Weather vs. Climate
•WeatherCondition of the atmosphere at any place and time http://weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/forecast/city_e.html?yql
•ClimateCharacteristic behaviour of weather over time Includes averages and extremeshttp://www.theweathernetwork.ca/weather/stats/pages/C02080.htm?CAAB0194
Climatology is the study of climate
Climatic regions: zones with characteristic weather patternsEmpirical (statistics) or genetic (causative) classificationEg. Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification System (1928)
Climographs
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LETHBRIDGE, AB VANCOUVER, BC
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Determinants of climate:
•Distribution and seasonal variation of solar insolation intensity (zenith angles and daylength)
•Atmospheric and oceanic global circulation patterns
•Controls of temperature: altitude and latitude, land-water heating differences, cloud cover, polar front
•Controls on precipitation: distribution of pressure systems, lift mechanisms (convergence, convection, orographic, frontal), location of ITCZ, subtropical high pressure, jet streams
Source: Solomon, 2000
Effect of Altitude
Effect of Latitude and Cloud Cover
Global CirculationPatterns
Climate Distribution
Classification systems: Köppen-Geiger, Thornthwaite (not shown) A Tropical - equatorial regionsC Mesothermal – eg. Mediterranean, marine W. coastD Microthermal – eg. humid continental, subarcticE Polar H Highland – cooler than surroundingsB Dry – deserts and steppes
See Figure 6-4
A Tropical Climates
Straddle equator: 20N to 20S
Coldest month is above 18C
Consistent daylength, small zenith angles
Includes tropical rainforest, tropical monsoon and tropical savanna
1. Tropical Rain Forest Climate
•Warm and moist•Thunderstorms – local convection in convergent ITCZ•All months receive more than 60mm
•Precipitation pattern follows migration of ITCZ•Two wetter seasons near equator, one wetter season near tropics
•High rainfall and solar insolation sustain lush, evergreen, broadleaf tree growth
•High leaf area index (LAI) •Dark canopy floor with sparse vegetation•Rapid decomposition – more nutrient mass in vegetation than soil
Rainforest ClimographManokwari, New Guinea
Little variability in average monthly temperature
Driest month receives more than 100 mm of rainfall
Source: http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/1020/biome.html
Source: http://www.world-builders.org/lessons/less/biomes/rainforest/tropi_rain/tropgifs
Tropical Rain Forest Vegetation
Layers in the Tropical Rain Forest Canopy
The Tropical Rain Forest
The world’s most biologically-diverse biome
Layers in the Tropical Rain Forest Canopy
Emergents
•Trees “emerge” from the forest canopy
•Exposed to high light, fluctuating temperatures, higher winds
•Huge trees (up to 70m) with massive, buttressed trunks
•Seed dispersal often by wind
•Home to many birds and animals looking for safety from predators (eg. eagles, bats, monkeys, snakes, butterflies)
ButtressedTrunks
Helps supportlarge tree biomass, weight of water andepiphytes
Canopy Layer
•Continuous layer (about 45 m)
•Most have buttressed trunks
•Especially high diversity of plants and animals
•Same tree found once or twice per square kilometre
•Lianas (vines) connect trees
•Epiphytic vegetation common -28,000 species (eg. mosses, bromeliads, ferns, orchids)
•Abundant fauna (eg. monkeys, sloths, bats, treefrogs, ants, beetles, parrots, hummingbirds and snakes)
Understorey Layer
•Receives 2-5% of incident light (blocked by canopy)
•Understorey plants photosynthesize most efficiently under low light (low respiration rates)
•Layer consists of small trees (eg. dwarf palms) and seedlings of taller trees
•Low wind: insect pollination, strong smelling and conspicuous flowers often on trunks
•Abundant fauna (eg. insects, snakes, frogs, parakeets, leopards, jaguars etc.)
Forest Floor•Approximately 1% of light incident upon the canopy
•100% relative humidity, less temperature variation
•Rapidly-decomposing organic matter
•Few flowering plants
•Fungi thrive on decomposing organic matter
•Large mammals forage for roots and tubers (eg. tapirs)•Many insects (eg. termites, cockroaches, beetles, centipedes, millipedes, scorpions and earthworms)
Global Distribution of Tropical Rain Forests
Deforestation•>50% already gone (pasture, timber, fuelwood, farming)
• Approximately 169,000 km2 lost each year • Fire clears land for agriculture (food production, rubber, coffee etc.)
