Key ConceptsKey Concepts
Major geologic processesMajor geologic processes
Rocks and the rock cycleRocks and the rock cycle
Finding and extracting mineral resourcesFinding and extracting mineral resources
Environmental effects of miningEnvironmental effects of mining
Enough nonrenewable resources for the future?Enough nonrenewable resources for the future?
General Mining Law of 1872General Mining Law of 1872
Original purpose of the lawOriginal purpose of the law
Impact on US public landsImpact on US public lands
Benefits to mining companiesBenefits to mining companies
Costs to the publicCosts to the public
Environmental issuesEnvironmental issues
Laws in other countriesLaws in other countries
How Would You VoteHow Would You Vote exercise exercise
Fig. 12-1, p. 269
Internal Geologic ProcessesInternal Geologic Processes
What is geology?What is geology?
Earth’s internal structureEarth’s internal structure
• CoreCore
• MantleMantle
• Crusts (continental and oceanic)Crusts (continental and oceanic)
Plate tectonicsPlate tectonics
Atmosphere
Biosphere
CrustLower mantle
AsthenosphereUpper mantle
Continentalcrust
Oceaniccrust
LithosphereVegetationand animals
Soil
Rock
Crust (soiland rock)
Atmosphere(air)
Biosphere(living and dead
organisms)Lithosphere
(crust, top of upper mantle)
Hydrosphere(water)
Core
Mantle
Fig. 3-5, p. 38
General Structure of the EarthGeneral Structure of the Earth
Fig. 12-2, p. 271
Oceanic crust(lithosphere)
Abyssalhills Abyssal
floorOceanic
ridgeTrench
Volcanoes
Folded mountain belt
Craton
Mantle (lithosphere)
Mantle (asthenosphere)
Ab
ys
sa
l p
lain
Continental crust(lithosphere)
Mantle(lithosphere)
Continentalrise
Continentalslope
Continentalshelf
Abyssal plain
Abyssalfloor
Earth’s Crust and Upper Mantle Earth’s Crust and Upper Mantle
Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics
Tectonic platesTectonic plates
LithosphereLithosphere
Plate tectonics and biological evolutionPlate tectonics and biological evolution
Fig. 12-3, p. 272
Tectonicplate
Collision between two continents
Oceanic tectonicplate
Spreading center Oceanic tectonic
plateOcean trench
Plate movement Plate movement
Continentalcrust
Subductionzone
Oceaniccrust
Oceaniccrust
Continentalcrust
Mantle
Innercore
Hot outercore
Two plates movetowards each other.One is subductedback into the mantleon falling convectioncurrent.
Mantleconvectioncell
Hot materialrisingthroughthe mantle
Material cools as it reachesthe outer mantle
Cold densematerial fallsback throughmantle
Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics
Inner core
Fig. 12-4, p. 273
EURASIAN PLATEEURASIAN PLATE
CHINACHINASUBPLATESUBPLATE
PHILIPPINEPHILIPPINEPLATEPLATE
INDIAN-AUSTRLIAN INDIAN-AUSTRLIAN PLATEPLATE
PACIFICPACIFICPLATEPLATE
JUAN DEJUAN DEFUCA PLATEFUCA PLATE
NORTHNORTHAMERICANAMERICAN
PLATEPLATE
SOUTHSOUTHAMERICANAMERICAN
PLATEPLATE
ANATOLIANANATOLIAN PLATEPLATE
ARABIANARABIAN PLATEPLATE
SOMALIANSOMALIAN SUBPLATESUBPLATE
ANTARCTIC PLATEANTARCTIC PLATE
Convergent plate boundaries Divergent boundaries
Earth’s Major Tectonic PlatesEarth’s Major Tectonic Plates
AFRICANAFRICAN PLATEPLATE
NAZCANAZCA PLATEPLATE
CARIBBEANCARIBBEAN PLATEPLATE
Transform faults
Types of Plate Types of Plate BoundariesBoundaries
DivergentDivergent
ConvergentConvergent
TransformTransform
Fig. 12-5, p. 274
Fig. 12-5a, p. 274
Lithosphere
AsthenosphereOceanic ridge at a divergent plate boundary
Types of Plate BoundariesTypes of Plate Boundaries
Fig. 12-5b, p. 274
Lithosphere
Trench Volcanic island arc
Asthenosphere
Risingmagma
Subductionzone
Trench and volcanic island arc at a convergent plate boundary
Types of Plate BoundariesTypes of Plate Boundaries
Transform fault connecting two divergent plate boundaries
Fig. 12-5c, p. 274
Fracture zone
Transformfault
