
not simply erased by the Singapore government, but their specific
terms were reused to name “new” places and attach new local and
regional memories to them; such new place names actively embody
Singaporean nationalism and provide materials for the government to
build a multi-ethnic Singapore.
Through this article, I contribute the following observations:
unlike most critical toponymy scholars’ concentration on new or
renamed places, I emphasize that EPNs have significance in
place-name politics. Yeoh (1996) revealed toponymic policies’
function during Singaporean decolonization and nation-building;
however, this article examines Singaporean nation-building through
the EPNs neglected by critical toponymy scholars. This study first
combines a quantitative and historical approach to present the
changes in Singaporean toponyms since the 1960s; it then critically
argues the meaning of these changes. Document analysis demonstrates
the issue, with two primary types of materials: (1) Singapore
street directories that contain indices and distribution maps for
place names and (2) microforms of The Straits Times, containing
articles about place names.
This article first reviews the concepts of toponyms, place, and
postcolonial nation-building, before briefly discussing the
toponymic policies of post-colonial Singapore. Next, it presents
quantitative data on EPNs since the 1960s and discusses the
relationship between EPNs and toponymic policies. Finally, it
generalizes the role of EPNs in Singaporean nation-building.
3. Conceptualizing Toponymic Landscapes, Place, and Post-colonial
Nation-building
A place name, textually marked in space, is an element of cultural
landscapes. Previously, scholars focused on toponymic origins and
taxonomies, ignoring the cultural politics responsible for place
names.
124 59 2013.12
However, in the 1980s, scholars began examining the interactions of
context, power, and society within place-name politics. Thereafter,
toponymic research became a critical issue (Kearns and Berg 2009:
155; Rose-Redwood, Alderman, and Azaryahu 2010: 455–56). Because of
place names’ universal and widespread distribution, Alderman
(2002a, 2002b) observed that place names have always been cultural
arenas where different powers compete for representation in
people’s everyday lives. Critical Toponymies, edited by Berg and
Vuolteenaho (2009), has especially helped us understand the
contested politics and power relations in geographical
naming.
Since antiquity, traditional societies have named places according
to their natural or cultural environment. Place names were a
representation, a melange of the local people’s emotions, memories,
and histories associated with places. However, Azaryahu and Golan
(2001: 181) argued, “Naming is not a mere linguistic gesture but
often evinces specific power relations.” In contrast to traditional
society, the modern state, which has assumed naming power for
public space, often uses nomenclature to advocate specific
ideologies, thus embedding the place names with political meanings.
As Scott states, “The builders of the modern nation-state do not
merely describe, observe, and map; they strive to shape a people
and landscape that will fit their techniques of observation” (1998:
82). Therefore, how the polity intervenes in the naming of public
space has interested many scholars. Among these, Faraco and Murphy
(1997) studied street names in Spanish Andalusian towns. Light,
Nicolae, and Suditu (2002) focused on street names in Bucharest,
Romania from 1948 to 1965. Bigon (2008) studied place names in
colonial Dakar, Senegal. Although these case studies were conducted
under different political systems, they suggested that the
authorities often advocated political ideologies and regulated the
relationships between the people and the government through naming
and renaming. Therefore, place names
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 125
have become a spatial representation of political ideologies. Since
different regimes use toponymic naming systems to achieve
political goals, the toponymic systems are likely to change along
with a transition of regimes. For example, Gill (2005) found that
place names associated with the former Soviet regime or communism
had been renamed in post-Soviet Moscow. Even in the Pamir
Mountains, far from the center of political power, Horsman (2006)
discovered that old place names were erased as a new regime came
into power. Especially during a post-colonial era, a new
nation-state uses erasure and renaming to frame a new national
identity. As a form of decolonization after its independence, the
Pakistani government removed many place names associated with
British rule (Addleton 1987). Additionally, Yeoh (1996) indicated
that the Singapore government renamed some colonial locations under
the framework of nation-building. Although these researchers reveal
that changes of toponymic systems always occur with a succession of
regimes, they also reveal that not all place names are cleansed
even when broad gaps exist between the old and new regimes’
political systems and ideologies.
As previously mentioned, the modern state has assumed the power of
naming and renaming public spaces for its people. However, this
does not imply that the government meets no resistance to renaming;
people do not submissively forsake existing place names. For
example, from within the colonial context of Western countries, the
aborigines in Hawaii; Aotearoa, New Zealand; and Manankurra,
Australia strived to preserve their original place names to oppose
conquest and preserve memories, emotions, and cultural identity
(see Herman 1999; Kearns and Berg 2009; Kearney and Bradley 2009).
In the modern state, place names remain a contested arena where the
government and people each struggle to produce their representation
of perception. Two examples are the renaming of New York’s Sixth
Avenue and South Africa’s administrative capital
(Rose-Redwood
126 59 2013.12
2008; Swanepoel 2009). Blunt and McEwan (2002: 1–6) indicate the
importance of
rethinking the ongoing, post-colonial struggle over geography. If
place names are a powerful means for advocating political
ideologies and regulations, and if all place names are not changed
or removed after regime transitions, then it is worth considering
what types of place names were changed or removed during the
post-colonial period in Singapore. What role do EPNs play in
nation-building and the new social and cultural production of
place? Was there resistance to the erasing of place names in
Singapore?
II. Toponymic Policies in Singapore since the 1960s
After independence, the Singapore government implemented policies
to forge Singaporean national identity in different eras, through
school and language education, public housing, national service,
the maintenance of religious harmony, and shared values (Yeh 2012:
11). Likewise, Singapore’s toponymic policies since the 1960s have
been used not only to control the national space but also as an
important medium for nation-building by the government. However,
the effort has been inconsistent. During different administrations,
the authorities responsible for street naming and toponymic policy
repeatedly changed.
1. Changes of Authority for Place Names
As Randall observed (2001: 65), “The newly independent countries
are intensely occupied with creating their national institutions
and reestablishing their economies, and a major task has been to
establish agencies responsible for names”. In 1967, the Singapore
government delegated the Advisory Committee on the Naming of Roads
and Streets (later renamed the Street and Building Names Advisory
Committee) under the Minister of Finance to oversee the naming
of
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 127
streets. In 1968, the Committee on Street Names was formed and in
1978, it was renamed the Advisory Committee on Street Names. As an
important socio-political task, this committee approved the Chinese
translations for new street names in 1995. Because in 1996, the
Minister of Finance was empowered to approve building and estate
names, the committee was renamed the Advisory Committee on Street,
Building, and Estate Names. In 2003, the Street and Building Names
Board was established within the Inland Revenue Authority of
Singapore to consider and approve the naming and renaming of
buildings, estates, and streets proposed by building owners and
developers. The Urban Redevelopment Authority assumed the
secretariat function of the board to enable itself to further
augment the urban heritage of key places in Singapore through the
naming of buildings and streets (National Library 2011:
92–94).
