Gods and CultGods and Cult
1. Divinities1. Divinities
Nature of the divineNature of the divinein Greaco-Roman Culturein Greaco-Roman Culture
Variety of divinities – major (Mars, Jupiter, Variety of divinities – major (Mars, Jupiter, June etc) and minorJune etc) and minor
some had many responsibilities other one some had many responsibilities other one narrowly defined: narrowly defined:
Some more popular than others, i.e. god Some more popular than others, i.e. god Silvanus, a rural god appears in over 1100 Silvanus, a rural god appears in over 1100 inscriptions from Western Roman Empireinscriptions from Western Roman Empire
Often many versions: Often many versions: Juno LacinaJuno Lacina, goddess of , goddess of childbirth - very different from the childbirth - very different from the martial martial JunoJuno worshipped in Rome. Wearing goatskin worshipped in Rome. Wearing goatskin cloak, spear and shieldcloak, spear and shield
Some deities are aspects of the physical world; Some deities are aspects of the physical world; not anthropomorphised not anthropomorphised
Categories: perceptible by intellect or perceptible Categories: perceptible by intellect or perceptible by senses: Neptune/Poseidon – represented as by senses: Neptune/Poseidon – represented as both: The actual sea itself - it can be touched,both: The actual sea itself - it can be touched,
And the god Neptune/Poseidon – the god of the And the god Neptune/Poseidon – the god of the seasea
Some gods – shade into abstractions, i.e. Some gods – shade into abstractions, i.e. Aphrodite/Venus; Fortuna (Fortune), Aphrodite/Venus; Fortuna (Fortune),
Some just abstract concepts: Some just abstract concepts: SpesSpes (Hope), (Hope), PietasPietas (Piety), etc.(Piety), etc.
terms for divinitiesterms for divinities Greek Theos/thea - theoiGreek Theos/thea - theoi Latin deus/dea - diLatin deus/dea - di Often ancient writers do not distinguish between the Often ancient writers do not distinguish between the
gods and god in the same passagegods and god in the same passage Other terms: Greek - Other terms: Greek - daimondaimon, , heros heros Heros (Heros (hero, heroes) intermediary between divine and hero, heroes) intermediary between divine and
human - Romans very little evidence of this category human - Romans very little evidence of this category (perhaps to some extent the (perhaps to some extent the manesmanes or or divi parentesdivi parentes (gods Manes/spirits of the underworld or deified (gods Manes/spirits of the underworld or deified ancestors)ancestors)
some characters from Roman myths associated with some characters from Roman myths associated with already existing Italian Gods: Aeneas = Indiges; already existing Italian Gods: Aeneas = Indiges; Romulus = QuirinusRomulus = Quirinus
Latin: Latin: numennumen, , geniusgenius
daimonesdaimones
Many uses of term - includes gods, guardian Many uses of term - includes gods, guardian
Spirits, spirits of the dead, sometimes even Spirits, spirits of the dead, sometimes even souls of living; Socrates: gods – souls of living; Socrates: gods – daimonesdaimones
Christians reserved – Christians reserved – theos theos or or deus deus for what for what they regarded the one and true godthey regarded the one and true god
Christian used of Christian used of daimondaimon ( (daemondaemon) for the ) for the Graeco-Roman deities – whom they Graeco-Roman deities – whom they considered malevolent spiritsconsidered malevolent spirits
Hence the English ‘demon’ - acquired a Hence the English ‘demon’ - acquired a negative connotationnegative connotation
Heros (Heros (hero) hero)
Poetry - the great heroes of myth (i.e. Achilles, Poetry - the great heroes of myth (i.e. Achilles, Odysseus), legends – hence English hero, heroesOdysseus), legends – hence English hero, heroes
A hero (A hero (heros)heros) – of worship = denotes a human – of worship = denotes a human being who continues to exert power after death being who continues to exert power after death and has to be propitiated through prayers and and has to be propitiated through prayers and offerings.offerings.
A hero commonly has a divine and a human parent A hero commonly has a divine and a human parent and is mortal – he diesand is mortal – he dies
Traditionally: founders of cities, and some figures Traditionally: founders of cities, and some figures from mythfrom myth
Hero more important in Greek mythology and Hero more important in Greek mythology and religion than in Romanreligion than in Roman
numennumen
Divine powerDivine powerDivine willDivine willSome writers used it as almost a Some writers used it as almost a
synonym for synonym for deus deus especially when especially when referring to deity of somewhat referring to deity of somewhat uncertain identityuncertain identity
geniusgenius
Originally the divine alter-ego or Originally the divine alter-ego or guardian spirit of an individual (usually guardian spirit of an individual (usually male)male)
Guardian spirit of female often – Guardian spirit of female often – iunoiunoOver time Over time genius genius used more widely and used more widely and
was applied to any locality or institutionwas applied to any locality or institution i.e. particular buildings, mountains, i.e. particular buildings, mountains,
springs, woods, etc., - became guardian springs, woods, etc., - became guardian spirits of placesspirits of places
Cult (Cult (cultuscultus) – religious action) – religious action Any religious action – form of communication with the Any religious action – form of communication with the
divinedivine Cultus Cultus central to Roman religion central to Roman religion English term cult - negative overtonesEnglish term cult - negative overtones Latin Latin cultus –cultus – worship (the various practices and rituals worship (the various practices and rituals
employed in worship)employed in worship) Enormous range of practices in RomeEnormous range of practices in Rome Emphasis on correct repetitions of Emphasis on correct repetitions of formulaeformulae Main forms:Main forms: 1. request for benefits from gods, i.e. in 1. request for benefits from gods, i.e. in
prayers, sacrifices and other offeringsprayers, sacrifices and other offerings 2. Divinations or interpretation of messages from the gods2. Divinations or interpretation of messages from the gods 3. rituals – such as purifications and initiations which in 3. rituals – such as purifications and initiations which in
various ways transformed a person’s situation with respect various ways transformed a person’s situation with respect to the divineto the divine
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PrayersPrayers
Oral, often improvised to fit occasion,Oral, often improvised to fit occasion,Best sources – literary, poems written Best sources – literary, poems written
in form of prayers, or descriptive in form of prayers, or descriptive narrativesnarratives
Most traditional prayers for public cults Most traditional prayers for public cults lostlost
Evidence suggests the following format: Evidence suggests the following format: began with invocation that detailed began with invocation that detailed god’s name, functions, qualities.god’s name, functions, qualities.
