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The Siege of Dura
Author(s): Clark HopkinsSource: The Classical Journal, Vol. 42, No. 5 (Feb., 1947), pp. 251-259Published by: The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3292064
Accessed: 04/06/2009 07:51
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2/10
OX T@HE
II)DLE
Eup1zrates,
ig1z
bove
t1ze
muddy
river,
stand
massive
grey
walls
and
ponderous
astions,
uins
of an
anS
cient
ort.
Here,
astride
1ze
oyal
zighway
rom
Antioch
o
Seleucia,
ual
apitals f
t1ze
eleucid
empire,
1ze
Macedonians
ong
ago
placeda
strong1zold
o
guard1ze
esert
ways,
and
named
itfor
Seleucus'
irt1zplace,
uropos.F1ze
eduin,
indifferento
Balkan
entiment,
alledt
simply
Ddr
't1ze
ort';
reborn n
the
archaeologist's
spade,n modernecordst appears s Dura
Europos.
Commanding
1ze
aravan
rails,
all but
m
pregnable
e1zind
ts
stout
defenses,
ura
was
a
prize
to be
foug1zt
ver.
Macedonian,
1zen
Part1zian,1zen
oman,
t was
a
keystonen
t1ze
arcof
Rome's
yrian
rontier
1zen,
nA.D
2 56,
one
more
nemy,
anners
treaming,
ppeared
((Clark
Hopkins,
son
of
Edward
Washburn
opkins,
Professor f
Sanscrit
and
Comparative
hilologyat
YaleUniversity,was born n NewYorkonSeptember
I6,
I895.
He is a
graduate f
Yale A.B., 9I7),
Oxford
(Rhodes
Scholar,
9ItI9tI;
A.B., I9tI
and
A.M.,
I926)
andthe
University
f
Wisconsin
Ph.D.,
I924).
He
has
aught
t Rice
nstitute,Yale
and
he
University
of
Michigan.He
studied
at
Athens
n I927-I928,
and
in I928-I929
was
Assistant
Director f
Yale's
xcava
tions
at
DuraSEuropos;rom 93I
to I935
he
was Field
Director
f the
Dura
excavations.
reserve
officer f
the U.
S.
Army,he
served
n
World
War
as a znd
Lieutenant,
nfantry,
nd n
World
War
I
as a
Major
in the
Sixth
Service
Command's
Training
Division.
He is
now
Professor f
Classical
Art
and
Archaeology
attheUniversity fMichigan.
Volume 4t
Uniquen
the
Annals
f
War
A
Story
Unearthedy
the
Spade
T h e
S i e g e
o f
D u r a
Clart
Hopkins
before
he
ramparts.
Heralds
were
detached
from
1ze
main
body o
ride o
the
gates
ndcal1
upon
he
defenderso
surrender.
reetedwith
jeers
and
insults,
1ze
nvaders
laced
1ze ity
under
iege.
T@1zessue
wasa
disaster
nique
n
the
annals
of
war.
THE
MACEDONIAN
NGINEERS
HO,n
the
third
century
B.C.,
were
detailed o
build he
fortress
which
was
to be
DuraEuropos,
selecteda spot where the Syrianplateau
breaks
ff n a
cliff
droppingo
the
Euphrates,
a
site
well
suited
by
nature
or
defense.
The
cliS is
broken
t two
points
by
deep
gullies
running
ack nto
the
desert,he
wadis
f the
field
reports.The
cliS and
the
gullies,
heir
crests
crowned
by a
crenellated
all of
cut
and
fitted
native
stone,
formed
nvulnerable
defenses n
east,
northand
south,
as
you
can
see
from
FIGURE
, which
shows
the
entire
perimeter
f the
walled
own.
On
the
west
there
was no
natural
rotec
tion;
on
this
side he
wall
was
therefore
made
much
stronger,
hirty feet
high
and
fifteen
feet
thick,
studdedwith
towers
at
close n
tervals.
Midwayof
this
wall,
visible
t the
ex
treme
eft
of
FIGURE, was
the
Palmyra
ate,
its
passage
arred y
threesets
of
doors
and
flanked n
each
sideby a
great
double
ower.