Although in different periods, committees on naming were under the
Minister of Finance or the Urban Redevelopment Authority, the
committee members were required to follow the national framework in
naming, renaming, or considering names. This can be proved by the
implementations of toponymic policies.
2. Toponymic Policies in Different Periods
In addition to the changes in naming authorities, toponymic
policies had varying characteristics in different periods, even
though they were consistently used as a tool for nation-building.
In fact, toponymic policies rapidly underwent various stages:
Malayanized street names, numerical forms, authorized Chinese
translations of street names, and the multi-ethnic street names in
the 1960s, when Singapore became independent. According to Yeoh,
such conditions reflected the uneven process of mapping nationalist
ideologies onto Singapore’s place names (1996: 305).
In the 1960s, decolonization and building links with Malaya
were
128 59 2013.12
important elements of the toponymic policies implemented in
Singapore. However, these elements existed before Singapore
achieved autonomy. On May 20, 1958, Mayor Ong Eng Guan predicted,
“When Singapore achieves independence, most of its roads will be
given new Malayan names” (Straits Times 1958). In addition,
official documents from the self-government period reveal that the
relevant departmental chiefs had indicated that names related to
British royalty, colonialism or elitism should be abolished and
that their subordinates had proposed new names (National Archives
of Singapore 1961b [H. B. 1076/11/54]). After independence, place
names were decolonized: a headline in The Straits Times read, “OUT:
SNOB NAMES.” The article reported the Finance Minister S. Rawaswamy
stating that the former practice of using names associated with
royalty, colonialism, or snobbery for new streets in Singapore had
been discontinued (Straits Times 1966). In March 1967, a
Malayanized naming principle was adopted, substituting the old
colonial names with “local” place names (Yeoh 1996: 301–302). To
facilitate nation-building, the chosen Malayanized place names were
associated with the natural environment, such as local flora,
fauna, and topography. For instance, Jalan Jati and Jalan Derum
were named after trees; Jalan Layang-Layang and Jalan Chiak Padi
were named after birds; Jalan Keli was named after fish; Jalan Anak
Bukit and Jalan Tanah Rata means a small hill and the flat land
respectively.2 By eschewing Malayan history, stories, and legends,
the chosen names emphasize links with the natural environment, not
the Malay culture.
The government’s idea of nation-building, as revealed by various
toponymic policies during the 1960s, indicated that Singapore
wished to show loyalty to Malaya in the initial days after the
Singapore–Malaysia separation (Yeoh 1996: 301). In addition, to
manage the national space, the government wanted to name
streets
2 “Jalan” is a Malay word which means a road or a street.
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 129
numerically such as Lorong 1 Toa Payoh, Lorong 2 Toa Payoh or
Lorong 101 Changi because this carried no racial connotations. 3
Moreover, these two toponymic policies—an authorized Chinese
translation of street names in 1967 and the multi-ethnic street
names in 1968—revealed that an additional goal of nation-building
was to eliminate multiracial heterogeneities by merging races and
constructing four main ethnic groups. Both the pinyinization of
Chinese place names in the 1980s and bilingualism of place names in
the 1990s occurred under this goal by pigeonholing the citizens
into four main ethnic groups. The Singapore government implemented
the pinyinization to rename the Romanized dialect names in Hanyu
Pinyin; for example, the Nee Soon was renamed Yishun. Bilingualism
of place names means to put up bilingual road signs in some
historical districts. For example, the road signs in Chinatown must
be marked in English and Chinese; the road signs in Little India
must carry English and Tamil names. Furthermore, ceasing the
pinyinization of Chinese place names and implementing bilingualism
indicated that in the early 1980s, the Singaporean government’s
concept of nation-building gradually incorporated multiculturalism
and consideration for traditional society into its policies. Thus,
the government tolerated place names’ retaining their original
ethnic and cultural characteristics.
By the various toponymic policies implemented by the Singapore
government, we can see that as an emerging post-colonial country
and government, the Singapore government is learning by doing,
rather than reaching the goal in one step. Besides, it must be
clarified that those new place names created by the toponymic
policies since the 1960s do not mean that they have very different
characteristics from the old place names. Conversely, although the
Singapore government selected a certain principle as the basis for
renaming place names, the new place names and the old ones often
have the
3 “Lorong” is a Malay word which means a lane or a path.
130 59 2013.12
same characteristics, such as Malay Flora and Fauna, and numerical
forms. It is for this reason that we should pay attention to the
sense of place and memory within a place name, rather than the
difference of characteristics between EPN and newly named place
names when we examine the significance of EPNs in this paper.
III. Erased Place Names in the Post-colonial Period
To examine the quantitative change of EPNs in Singapore since the
1960s, three types of place names—street names, rural settlement
names, and bridge names—were selected as analytic indicators. The
composition of a place name contains a specific term and the
generic term, both considered in the calculation of EPNs. On the
significance of names, each EPN is considered the carrier of
collective memory within a particular space. The analytic starting
point is the documented year 1962, which reveals place-name
conditions in the late colonial period; the analytic end point is
the documented year 2011. Six documented years, 1962, 1971, 1981,
1988, 2000, and 2011, at intervals of approximately ten years, are
selected for the analytic base data. These years reveal the
detailed changing conditions of EPNs in Singapore during the past
50 years.4 The results are elucidated in the following section and
Figures 1 and 2.
1. Erasing Street Names
Late colonial Singapore’s urban areas were densely developed and
contained an advanced network of roads. Main arteries led from
downtown toward the east, northeast, north, northwest, and west;
the island’s entire road system was constructed by connecting these
4 These six pieces of data include the documented years of 1962
(seventh edition, 1964), 1971 (tenth edition, 1972), 1981
(thirteenth edition, 1981), 1988 (fifteenth edition, 1988), 2000
(twentieth edition, 2000), and 2011 (published in 2012); except for
the data of documented year 2011, published by Mighty Minds, all
were published by the related Singapore governmental
departments.