• Slash and burn – soil nutrient reserves quickly exhausted • Destruction generally along transportation networks
• Tropical Forestry Action Plan (FAO, UNDP, WB, WRI) • Remote sensing and GIS play key role in monitoring
2. Tropical Monsoon and Savanna Climates
Tropical Monsoon Climates
•Rainfall from ITCZ affects regions for 6-12 months of the year (eg. text example Yangon, Myanmar)
•Seasonal variation in winds and precipitation
•1 or more months have less than 60mm of precipitation
•Evergreen broadleaf trees grade toward thorn forests along drier margins with savanna
Tropical Monsoon Climograph
Dry season during theNorthern Hemispherewinter
Wet season during thesummer
Tropical Savanna Climates
•ITCZ effect for <6 months of the year
•Winters are dry (subtropical high pressure)
•Summers are wet (influence of ITCZ)
•Tropical cyclones possible near east coasts
•Grasslands dominate: scattered, drought-resistant trees
•Text example: Mérida, Mexico (relatively wet) and Kenya
Tropical Savanna Distribution
http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/msese/earthsysflr/savannah.html
Savanna Climograph
Long dry season duringthe Southern Hemispherewinter
Wet season during the summer
Vegetation in the Tropical Monsoon and Savanna Climate Zones:
Tropical Seasonal Forest and Scrub •Poleward transition from tropical rain forest to grasslands
Monsoonal forestsopen woodlandsscrub woodlandthorn forestsdrought-resistant scrubgrassland
•Leaf loss and dry season flowering during seasonal moisture deficits
Monsoonal forests:
•Discontinuous, 15 m high canopy
•Denser undergrowth
•Orchardlike parkland with grassy openings in drier sectors
•Flat-topped acacia trees become common in drier zones
•Examples: Caatinga (Brazil), Chaco (Paraguay), Brigalow (Australia), Dornveld (S. Africa)
•Wildlife: elephants, large cats, rodents, ground-dwelling birds•Koalas and cockatoos in Australia
Monsoon Forest of India
Increasedlight penetrationcompared to lowland rain forest
DiscontinuousCanopy and Lower LAI
Source: I. de Borhegyi FAO
Vegetation of the tropical savanna
•Large expanses of grassland, interrupted in areas by trees and shrubs
•Trees and shrubs are xerophytic (small, waxy, thick leaves)
•Most expansive in Africa (Serengeti plains, Sahel)also Los Llanos (Venezuela), Campo Cerrado, Pantanal (Brazil)
•Fires common during the dry seasons (beneficial if early)
•Affected by desertification
•Soils richer in humus than tropical rain forests: sorghum, wheat, peanuts can be grown
•Home to large land mammals in Africa: lion, cheetah, zebra, giraffe, buffalo, gazelle, wildebeest, antelope, rhinoceros and elephant
The Serengeti Plain (Savanna)
C Mesothermal Climates 1. Humid Subtropical Hot Summer Climate
•Influenced by maritime tropical air masses in summer
•Continental polar and maritime tropical air masses mix in fall/winter/spring: frontal precipitation
•Convectional precipitation in moist, unstable summer airmass
•Tropical cyclones near coasts in summer and fall
•1000 – 2000 mm/yr total
•Examples: southeast U.S., southeast China, southern Japan, northern Argentina
•Broadleaf and mixed forest
Source: M.K. House, near Tallahassee, Fl.