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Types of Plate BoundariesTypes of Plate Boundaries
External Earth ProcessesExternal Earth Processes
ErosionErosion
Physical (mechanical) weathering: frost wedgingPhysical (mechanical) weathering: frost wedging
Chemical weatheringChemical weathering
Biological weatheringBiological weathering
Minerals and RocksMinerals and Rocks
Minerals (as examples: quartz and diamonds)Minerals (as examples: quartz and diamonds)
RocksRocks
Rock typesRock types
• Igneous (granite and basalt)Igneous (granite and basalt)• Sedimentary (sandstone and limestone)Sedimentary (sandstone and limestone)• Metamorphic (marble and slate)Metamorphic (marble and slate)
Rock cycleRock cycle
Fig. 12-6, p. 275
Igneous RockGranite,pumice,basalt
Metamorphic RockSlate, marble, gneissquartzite
Magma(molten rock)
Heat, pressure, stress
Heat, pressure
Melting
Sedimentary Rock
sandstone, limestone
Deposition
TransportationErosion
Weathering
The Rock CycleThe Rock Cycle
Cooling
Mineral ResourcesMineral Resources
Generally nonrenewableGenerally nonrenewable
Metallic, nonmetallic, and energy resourcesMetallic, nonmetallic, and energy resources
OresOres
Categories of Mineral ResourcesCategories of Mineral Resources
IdentifiedIdentified
UndiscoveredUndiscovered
ReservesReserves
OtherOther
Fig. 12-7, p. 276
Fig. 12-7, p. 276ExistenceDecreasing certainty Known
De
cre
asin
g c
os
t o
f ex
tra
cti
on
Otherresources
Reserves
Undiscovered Identified
No
t eco
no
mic
al
Eco
no
mic
al
Categories of Mineral ResourcesCategories of Mineral Resources
Finding Mineral ResourcesFinding Mineral Resources
Aerial and satellite imagesAerial and satellite images
Radiation detectorsRadiation detectors
MagnetometersMagnetometers
GravimetersGravimeters
Seismic surveysSeismic surveys
Chemical analysesChemical analyses
Extracting Mineral DepositsExtracting Mineral Deposits
Surface miningSurface mining
Subsurface miningSubsurface mining
OverburdenOverburden
SpoilsSpoils
Mining MethodsMining Methods
Open-pit (surface mining)Open-pit (surface mining)
Area strip mining (surface)Area strip mining (surface)
Contour strip mining (surface)Contour strip mining (surface)
Mountaintop removal (surface)Mountaintop removal (surface)
Subsurface miningSubsurface mining
Hazards and environmental tradeoffs of subsurface miningHazards and environmental tradeoffs of subsurface mining
HighwallCoal seamOverburden
Coal seam
PitBench
Undisturbed Land
Overburden
Spoil Banks
Contour Strip MiningContour Strip Mining
Fig. 12-10, p. 277
Environmental Effects of Environmental Effects of Using Mineral ResourcesUsing Mineral Resources
Disrupting the land surfaceDisrupting the land surface
SubsidenceSubsidence
Toxic mining wasteToxic mining waste
Acid mine drainageAcid mine drainage
Air pollutionAir pollution
Toxic holding pondsToxic holding ponds
Steps Environmental Effects
Exploration, extraction
MiningDisturbed land; mining accidents; health hazards; mine waste dumping;oil spills and blowouts; noise; ugliness; heat
Solid wastes; radioactive material; air, water, and soil pollution; noise; safety and health hazards; ugliness; heat
Processing
Transportation, purifi-cation, manufacturing
Use
transportation or trans-mission to individual user,eventual use, and discarding
Noise; ugliness; thermal water pollution; pollution of air, water, and soil;solid and radioactive wastes; safety and health hazards; heat
Fig. 12-12, p. 279
Environmental Effects of Mineral UseEnvironmental Effects of Mineral UseNatural Capital Degredation
Extracting, Processing, and Using Nonrenewable Mineral and Energy Resources
Processing of Mineral ResourcesProcessing of Mineral Resources
Ore mineralOre mineral
GangueGangue
TailingsTailings
SmeltingSmelting