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 131
arteries via various small roads (Singapore map in Li 1959). The
street directory of documented year 1962 contains 2,290 street
names. Utilizing these street names as a pre-independence profile
shows the cumulative number of erased street names steadily rising
from 1962 to 2000, after which the rise has been slower (Figure 1).
From 1962 to 2011, 656 street names were erased. With the increase
in erased street names, the pre-independence profile of 2,290
street names has correspondingly declined, and the end-point
profile in 2011 remained at 1,634 street names.
Figure 1. Changes in Street Names in Singapore
Source: The diagram is produced by the author. Note: Based on
statistics from various Singapore street directories.
In each documented period of 1962–1971, 1971–1981, 1981–1988,
and 1988–2000, between 120 and 199 street names were erased (see
Figure 2). From 2000 to 2011, street names were erased more
slowly—only 16 disappeared. Interestingly, the greatest number of
erasures did not occur during the period immediately
following
132 59 2013.12
independence (1962–1971), but 188 erasures occurred from 1971 to
1981, and 199 from 1988 to 2000. These figures contrast with Gill
(2005), who shows that in Moscow, place names were quickly replaced
during the early days of the post-Soviet regime. As Figure 2
illustrates, the EPN profile does not reveal a sudden, then steady,
trend of change in Singapore after independence.
Figure 2. Number of Changed Street Names in Singapore
Source: The diagram is produced by the author. Note: Based on
statistics from various Singapore street directories.
Thus, the disappearance of Singaporean street names was
prevalent before 2000; since then, it has not been as apparent.
Some street names were erased through urban planning for
redevelopment, but a few were renamed. Furthermore, if we mark the
erased street names on a map (as in Map 1), their spatial
distribution indicates more erased street names in the downtown
than rural areas. In fact, most of the erased street names downtown
congregated around the
year
number
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 133
mouth of the Singapore River. This spatial distribution is not
caused as much by the distance from the political power core, the
city center, as by the distribution of the transportation system.
Singapore originated near the mouth of the Singapore River; thus,
the population and establishments were densest there, and the
geographical distribution of erased street names seems to reflect
local development. If we examine De Koninck’s map of the Singapore
population distribution in 1957 (see Map 2), we see that the
spatial distribution of erased street names is consistent with the
population distribution of colonial Singapore.
Map 1. Distribution of Erased Street Names in Singapore Source:
Statistics are produced by the author. Note: Because of the
confidentiality of certain data, the map does not reveal 22
erased street names on the Naval Base, one in Pulau Ubin, and five
in Pulau Tekong.
134 59 2013.12
Source: De Koninck (2006: 80).
2. Erased Rural Settlement Names
The erasure of rural settlement names in Singapore generally
accompanies the removal of rural landscapes, and thus, is not
simply because of renaming. Since the Singapore government
established the Housing and Development Board in 1960 to manage
public housing projects, rural areas have gradually been demolished
due to land acquisition, buildup of public housing, and exercised
urban planning. In the process of modernization, rural settlements’
names were almost all gone.
The street directory of documented year 1962 originally contained
96 rural settlement names, which were mainly located at the
periphery of the urban area or along the main roads, as depicted in
Map 3.5 Only 5 Although we used only the 96 rural settlement names
recorded in the street directory of documented year 1962 to examine
changes in disappeared
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 135
five rural settlement names disappeared from 1962 to 1971; forty
were deleted from 1971 to 1981; and sixteen from 1981 to 1988.
Although we lack data for rural settlement names after 1988, an
article in The Straits Times titled “A place and lifestyle trapped
in time” reported that Kampong Lorong Buangkok might be the last
rural settlement in Singapore (Straits Times 1999).6 Therefore,
nearly all rural settlements on Singapore Island may be considered
to have disappeared by 1999. Similar to the erased street names,
the rural settlement names did not vanish immediately after
Singapore’s independence.
3. Erased Bridge Names
The street directory of documented year 1962 shows 11 main bridges
in colonial Singapore. Six bridges, the Anderson, Cavenagh,
Clemenceau, Coleman, Elgin, and Ord, were over the Singapore River;
the Crawford and Victoria Bridges were over the Rochor River; the
Stevens Bridge was over the Rochor Canal; the Merdeka Bridge was
over the Kallang River; and the Stamford Bridge was over the
Stamford Canal. Even though these bridges were located in the
political power core the urban area the street directories of
documented years 1971 and 1981 show that the Singapore government
had not renamed them in the 1960s and 1970s.
In the 1980s, the Stamford Canal, which ran parallel to Stamford
and Orchard Roads, was removed because of a road widening and
pedestrian mall project (Straits Times 1984). Hence, the Stamford
Bridge was dismantled and the bridge name was erased. The Stevens
place names, more rural settlement names existed in Singapore in
1962. For example, Savage and Yeoh noted that more than 120
kampongs were eradicated from 1969 to 1989 (2004, 23). This may be
because certain small settlements were not recorded in the street
directory; on the other hand, the people may have resettled to
other rural land as their land was levied by the government,
resulting in an increase in the number of rural settlements during
the 1960s and 1970s. 6 Kampong Lorong Buangkok was not recorded in
the street directory of documented year 1962.
136 59 2013.12
Bridge appears to have been demolished because of a bridge widening
project in 1987–1988 (Straits Times 1987d), and its name was not
recorded in later street directories.
Except for the Merdeka Bridge, named for “independence” in Malay,
those important bridges, built in colonial times, were named after
generals, officials, policemen, bridge designers, the French prime
minister who once visited Singapore, and the Queen of England.
Thus, bridge names have strong colonial implications. However, the
Singapore government did not rename those bridges in the
post-colonial period; only the dismantling of the Stamford and
Stevens Bridges during the 1980s made their names disappear (see
Map 3).
Map 3. Distribution of Erased Rural Settlement Names and Erased
Bridge Names in Singapore
Source: The map is drawn by the author.
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 137
IV. Dialogue of Erased Place Names and Toponymic Policies
According to the EPNs analyzed above, of the 2,290 street names in
1962, 656 had been erased by 2011, while 1,634 remained; all the 96
rural settlement names from 1962 had disappeared; of the eleven
bridge names, only two were pruned, and nine remained. So what were
those EPNs? Why did they disappear? What roles did the EPNs play in
Singaporean nation-building? How do people respond when a place
name is threatened?