Here
he
caravans
ound
ast rom
he
desert
metropolis
f
Palmyra
were
halted
to
pay
portduesandmake beisanceo thetutelary
gods
of
Dura; his
accomplished,
hey
were
X=I
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Number S
FEBRUARY
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CLARK
HOPKINS
sa
FIGURE. AIR
VIEWOPDURA
PROMHE OUTH,
ECEMBER
932.
(Dura
Reportv,
Frontispiece)
allowed
o pass hrough o
the bataar nd ts
varied
ascinations.
Dura
had been
Seleucidrom ts
founding
until
about OO B.C.,
then a western
outpost
of the
empire f the
Parthians.n I65 A.D.
the
Romansmade t
a bastionof their
eastern
frontier;but
whether heir
overlordswere
Greek,Persian r
Roman an have
mattered
little to
the mixedbreed
Durans,who
tended
sheep, armed
heir mall lotsalong
heriver,
and raded ispassionatelyithallpassers y.
Fornearly
hundred earsRome's
ight o
rulethe
middleEuphrates
as not seriously
challenged,ut a
noteofdangerwas
sounded
in
A.D.
227,
when the new dynasty
of the
Sassanians
verthrewhevacillating
arthians
and
established strong nd
energetic entral
power n Persia.
To repel heirraids
n A.D
23I-233
requiredthe
personalefforts of
A]exander
everus; ndGordianII,
wounded
in his victoryover
he
Persians tResaenan
A.D. 243,
died and was buried,we are told,
somewhere ear
Dura.
In spite of
frontierdisorders, he
com
mercial
apitals f Syria,
Damascus,
isibis,
Carrhae,Edessa,
Palmyra
nd manymore,
had grown
remendously
uring he second
andearly
hird enturies, nd
Duraprospered
with
them.The Roman
governor, he Dux
Ripae, as
an inscription
alls him, had a
palace
next the
campof his troops,
ne-arhe
cliff,and built
bathsand a
miniaturemphi
theater
or their comfort
and pleasure.By
A.D. 220
therewere enoughChristians n
Dura to
build a chapelfor
their intimate
worship;
nd in A.D. 246
Jews built a
synaS
gogue nthe
shadow f the western
wall,and
frescoedt with
scenes rom
he OldTesta
ment.
They
were not to enjoy
them ong. Soon
after 246
the Roman
garrison ound t ex
pediento reinforce
he mightywalls.
Along
their
whole extentthey
piled an earthem
bankment,ifty
feet wide at the base
andas
highas the walls,and aced t with mudbrick
to control
rosion.Buildings
earthe
walls,
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THE SIEGEOF DURA
253
privatehouses, he Christian hapel nd the
synagogue ereengulfed, ndwith them he
pagan temples to Aphlad, the Gods of
Pa]myra,Attanathkona, nd Mithra. Some
newmethod f siegehadshaken he Romans'
reliance n wallsof mere tone.
In A.D. 2y6 the Sassanianroopsof Sapor
advanced ictoriously long the Euphrates
andappearedeforeDura.We havenorecord
of the eventswhich precededhe formaln
vestment,but we can picture or ourselves
the flurry f orders, he hurried otching f
extraarrows, he forging f new lanceheads,
thepledgeso the gods, he strict nstructions
to the sentries, he checking f supplies....
PerhapsSapor ested the Romans' emper
with a frontal ttackupon he greatPalmyra
Gate; f so, he was thrownback.Perhaps e
sentscouts o scale hecliffs t night, n hopes
of finding he guards rowsy; f so, they too
were disappointed.
Sapor alled orhisengineers. littlenorth
of the PalmyraGate,oppositeTower I9 on
theofficial lan f theexcavationsnd tarting
at some distanceout in the plain, sappers
begana mine,a tunnelaimedat the lowest
foundations f this tower. The entrance o
this minehas not yet been found. Perhaps
they usedone of the many hamberombs n
Dura's emeteryor the purpose;n anycase,
the visitorcan see, opposite he tower and
fortymeters ut in the plain,a greatheapof
earthand gravelwhich, it seems easonable
to suppose,was debris rom he mine.
The mine was driven without serious
hindrancesfarastheouterwallof thetower.