2. Humid Subtropical Winter Dry Climate
• Similar to above, but dry in winter
• Heavy precipitation in summer
• Circulation in winter prevents moist, tropical air mass interaction with pressure systems
eg. much of southern China, eastern South Africa
• Broadleaf and mixed forest, but largely deforested
(see Figure 6-11)
3. Marine West Coast Climates
•Mild winter and relatively cool summer
•Winter maximum of precipitation, especially in southern zones
•Heavy precipitation in mountains (may exceed 4000 mm/yr)
•Precipitation varies at low altitude: much more precipitation in northern portions of the Marine West Coast Climate than in the south
•Dominated by maritime polar air masses but unusually mild for their latitudes
•Coastal fog is common
Temperate Rain Forest•Narrow margin of Pacific NW North America
•Less species diversity than TRF
•Needle/broadleaf trees, ferns and undergrowth
•Tallest tree in world (Sequoia sempervirens – Redwood) may exceed 100m
•Also Douglas Fir, Spruce, Cedar, Hemlock
•Moist, lush vegetation
•Fauna: Bear, badger, deer, wild pig, wolf, bobcat, fox and numerous bird species
Source: www.inforain.org
4. Mediterranean Dry Summer Climates
•Poleward of subtropical high pressure on west coasts•Subtropical high prevents precipitation and influx of tropical moist air in summer•At least 70% of precipitation occurs in the winter•Summer water resource problems•Agriculture requires irrigation•Hot summer and cool summer varieties•Cool offshore currents enhance stability of marine air mass along west coasts
Examples: Mediterranean, southwest California, northwest coastal Mexico, central Chile, southern tip of South Africa
Mediterranean Shrubland: “Chaparral”
•Sclerophyllic shrubsShort-statured, deep roots, leathery leaves, low branchesGrass between shrubs
•Fire adaptation Resprouting capability
Cork Oak, Pine and Olive trees in Mediterranean
Commercial agriculture: fruits, vegetables and nuts
Fauna: deer, coyote, wolf, bobcat, rodents and birds
Source: S. Johnson, U. California, Berkeley
Source: F. Tanaka
D Microthermal Climates
Temperature variation is high due to season and air masses
1. Humid Continental Hot Summer Climate
•Frequent passage of pressure systems•Maritime tropical air masses and convection influence climate in summer •Occasional intrusion of cold, polar air in winter•Some areas have a dry winter, but others have similar year-round precipitation totals. Why ?Influence of coastal storms or lake effect snows in winter•Corn, soybean, hog and cattle farming without irrigation•Midlatitude broadleaf and mixed forest
See New York City Climograph (Figure 6-15)
2. Humid Continental Mild Summer Climate
•Precipitation is generally lower than in the hot summer climate•Temperature is cooler than in the hot summer climate•Snowmelt in winter important for soil moisture recharge
•Winter is relatively dry except near lakes and oceans
Agriculture: includes dairy cattle, poultry, flax, sunflowers, sugar beets, wheat and potatoes (usually without irrigation)
•Midlatitude broadleaf and mixed forest tending to needleleaf forest to north on shallower soils
Examples: Great Lakes, much of northeast Europe (See Moscow climograph – Fig 6-16)
Midlatitude Broadleaf and Mixed Forest
•Very productive in summer, senescence in fall•High LAI, limited undergrowth in old growth forest
Trees: Maple, Oak, Beech, Elm, Chestnut in Great Lakes, New England and Maritimes, mixed with White Pine, Red Pine and Eastern Hemlock
Fauna: Red fox, white-tailed deer, southern flying squirrel, opossum, bear and a great variety of birds (eg. cardinal, blue jay)
3. Subarctic Climates
•Very long, cold winters – dominated by high pressure•Discontinous or continuous permafrost at high latitude
•Boreal forests or Taiga where growing season sufficientFir, Spruce, Larch and Birch
•Open northern woodlands and tundra in far north •Winters are generally drier than summerHowever, the Dry Winter form of subarctic climates occurs only in Russia
Bitter cold occurs in these areas in winterVerkoyansk has an average 63C temperature range
Climograph: Subarctic climate
Low precipitation and cold temperatures in Winter
Huge temperaturerange
Needleleaf forest and Montane Forest
•Boreal forest from Alaska, across northern portions of AB, SK, MB, ON, QC to east coast of Newfoundland and Labrador•Taiga from European plain across much of Russia through Siberia•Only extensive in N. hemisphere, but occur at montane sites in S. Hemisphere
Trees: Pine, Spruce and Fir
Fauna: wolf, moose, bear, lynx, beaver, wolverine, small rodents, hawks, eagles, grouse, owls and migratory birds
South Knife Lake, Manitoba, CanadaPhotograph by Lynda Dredge (GSC, Natural Resources Canada)
4. Tundra Climate
•8-10 months of snow
•Generally underlain by permafrost
Vegetation: Stunted sedges, mosses flowering plants and lichen in brief summer
Most rapid climate warming is in this zone
Only in northern hemisphere, except in highlands
Light and heat may not be the only limiting factors for plant growth•Days are long and temperatures may reach the teens in summer