To answer these questions, we examine the EPNs according to their
nomenclature from the perspectives of decolonization and
nation-building. Then, we elucidate and understand the people’s
feelings about the erasure of place names.
1. Decolonizing Policies for Nomenclature and Erased Place
Names
Savage and Yeoh (2004) divided modern Singaporean street
nomenclature into seven classes including: (1) colonial names, (2)
names of Asian persons, (3) names associated with different racial
groups or multiracial communities, (4) descriptive names, (5)
Malayanized names, (6) numerical names, and (7) specially “themed”
names (Savage and Yeoh 2004, 8-9). Focusing on the change of old
street names, we reclassify the 1962 Singaporean street names into
four primary categories: colonial, local, numbered, and other to
examine the implementation of decolonizing policies; the categories
of “colonial” and “local” can be subdivided further, as illustrated
in Table 1.
As shown in Table 1, it is difficult to determine what kind of
subcategories of street names were deliberately removed, but it
still shows us some information. Comparing the street names of 1962
to those erased by 1971, 1981, 1988, 2000, and 2011, we find that
the local, not colonial, street names have been mostly expunged. An
exception is
138 59 2013.12
the “other” category, which is not strongly related to
nation-building. The colonial street names of 1962 constitute
32.74% of all street names. However, erased colonial street names
as of 2011 account for only 17.38%. Thus, colonial street names do
not appear to have been eradicated immediately after the country’s
independence. The percentage of erased local street names has
always been significantly larger than the erased colonial street
names. Thus, although for nation-building, the Singapore government
adopted decolonization as one part of place-name policies, the
colonial street names in fact were not removed as frequently as the
names in other categories. The colonial street names, from the
study’s starting point of 1962 to its ending point of 2011, were
reduced by only 15.2%. Furthermore, urban planning rather than
decolonizing policies demolished entire rural settlements, along
with their names. Finally, bridge names were not influenced by the
decolonizing policies for nomenclature.
Although official documents from 1965 are not available for public
consultation, the case of Queenstown exemplifies the implementation
of early nomenclature decolonizing policies. In Queenstown, in
1961–1962, new roads required names; this caused an argument about
street naming and renaming within the relevant government
departments. If the officials employed the old naming policy, the
new roads would be named after the original Commonwealth Avenue and
Queensway and adopt the generic British terms drive, close,
crescent, or lane. But according to the place-naming policy of the
time, names were not to be British, which would demonstrate a
guilty loyalty to the colonizers, but Malayan. During the official
naming discussions, it was suggested that not only new road names
but also entire roads in Queenstown should be renamed after Malayan
fishes, and generic British terms such as drive and crescent should
be replaced by the corresponding Malay words. Furthermore, an
official highlighted a fundamental question: if whole roads should
be renamed, then
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 139
Queenstown should be renamed Malaysia Town, and other estates with
colonial names, such as Princess Estate and Duchess Estate, should
be renamed Singapore Estate and Federation Estate. These arguments
were terminated by the relevant ministers’ discussions; they
decided that although the policy was to cease colonial naming, the
original place names in Queenstown did not need to be changed.
Thus, the Malayanized naming principle was not implemented in
Queenstown, and the new roads followed the old naming principle of
being named after the Commonwealth and Queen of England (National
Archives of Singapore 1961b [1076/11/54]). In the case of
Queenstown, although toponymic policy required decolonization and
Malayanization, the naming practice was consistent with other roads
in the area and conformed to the name of Queenstown, thus
increasing the number of colonial street names.
How do we interpret this phenomenon, then? If we return to the
early history of the founding of Singapore, we can find
decolonization was not the primary concern of the government at
that time. Singapore could not survive in the Federation of
Malaysia and was expelled due to the complicated causes of highly
discordant opinions on economic, racial and political issues
(Fletcher 1969; Sopiee 1976: 183–229). Since the separation of
Singapore and Malaysia in 1965, the Singaporean government has had
to urgently address the difficulties of national survival. The main
concerns were showing and keeping a friendly attitude toward the
surrounding Malay world, as well as toward the original colonial
mother country, Britain, and even other, more distant countries to
“find a place” for Singapore, and in the meantime dealing with the
problems of the national economy and security (Wilson 1972; Chan
1969). Besides, British colonial place names are a part of
Singapore’s history; the names have positive meanings regarding the
entry of immigrants (especially the Chinese) and the beginnings of
social and economic development. Moreover, as
140 59 2013.12
compared with other Southeast Asian colonies, colonial Singapore
did not suffer a tense relationship between the local people and
colonists, so decolonizing for nation-building does not seem to
have been as important as in other post-colonial countries.
Table 1. Categories of Erased Street Names
In 1962 Erased (as of 1971) Erased (as of 1981) Categories
Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage
Person 380 16.59 15 12.50 24 7.79
Environment* 64 2.79 6 5.00 9 2.92
Place Name 266 11.62 6 5.00 11 3.57
Flora & Fauna
Colonial
Place Name 60 2.62 8 6.67 13 4.22
Flora & Fauna
Ideology** 72 3.14 0 0.00 2 0.65
Local
Others Other &
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 141
Table 1. Categories of Erased Street Names (continued)
Erased (as of 1988) Erased (as of 2000) Erased (as of 2011)
Categories
Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage
Person 34 7.71 71 11.09 62 9.45
Environment* 9 2.04 13 2.03 13 1.98
Place Name 13 2.95 26 4.06 36 5.49
Flora & Fauna**
Colonial
Place Name 19 4.31 25 3.91 26 3.96
Flora & Fauna**
Ideology*** 18 4.08 19 2.97 19 2.90
Local
Others Other &
Source: The table is produced by the author.
2. Nation-building and Erased Place Names
With regard to the nation-building toponymic policies of
Malayanizing, numbering, and multi-ethnicizing street names, each
was short-term and not comprehensively implemented.
Therefore,
142 59 2013.12
Singaporean toponymic policies have been subject to the practical
limits of time and space and should not be taken as universal or
general.
Why were names from every category in the erased names catalog (see
Table 1) scraped from Singapore’s daily landscapes? Is Singapore
like the Spanish Andalusian town of Almonte, which emphasized
national consistency in street naming by removing place names
reflecting regional or local characteristics that were accused of
weakening national unity during General Franco’s dictatorship from
1936 to 1975 (Faraco and Murphy 1997)? Those old bridges with
colonial names in Singapore were not renamed by the government;
projects of urban planning caused the dismantling of the Stamford
and Stevens Bridges in the 1980s. The 96 erased rural settlements
were influenced not by the renaming policy, but by land
acquisition, urban planning, and public housing projects, that is,
by the succession of landscapes and modernization projects.