Ritual continuedRitual continued
Followed by central section: reasons why deity should Followed by central section: reasons why deity should grant request: i.e. evidence of person’s devotion, grant request: i.e. evidence of person’s devotion, piety, appeals to god’s beneficence, or reminder of his piety, appeals to god’s beneficence, or reminder of his past blessings, etc., past blessings, etc.,
This Section also contained the vow: the promise of This Section also contained the vow: the promise of offeringoffering
Final part – the petition, ranging from specific request Final part – the petition, ranging from specific request such as – please help my child recover from illness – to such as – please help my child recover from illness – to general appeal - look at us favourably, general appeal - look at us favourably,
Often focus on first part - expressed in lengthy hymns Often focus on first part - expressed in lengthy hymns (Greek hymnos(Greek hymnos) focus of hymns to praise more than ) focus of hymns to praise more than on the petition i.e. Homeric hymns to Dionysios, on the petition i.e. Homeric hymns to Dionysios, Demeter,Demeter,
reciprocity
Do ut des -” I grant you this, so that you will give me that in exchange.”
Quid pro quo - idea - I offer you a benefit and ask for one in return
Concept must be understood in the context of a culture (Graeco-Roman) where social relationships are based on reciprocal benefits
See this already in Homer’s epics – gift-giving and gift-receiving central to relationships
Rome: when benefit given, the person who receives the benefit owes - gratia - and can be called upon to return the benefit
Forms of offerings
wide range – flowers, cakes, incense, Libations = liquids – wine most common, Milk, oil, honey, even water Blood sacrifice – very common: the ritual slaughter
of an animal - domestic (sheep, pig, cow) = symbol of piety
Emperors often shown making sacrifices, displaying their pietas (duty and affection for the gods)
Neither the emperor or any other magistrate/priest carried out the actual slaughter of a victim which was considered a pollution – that was done by the victiarius , normally a slave – an individual who stood outside society.
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)performing a sacrifice
The Sacrifice Elaborate ritual Procession – victim led to the altar Altar normally outdoors in front of a temple Symbolic purification of space around altar Call for ritual silence Musicians played pipes to drown out unwanted noises Preliminary offer of grain (Greeks), incense (Roman).
In the previous image – emperor throws grains of incense onto small brazier next to big altar
Followed by the actual killing of animal – performed by a professional victiarius who also carved up carcass
A portion offered to the deity, rest cooked on spot and all had a feast
Communicating with the gods
Basic elements of sacrifice same in Greece and Rome
Romans covered heads when sacrificing to express piety
Prayers and sacrifice – the two ways people communicated with the gods
Divination Believed gods communicated with humans Divination – interpretation of divine communication Wide variety of forms: Oracles were consulted – Romans went to Delphi
just like the Greeks interpretation of dreams; observation of the flight of birds; interpretation of prodigies (unusual events seen as
significant) and as messages from the gods that needed to be interpreted – i.e. by haruspices or Sybilline books
Christians and Muslims consider practice of divination as mere fortune telling
Divination
not an attempt to see into the futureRomans believed divination would
give people insight into the will and mood of gods
Whether gods opposed an action or supported it
The Function of Ordinary Roman Sacrifice
pietas – a combination of duty and affection to the gods ( also to family members, friends, patrons, etc.)
Sacrifice demonstrates pietas Sacrifice cleanses both vitium (intended transgression)
and impietas (unintended transgression) Pietas legitimized the right of individuals to govern;
Role of magistrates: to maintain the pax deorum (peace of the gods)
pietas as expressed in (expressed in public acts of sacrificial devotion) of Rome’s magistrates guaranteed the favor of the gods and therefore the welfare of the state
Roman Blood Sacrifice
Roman religious ritual turned on offering the blood of sacrificial victims in exchange for goodwill of the gods
Under exceptional circumstances this could include human victims - devotio
devotio could be a self-sacrifice – a vow made by a commander before a campaign in return for a victory.
Three times in the late Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two Gauls and two Greeks alive in the Forum Boarium
Executions in the arena including those of Christian martyrs considered sacrifices
conclusions
These three cult practices: prayer, sacrifice, divination – common to almost all religious traditions in Roman empire
2 other common practices:Purification - rituals to remove
pollution (i.e. Blood crimes)Initiation – ritual which put individual
into privileged relationship with deity
conclusions
Cult activities not restricted to specific times or places
People incorporated prayers and sacrifices into wide variety of daily activities
Basic beliefs implied by practices: belief in the existence of superhuman forces that were concerned with human behaviour and responded to human intervention and communicated with human world