Wind and moisture deficit are also important•Thin, active layer holds limited moisture. Small, leathery leaves, closely spaced to protect stomata•Hairs limit air circulation•Flowers are small•Plants often occur in tufts for protection•Prostrate growth - stems spread out over ground with little vertical growth - especially willow
Arctic tundra
Climograph: Tundra Climate
Low Arctic Tundra
•Extends north from treeline along a line from Northern Alaska to northern Quebec and southern Baffin Island (10 degree C isotherm)•Cold, with low precipitation•Nearly the entire area is underlain with permafrost
•Almost complete vegetation coverage (except unfavourable areas)•Dominated by dwarf shrubs (birch and willow)
•Vegetation traps snow and provides shading from summer heating
•Peat accumulation at poorly-drained sites•Any black spruce is very stunted and abraded by snow
•Major summer range and calving grounds of some of Canada's largest caribou herds
Mid Arctic Tundra
•Transitional band between high and low arctic•Plant cover more than 50% in most areas but bare ground still exists locally•Vascular plants more common than in high arctic - willow common
Cumberland Sound, Baffin Island, Nunavut, CanadaPhotograph by Govt. of the Northwest Territories
Photo: JoAnn ElliottDenali National Park
Arctic Willow
Arctic willow
http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/~gregory/arctic/plants/awillow.jpg
Vendom Fiord, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, CanadaPhotograph by Douglas Hodgson (GSC, Natural Resources Canada)
High Arctic
Wetland Environments
•Cover 14 to 18% of Canada
•Mainly just to the south of treeline in discontinuous and sporadic permafrost
•Pockets further north
•Major carbon sink
•Potential future source of greenhouse gases
•Hydrophyllic vegetation present due to water table at or above mineral soil
Source: Natural Resources Canadahttp://atlas.gc.ca/english/facts/wetlands/wetlands_ewetdist2_e.html
Bog• Sphagnum moss dominated• Receives nutrients only from precipitation
Fen• A peatland receiving nutrients from mineral soil below• Flora is more abundant and diverse, including sedges, grasses,
shrubs and even trees (tamarack)
Swamp• A wooded wetland• May develop into a peatland• Coniferous and deciduous trees, shrubs, herbs and mosses
Marsh• Periodically inundated wetland (fresh or salt water)• Little peat accumulation
Why does peat accumulate ?
•Production by plants exceeds decomposition
•Abundant growth due to available moisture during growing season
•Preservation of plants (cool conditions)
•Saturated conditions - slow, anaerobic decomposition by methanogenic bacteria
•Release of methane rather than CO2
5. Ice Cap Climate
•Dominated by dry, frigid air masses
•Average temperature below freezing most or all year
•World’s coldest surface air is found in Antarctica in S. hemisphere winter
•Glaciers accumulate snow and ice despite low precipitation (<80mm/yr in Antarctica)
•Precipitation exceeds small evapotranspiration demand
Examples: Antarctica, North Pole, Greenland
Climograph: Ice Cap Climate
B Desert and Semiarid Climates Vegetation is xerophyticPhreatophytes along stream channels Subtropical dry climates•Subtropical high pressure cells dominate•Stable air, low relative humidity•Extend to western continental margins from 15 to 30N•Cool stabilizing ocean currents The Rain Shadow effect•Orographic lift over western mountains and subsequent descent of air•Extends along eastern edge of Andean and Rocky mountains north of 30N
1. Hot Low Latitude Desert Climate•0 to 350 mm precipitation•Western side of continents in subtropical high zone•Also Egypt, Somalia and Saudi Arabia
2. Cold Midlatitude Desert Climate•Approx. 150 mm precipitation•Gobi Desert, southern countries of former USSR, US southwest, Patagonia•Any precipitation due to summer convection
Distribution of Earth’s Deserts
Desert Biomes•>1/3 of Earth’s land area
•Ephemerals (wait a year or more for precipitation)Seeds quickly germinate, plants develop, flower, and produce seeds
•Long, deep tap roots (eg. mesquite), succulence (thick, fleshy, water holding tissue), waxy coatings and fine hairs on leaves to retard water loss, leafless conditions during dry periods
Fauna: Desert bighorn sheep, camel, kangaroo rat, lizards, scorpions, snakes are active at night, when temperatures are lower.
Birds include roadrunner, thrashers, ravens, wrens, hawks and grouse
3. Hot Low Latitude Steppe Climate•Around periphery of hot low latitude desert
Eg. northern Sahel, parts of Iran and Afghanistan, Turkistan and Kazakhstan
4. Cold Midlatitude Steppe Climate•Occur poleward of 30 latitude, mainly in northern hemisphere,in areas distant from major moisture source or rainshadowed
•Widely variable, undependable precipitation (200 – 500 mm/yr)
•Cyclonic storms occur, but precipitation tends to be light
•Summer convection produces much of year’s precipitation
Midlatitude Grasslands
•The world’s breadbasket – grain and livestock production•Heavily modified by human activity (few natural sites)•Good soil quality•Only trees are deciduous broadleafs along streams•Shrubs in protected areas •Tall-grass prairie once rose to 2m, with short grass steppe further west
Fauna: deer, antelope, pronghorn, bison, gophers, prairie dogs, coyote, badger, hawks, eagles, owls, grasshoppers
Look out the window !