Although the actual number of street names pruned through renaming
remains unknown, if the survey is based exclusively on Toponymics:
A Study of Singapore Street Names (Savage and Yeoh 2004), more than
310 road names were expunged. Furthermore, it can be presumed that
urban planning significantly influenced the erasure of street
names.
Thus, most place namesfrom all categoriesdisappeared due to the
process of urban planning. Does this imply that the Singapore
government utilized urban planning, i.e., the breakup of racial
enclaves though public housing projects, to forcefully eliminate
place names representing racial enclaves, local history, emotion,
and memories (Yeh 2012)? What role have EPNs actually played in
Singaporean nation-building?
I believe that erasure of place names for Singaporean
nation-building is not as simple as deleting local history and
emotion within the toponymic landscapes; the EPNs positively
affected
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 143
Singaporean nation-building and the social and cultural production
of place. Although the names of two colonially named bridges no
longer exist, their specific terms continue in other place-name
forms. The Stamford Bridge was demolished, but the names Stamford
Road and Stamford Canal have been used since the colonial period.
While the Stevens Bridge has been razed, not only has the term
Stevens been in continuous use since the colonial period, as in
Stevens Road, but also two new names with British generic terms,
Stevens Close and Stevens Drive, have been added.7 The racial
enclaves are rural settlements that the Singapore government most
wished to disintegrate for nation-building. But even though the 96
rural settlement names ceased to exist by 2011, at least 56
specific terms have remained or been transformed into the names of
roads or estates, with some being expanded by attaching a number.
For instance, the specific term of Ama Keng Village still survives
through the Ama Keng Road; Choa Chu Kang Village not only exists
through the Choa Chu Kang Road but also has been amplified to more
than 30 new street names such as Choa Chu Kang Avenue 1, Choa Chu
Kang Drive, and Choa Chu Kang Terrace. Like the erased bridge and
rural settlement names, many specific terms of erased street names
have been retained or expanded into other types of road names.
Although some place names have been completely expunged from
Singaporean daily life, specific terms have frequently been
retained or extended in toponymic landscapes.
Similarly, the increased use of specific terms occurs not only with
the old place names but also with new, specific terms created after
independence. Based on Figures 1 and 2, the increasing rate and 7
Naming roads with the same specific terms always causes confusion
and problems with mail delivery. Although the Singapore government
considered this issue and named a new road Jalan Merpati instead of
Aljunied Avenue in MacPherson Road Estate in 1961a (H. B.
1126/11/56), the naming of roads with the same specific terms in
the same area has continued since the 1960s.
144 59 2013.12
number of new street names exceeds that of erased street names.
Besides being named after a new specific term, many new streets
have adopted specific terms from colonial times. Because the EPNs
were retained or amplified through toponymic forms, they have
returned to the process of social and cultural production. This
process might enlarge the space affected by a name: new local
emotions and memories generated by new, diverse residents in the
changing residential landscapes would be added to the old ones.
Even regional identity, generated by the amplification of specific
terms, accumulates onto the place names. Like Foote’s concept of
symbolic accretion, that is, the attachment of commemorative
elements to existing memorials (1997, 231–32), we discovered that a
place name not only represents an ethnicity or group but also
appends new local and regional emotions and history under the
ideology of nation-building. Such “new” place names transform their
original, local memories into usable nutrients for Singaporean
nation-building.
3. People’s Resistance to the Erasure of Place Names
Although in modern times, governments control the naming and
renaming of public space, many people still express opinions on
toponymic matters. The obvious cases are Palestine, Northern
Ireland, and Pretoria, South Africa (Cohen and Kliot 1992; Nash
1999; Swanepoel 2009). People are not passive in naming politics;
they actively participate in and may struggle against official
policies.
The Singapore government adopted various toponymic naming
principles for nation-building, but this process met with
resistance from local residents. Indeed, people have always
conveyed their feelings and suggested place names to the
government, especially in cases of renaming. We can grasp this
process from the following examples of colonial place names: (1) In
the initial days of independence, when the government insisted on
renaming colonial
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 145
streets for Lorong 1, 2, and so forth within Clementi Park, named
after a colonial governor-general, the homeowners and tenants
strenuously protested about the inconvenience of changing addresses
and the negative connotations of the word Lorong (Straits Times
1967). Moreover, they appealed for the streets to be named after
Clementi instead (Straits Times 1968). (2) When the Shell Company
leased Raffles Tower, people were against its renaming to Shell
Tower, since the name Raffles Tower reflected the pride of
Singaporeans experiencing the growth of a modern metropolis and
provided a vital link between their Singaporean heritage and their
future (Straits Times 1982). (3) Opposing views and severe disputes
arose when the Senior Minister Goh Chok Tong appealed to change the
names of roads named after minor colonial officials, with whom most
Singaporeans could not identify, and rename them after people who
had contributed to Singapore in modern times (Straits Times 2006a).
Opponents to this plan argued that the names should not be changed
for various reasons: people’s customs and habits, the expenses of
renaming, the local contributions of the colonists, emotions
attached to old place names, and historical meanings. They argued
that if the government wanted to commemorate prominent
Singaporeans, it should name only new roads, public buildings, and
structures after them (Straits Times 2006b, 2006c, 2006d, 2006e,
2006f, 2007).
To obtain an explanation for the difficulty in decolonizing place
names, the circumstances in Singapore may be compared to those in
another country. In post-colonial times, Senegal’s capital city,
Dakar, changed some French colonial street names under the ideology
of nationalism. Ironically, the people still continued using the
colonial place names in their daily lives (Bigon 2008: 496). In
2005 South Africa’s capital Pretoria was officially renamed Tshwane
to show a break with the old colonial days, but some people
resisted the renaming. Those people deemed Tshwane to have a bad
meaning, as
146 59 2013.12
small monkey, and felt the renaming cost a lot; they thought that
the original name, Pretoria, was part of their heritage and
identity (Swanepoel 2009: 100). Pakistan, formerly a British colony
like Singapore, renamed many streets in the process of
decolonization after its independence; however, people had become
accustomed to the colonial names, and insisted that the new ones
were too lengthy (Addleton 1987: 38). Therefore, even though a
place was named by colonists, people became familiar with and
attached memories to it. Thus, the positive local sentiment
represented by the name might be significantly greater than the
memories of negative colonial ideology.