ProductsProducts
Disposal or recyclingDisposal or recycling
Surface mining
Metal ore
Separationof ore fromgangue
Recycling
Discarding of product(Scattered in environ-ment)
Conversion to product
Melting metal
Smelting
Fig. 12-13, p. 279
Typical Life Cycle of a Metal Typical Life Cycle of a Metal ResourceResource
Reuse
Environmental Limits to Environmental Limits to Resource ExtractionResource Extraction
Environmental damage: a major mining problemEnvironmental damage: a major mining problem
Ore gradeOre grade
Including environmental costs in productsIncluding environmental costs in products
How Would You Vote How Would You Vote exerciseexercise
Supplies of Mineral ResourcesSupplies of Mineral Resources Available supply and useAvailable supply and use
Economic depletionEconomic depletion
Five choices after depletionFive choices after depletion
• Recycle or reuseRecycle or reuse
• Waste lessWaste less
• Use lessUse less
• Find a substituteFind a substitute
• Do withoutDo without
Depletion timeDepletion time
EconomicsEconomics
Finding alternativesFinding alternatives
Fig. 12-14, p. 280
Present Depletiontime A
Depletiontime B
Depletiontime C
Time
Pro
du
ctio
n
C
B
A
Recycle, reuse, reduceconsumption; increasereserves by improvedmining technology,higher prices, andnew discoveries
Recycle; increase reservesby improved miningtechnology, higher prices,and new discoveries
Mine, use, throw away;no new discoveries;rising prices
Depletion Curves for a Depletion Curves for a Nonrenewable ResourceNonrenewable Resource
Economics and Supplies of Economics and Supplies of Nonrenewable ResourcesNonrenewable Resources
Roll of economics in miningRoll of economics in mining
Standard economic theoryStandard economic theory
Limited free market in developed countriesLimited free market in developed countries
Government subsidies of miningGovernment subsidies of mining
1872 US General Mining Law1872 US General Mining Law
Economic problems of developing new minesEconomic problems of developing new mines
Mining Lower-grade OresMining Lower-grade Ores
New extraction technologies are neededNew extraction technologies are needed
Factors that limit mining lower-grade oresFactors that limit mining lower-grade ores
• CostsCosts
• Supplies of freshwaterSupplies of freshwater
• Environmental impactsEnvironmental impacts
Biomining: microorganisms and Biomining: microorganisms and in-situin-situ mining mining
Nanotechnology RevolutionNanotechnology Revolution
NanotechnologyNanotechnology
BuckyballsBuckyballs
Molecular economyMolecular economy
Possible achievements of nanotechnologyPossible achievements of nanotechnology
Possible environmental and health threatsPossible environmental and health threats
Likely need for guidelines and regulationsLikely need for guidelines and regulations
Ocean MiningOcean Mining
Ore deposits in the oceanOre deposits in the ocean
Minerals from seawaterMinerals from seawater
Minerals in ocean sedimentsMinerals in ocean sediments
Hydrothermal depositsHydrothermal deposits
Manganese-rich nodulesManganese-rich nodules
Mining issues in international watersMining issues in international waters
Environmental issuesEnvironmental issues
Fig. 12-15, p. 283
Magma
Black smoker
Sulfidedeposit
White crab
Tube worms
Whitesmoker
White clam
Hydrothermal Ore Deposits on Hydrothermal Ore Deposits on the Ocean Floorthe Ocean Floor
Finding Substitutes for Scarce Finding Substitutes for Scarce Mineral ResourcesMineral Resources
Materials revolutionMaterials revolution
Ceramic substitutesCeramic substitutes
High-strength plastics and compositesHigh-strength plastics and composites
Finding some substitutes may be impossibleFinding some substitutes may be impossible
Some substitutes are inferiorSome substitutes are inferior