In addition, the people resisted name changes for other reasons.
Instead of the old dialect names from the 1980s, the government
applied the Hanyu Pinyin system to street and place names. This
raised another severe debate on the spread of pinyinization. For
example, when the government decided to rename Seletar (New Town)
Shilida, there were appeals to retain the original name, based on
arguments that the history of the word Seletar should be linked
with Malay, not Chinese (Straits Times 1981). It was also suggested
that the Housing and Development Board return some Hanyu Pinyin
names to their earlier forms, as it was difficult for non-Chinese
Singaporeans to pronounce these names (Straits Times 1987a).
Furthermore, people believed that certain famous places should
revert from their Hanyu Pinyin names to their prominent, old names
(Straits Times 1987b). The government was also urged to change the
name of Yishun New Town back to Nee Soon New Town to appropriately
honor the distinguished Singaporean Lim Nee Soon (Straits Times
1987e). People constantly expressed their objections to the
marketplace Tekka being renamed Zhujiao because the new name was
difficult to read and pronounce, and seemed to erase the famous
market’s history (Straits Times 1987c).
Thus, in addition to the inconvenience and cost of changing
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 147
addresses, people urged the government to preserve old place names
for their historical meanings and values. Furthermore, the examples
of Yishun New Town and renaming roads originally named after minor
colonial officials suggest that when opposing toponymic nationalism
advocated by the government, Singaporeans do not oppose
nationalism. Instead, they translate nationalism from a local
viewpoint and pragmatically merge local and national histories.
Regardless of whether the government adopts people’s suggestions,
both these expressions of toponymic nationalismrenaming and
retaining old namesare constantly struggling, and “one Singapore”
has been constructed out of this struggle of cultural
politics.
V. Conclusion
Miller (1969: 251) believes that “the study of place names
indicates that they are a geographic expression of cultural
processes that are still dynamic”. Naming a place is a process for
the people to tame the space; conversely, a place name also becomes
a medium for the space to regulate the people. For the people,
every place name represents the collective life and memory of their
group; for the nation, place names may become a means for the
government’s constructing various national symbols.
This study argues that if the naming and renaming of places
involves symbols and meanings, the EPNs are similarly important as
newly selected place names; they are worthy of close attention in
terms of cultural politics. The function of new place names in
political ideology is familiar to critical toponymic researchers,
but this paper indicates that, at least in the case of Singapore,
the EPNs have not simply been pruned. Because the specific terms of
many EPNs are retained in other toponymic forms, they survive in
people’s daily lives, and they will continue struggling and
contesting erasure from within the cultural politics of place
names.
148 59 2013.12
Decolonization and nation-building have been the twin cores of
toponymic policies during Singapore’s post-colonial period, and the
Singapore government has shown a strong intention to construct a
national identity through toponymic policies. However, place names
have obviously not been entirely decolonized. The EPNs not only
contain colonial names but also every other category of name. In
fact, most colonial names continue to be used. People gradually
attach their emotions and memories to the colonial place names and
consider them according to built-up local meanings rather than
colonial ideology.
In contrast to the expectation that place names would be
extensively removed immediately after a regime change, especially
in urban areas at the core of political power (Gill 2005; Horsman
2006), the Singapore government did not erase toponymic landscapes
to clarify its ideologies as a newly built (post-colonial) nation
during the early days of its independence. Nearly fifty years after
independence, the temporal and spatial distribution of EPNs shows a
consistent trend of change with the cultural landscapes. EPNs have
considerable relevance to the succession of landscapes in the
urbanization or modernization process. For Singaporean
nation-building, unlike some new place names, EPNs do not carry
strong meanings for nation-building, as they are transformed into
other toponymic types, retained, and amplified in use. Old place
names, even the colonial ones, can serve as nutrients for
nation-building and be preserved as valuable historical and
cultural aspects of the nation.
Swanepoel (2009: 103) predicts that old names will disappear from
use if not from memory. But as Amery and Williams’s study on Kaurna
toponyms for the Adelaide Plain in South Australia shows that “The
best way to ensure the reinstatement of Kaurna names, where these
are known, is for us to simply begin to use them in our teaching
programs, our writings and in our everyday conversations,
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 149
and to familiarize the public with these sites and their history”
(2002: 265). In other words, the best way to preserve place names
is to keep them alive in everyday life. In this study, although
some place names have been erased from Singaporean cultural
politics during the process of urban planning, the specific terms
of most EPNs have been retained and transformed into other
place-name forms in the toponymic landscapes. Considering Foote’s
(1997) concept of symbolic accretion or Dwyer’s (2004: 421)
extending the concept of allied and antithetical accretions, which
refer to the subjunction of coherent discourse and contradicted
argument, respectively, preserving the specific terms ensures that
they gain new local, regional, and cross-ethnic memories. As the
erasure of old place names accompanies the renovation of landscapes
and resettlement of population (Yeh 2012), the old ethnic and local
collective memories are gradually integrated and obscured. Through
this process, place names have afforded a new, mixed, regional, and
cross-ethnic memory for Singaporean nation-building and have often
been reactivated in the contested politics of everyday life.
Reference
Addleton, Jonathan. 1987. The Fate of British Place Names in
Pakistan. Asian Affairs, 8(1): 37–44.
Alderman, Derek H. 2002a. School Names as Cultural Arenas: The
Naming of U.S. Public Schools after Martin Luther King, JR. Urban
Geography, 23(7): 601–626.
______. 2002b. Street Names as Memorial Arenas: The Reputational
Politics of Commemorating Martin Luther King Jr. in a Georgia
County. Historical Geography, 30: 99–120.
150 59 2013.12
Amery, Robert Maxwell, and Georgina Yambo Williams. 2002.
Reclaiming through Renaming: The Reinstatement of Kaurna Toponmys
in Adelaide and the Adelaide Plans. Pp. 255–276 in Luise Hercus,
Flavia Hodges and Jane Simpson, eds., The Land is A Map: Place
names of Indigenous Origin in Australia. Canberra: Pandanus
Books.
Azaryahu, Maoz, and Arnon Golan. 2001. (Re) naming the Landscape:
The Formation of the Hebrew Map of Israel 1949–1960. Journal of
Historical Geography, 27(2): 178–195.
Berg, Lawrence D., and Jani Vuolteenaho eds. 2009. Critical
Toponymies: The Contested Politics of Place Naming. England and
U.S.A.: Ashgate.
Bigon, Liora. 2008. Names, Norms and Forms: French and Indigenous
Toponyms in Early Colonial Dakar, Senegal. Planning Perspectives,
23: 479–501.
Blunt, Alison, and Cheryl McEwan eds. 2002. Postcolonial
Geographies. New York and London: Continuum.
Champoux, Gilles J. 2012. Toponymy and Canadian Arctic Sovereignty.
Review of Historical Geography and Toponomastics, 7(13–14):
11–37.
Chan, Heng Chee. 1969. Singapore’s Foreign Policy 1965–1968.
Journal of Southeast Asian History, 10(1): 177–191.
Cohen, Saul B. and Nurit Kliot. 1992. Place-names in Israel's
Ideological Struggle over the Administered Territories. Annals of
the Association of American Geographers, 82(4): 653–680.
Cook, I. and Michelle Harrison. 2003. Cross over Food:
Re-materializing Postcolonial Geographies. Transactions of the
Institute of British Geographers, 28(3): 296–317.
De Koninck, Rodolphe. 2006. Singapour: La Cité-État Ambitieuse.
Paris: Belin.
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 151
Dwyer, Owen J. 2004. Symbolic Accretion and Commemoration. Social
& Cultural Geography, 5(3): 419–435.
Faraco, J. Carlos González ,and Michael Dean Murphy. 1997. Street
Names and Political Regimes in an Andalusian Town. Ethnology,
36(2): 123–148.
Fletcher, Nancy McHenry. 1969. The Separation of Singapore from
Malaysia. New York: Cornell University.
Foote, Kenneth E. 1997. Shadowed Ground: America’s Landscapes of
Violence and Tragedy. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Gill, Graeme. 2005. Changing Symbols: The Renovation of Moscow
Place Names. The Russian Review, 64: 480–503.
Herman, RDK. 1999. The Aloha State: Place Names and the
Anti-conquest of Hawai‘i. Annals of Association of American
Geographers, 89(1): 76–102.
Horsman, Stuart. 2006. The Politics of Toponyms in the Pamir
Mountains. Area, 38(3): 279–291.
Jackson, Peter. 2000. Rematerializing Social and Cultural
Geography. Social & Cultural Geography, 1(1): 9–14.
Kearney, Amanda ,and John J. Bradley. 2009. “Too Strong to Ever Not
Be There”: Place Names and Emotional Geographies. Social &
Cultural Geography, 10(1): 77–94.
Kearns, Robin A., and Lawrence D. Berg. 2009. Proclaiming Place:
Towards A Geography of Place Name Pronunciation. Pp. 153–177 in
Lawrence D. Berg and Jani Vuolteenaho, eds., Critical Toponymies:
the Contested Politics of Place Naming. England and USA:
Ashgate,.
Li, Minfei. 1959. The Maps of Malaya. Hong Kong: Hai guang chu ban
she. (in Chinese)
Light, Duncan, Ion Nicolae and Bogdan Suditu. 2002. Toponymy and
the Communist City: Street Names in Bucharest, 1948–1965.
GeoJournal, 56: 135–144.
152 59 2013.12
Mighty Minds. 2012. Street Directory. 20th edition. Singapore:
Mighty Minds Publishing Pte Ltd.
Miller, E. Joan Wilson. 1969. The Naming of the Land in the
Arkansas Ozarks: A Study in Cultural Process. Annals of the
Association of American Geographers, 59(2): 240–251.
Ministry of Culture. 1972. Singapore Guide & Street Directory.
10th edition. Singapore: A Ministry of Culture.
______. 1981. Singapore Street Directory. 13th edition. Singapore:
The Information Division, Ministry of Culture.
Nash, Catherine. 1999. Irish Place Names: Post-colonial Locations.
Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 24(4):
457–480.
National Archives of Singapore. 1961a. MacPherson Road (South)
Estate, Naming of Roads. File number: H. B. 1126/11/56.
______. 1961b. Queenstown—Neighborhood III, IV, V Naming &
Number. File number: H. B. 1076/11/54.
National Library. 2011. Stories Behind Singapore Streets.
Singapore: National Library.
Randall, Richard R. 2001. Place Names: How They Define the Worldand
More. Lanham, Maryland, and London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.
Rose-Redwood, Reuben S. 2008. Sixth Avenue is Now a Memory: Regimes
of Spatial Inscription and the Performative Limits of the Official
City-text. Political Geography, 27: 875–894.
Rose-Redwood, Reuben S., and Derek Alderman. 2011. Critical
Interventions in Political Toponymy. ACME: An International
E-Journal for Critical Geographies, 10(1): 1–6.
Rose-Redwood, Reuben S., Derek Alderman and Maoz Azaryahu. 2010.
Geographies of Toponymic Inscription: New Directions in Critical
Place-name Studies. Progress in Human Geography, 34(4):
453–470.
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 153
Savage, Victor R., and Brenda S. A. Yeoh. 2004. Toponymics: A Study
of Singapore Street Names. 2nd edition. Singapore: Eastern
University Press.
Scott, James C. 1998. Seeing Like A State: How Certain Schemes to
Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. New Haven and London: Yale
University Press.
Singapore National Printers. 1988. Singapore Street Directory. 15th
edition. Singapore: Singapore National Printers LTD.
______. 2000. Singapore Street Directory 2000/2001. 20th editin.
Singapore: Singapore National Printers LTD.
Sopiee, Mohamed Noordin. 1976. From Malayan Union to Singapore
Separation: Political Unification in the Malaysia Region,
1945–1465. Kula Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya.
Straits Times. 1958. We’ll Change Colonial Street NamesOng. Strait
Times, May 20.
______. 1966. Out: Snob Names. Strait Times, December 15. ______.
1967. Letter: Plenty in A Name. Strait Times, December 30. ______.
1968. ‘Clementi’ for Street Names: Estate’s Plea. Strait
Times,
January 27. ______. 1981. Letter: Likely Link between Seletar and
Orang Seletar.
Strait Times, December 8 ______. 1982. Letter: A Link between Our
Past and Our Future. Strait
Times, April 19. ______. 1984. Part of Orchard Road Wider. Strait
Times, July 14. ______. 1987a. Letter: Hard for Some to Pronounce
These Names.
Strait Times, March 3. ______. 1987b. HDB to Keep Old Place Names:
Dhana. Strait Times,
March 20. ______. 1987c. Letter: ‘Poll’ Showed No One Knew where
Zhujiao
Centre Was. Strait Times, March 24.
154 59 2013.12
______. 1987d. Heave Ho! And up Go the Beams at Whitley. Strait
Times, July 23.
______. 1987e. Letter: Why Yishun New Town Should Be Called Nee
Soon. Strait Times, December 3.
______. 1999. A Place and Lifestyle Trapped in Time. Strait Times,
January 19.
______. 2006a. SM: Change Road Names with Little Meaning for
Singaporeans. Strait Times, December 17.
______. 2006b. Letter: Building Names Should Reflect Leader’s
Roles. Strait Times, December 19.
______. 2006c. Letter: Building Should Be Identified with the
People They Are Named after. Strait Times, December 19.
______. 2006d. Letter: Names Only New Roads, Buildings after VIPs.
Strait Times, December 19.
______. 2006e. Letter: MacPherson, MacRitchie Were No ‘Lesser
Officials’. Strait Times, December 23.
______. 2006f. Letter: Rename Streets? Step up National Education.
Strait Times, December 23.
______. 2007. Letter: Keep Place Names as They Have History. Strait
Times, January 1.
Survey Department. 1964. Singapore Guide and Street Directory with
Sectional Maps. 7th edition. Singapore: The Survey Department,
Singapore.
Swanepoel, Natalie. 2009. Capital Letters: Material Dissent and
Place Name Change in the ‘New’ South Africa, 2005–2006.
Anthropology Southern Africa, 32(3 & 4): 95–105.
Wilson, Dick. 1972. The Future Role of Singapore. London, Oxford
and New York: Oxford University Press.
Wylie, John. 2009. Landscape, Absence and the Geographies of Love.
Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 34:
275–289.
“Erased Place Names” and Nation-building 155
Yeh, Yun-Tsui. 2012. The Change of Social Spaces within Chinese
Settlements in Singapore under National Politics. Journal of
Chinese Overseas, 8: 11–37.
Yeoh, Brenda S. A. 1992. Street Names in Colonial Singapore.
Geographic Review, 82(3): 313–322.
______. 1996. Street-naming and Nation-building: Toponymic
Inscriptions of Nationhood in Singapore. Area, 28(3):
298–307.
______. 2003. Contesting Space in Colonial Singapore: Power
Relations and the Urban Built Environment. Singapore: Singapore
University Press.
156 59 2013.12
<< /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile
(sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error
/CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Tags /CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.0000 /ColorConversionStrategy
/CMYK /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576 /LockDistillerParams false /MaxSubsetPct 100
/Optimize true /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness
true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments true
/PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue
false /ColorSettingsFile () /AlwaysEmbed [ true ] /NeverEmbed [
true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true
/ColorImageMinResolution 300 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 300 /ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold
1.50000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /DCTEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages true /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1]
/VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256
/Quality 30 >> /JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth
256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages true /GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /GrayImageResolution 300
/GrayImageDepth -1 /GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /DCTEncode /AutoFilterGrayImages true
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >>
/GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples
[1 1 1 1] >> /JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth
256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /JPEG2000GrayImageDict
<< /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false /CropMonoImages true
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200 /MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages true /MonoImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/MonoImageResolution 1200 /MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode /MonoImageDict << /K -1
>> /AllowPSXObjects false /CheckCompliance [ /None ]
/PDFX1aCheck false /PDFX3Check false /PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true /PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [ 0.00000
0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ] /PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [ 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile () /PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition () /PDFXRegistryName () /PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false /Description << /ARA
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
/BGR
<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>
/CHS
<FEFF4f7f75288fd94e9b8bbe5b9a521b5efa7684002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002065876863900275284e8e9ad88d2891cf76845370524d53705237300260a853ef4ee54f7f75280020004100630072006f0062006100740020548c002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee553ca66f49ad87248672c676562535f00521b5efa768400200050004400460020658768633002>
/CHT
<FEFF4f7f752890194e9b8a2d7f6e5efa7acb7684002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002065874ef69069752865bc9ad854c18cea76845370524d5370523786557406300260a853ef4ee54f7f75280020004100630072006f0062006100740020548c002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee553ca66f49ad87248672c4f86958b555f5df25efa7acb76840020005000440046002065874ef63002>
/CZE
<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>
/DAN
<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>
/DEU
<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>
/ESP
<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>
/ETI
<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>
/FRA
<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>
/GRE
<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>
/HEB
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
/HRV (Za stvaranje Adobe PDF dokumenata najpogodnijih za
visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke.
Stvoreni PDF dokumenti mogu se otvoriti Acrobat i Adobe Reader 5.0
i kasnijim verzijama.) /HUN
<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>
/ITA
<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>
/JPN
<FEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002>
/KOR
<FEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002e>
/LTH
<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>
/LVI
<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>
/NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken
die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge
kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met
Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.) /NOR
<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>
/POL
<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>
/PTB
<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>
/RUM
<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>
/RUS
<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>
/SKY
<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>
/SLV
<FEFF005400650020006e006100730074006100760069007400760065002000750070006f0072006100620069007400650020007a00610020007500730074007600610072006a0061006e006a006500200064006f006b0075006d0065006e0074006f0076002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002c0020006b006900200073006f0020006e0061006a007000720069006d00650072006e0065006a016100690020007a00610020006b0061006b006f0076006f00730074006e006f0020007400690073006b0061006e006a00650020007300200070007200690070007200610076006f0020006e00610020007400690073006b002e00200020005500730074007600610072006a0065006e006500200064006f006b0075006d0065006e0074006500200050004400460020006a00650020006d006f0067006f010d00650020006f0064007000720065007400690020007a0020004100630072006f00620061007400200069006e002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000200069006e0020006e006f00760065006a01610069006d002e>
/SUO
<FEFF004b00e40079007400e40020006e00e40069007400e4002000610073006500740075006b007300690061002c0020006b0075006e0020006c0075006f00740020006c00e400680069006e006e00e4002000760061006100740069007600610061006e0020007000610069006e006100740075006b00730065006e002000760061006c006d0069007300740065006c00750074007900f6006800f6006e00200073006f00700069007600690061002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400740065006a0061002e0020004c0075006f0064007500740020005