The garrisonmust have known what was
going on; the activity, and the growing
mound f fresh ubsoil, ouldnot havebeen
dissetnbled;ut at first hey took no action,
as if uncertainwhat action to take. The
Sassanian apperscompleted,beneath the
foundations f the west wall of the tower,
a chamberf considerableize.Shoring p the
roofas they went along, hey extendedt be
neath he northwallof the towerasfaras the
curtainwall, and then dug a lateralbranch,
fifty feet long, under he curtainwall itself.
FIGUREAshows he situation:TowerI9
(J, J), the curtainwall (H), the glacisor em
bankment f dirt and mudbrick nsideand
outsidethe wall and towers, the mine ap
A B
FIGURE. TOWER9: PLANOPMINES NDCOUNTERMINE.
(DuraReportVI,Figure4)
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CLARKHOPKINS
S4
proachinghe tower rom he southwest, he
chambernder hewestandnorth idesof the
tower E,E),and he ong ateral ranch nder
the curtain D, D). Supposenow that the
Sassanians,s they proceedwith this work,
haveproppedhe massive oundationsbove
theirheadswith heavytimbers, o that the
outer aceof the towerandthe adjacenturS
tain are supported ot on bedrockbut on
wooden horing; uppose urther hat when
all is readya pi]eof faggots, trawandpitch
is lighted among he timbers, o that the
wholeminebecomes n infernon which he
supportsare consumed.You may properly
expect hat the towerand a long sectionof
the wall will collapse,disconcertinghe de
fenders ndmaking breachn the wall into
whichthe attackersmayrush o overwhelm
the town. This was clearly he Sassanians'
intention,but something appened o pre
vent ts fullaccomplishment.
The group f galleries, hosepurposewas
clearly o cause he collapse f the walls,con
nectswith anotherntendedo join he mines
under he wallswith the interior f the city.
Near the northeast ngleof Tower I9, the
gallerywas perfectlypreserved, ven the
piecesof wood supportinghe earthbeing
still n place.The sidesweremade f two lines
of roundhardwood osts, our o five nches
in diameterndabout ix eet n length, awed
straightat the two ends. The distancebe
tween the linesof postswas about our eet
and they were implanted n the earth to
depths varying rom ten to fifteen nches,
undoubtedlyn order to offiergreaterre
sistance o the lateralpressure f the earth.
The topsof the postsserved s supportor
strongplanks. he partof the gallery ear he
curtain nd he towerbears nly nsignificant
tracesof fire and smoke, hough the part
nearer he city has been burned.However,
the intensityof the fireand its effiectswere
not everywherehe same. n a toneextending
under he old facades f the housesclose to
the wall the posts,carbonizedt the top, are
still in p]ace(FIGURE) and, although he
ceilingplanksappear o have been burned,
the gallerymade n well packed arth, n the
spacebetweenwallandhouses,hasnot been
obstructed y fallendebris.In addition o
FIGURE. TOWER9: TUNNELUPPORTS
xn sxtu.
(Dura ReportVI,PlateI8, 2)
largepiecesof burnedwoodfrom he ceiling,
fragments f faggotsand straw which had
beenusedto startthe firewereeasilyrecog
nited.At the very end the galleryhasfallen
in but contains o traces f fire.
A very curious eaturewas the fact that
the passage ot far rom he curtainwa]lhad
beenobstructed ith rubble ndgreatblocks
of stone.M. Du Mesnil du Buisson, Cap
tain n the FrenchArmyanda veteransofhe
trenchby trenchdefense f Francen World
War I, excavated his systemof minesand
publishedhem.He suggests hat the stones
were piledup and fastenedwith plasterby
menwhowere acing he city, in otherwords
by the Persians, ndthat the workwas done
after he fire.
In the gallery eyond he blocked p tone
was madea seriesof findsof great nterest.
Going astoneencounters extto the barrier
a skeleton ying on its back FIGURE). At
the momentwhenhe fell the manwas turned
toward he east, .e., the city. As the ske]eton
measures.8Sm., the soldiermusthavebeen
we]l over six feet in height.The chest was
envelopedn a well preservedoatof mail, n
the form f a shirtwhichwas slipped n over
the head.The legs were burnedbut M. Du
Mesnil believes hat he fell in fight rather
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THE
SIEGE
OF DURA
2ss
than
by
suffocation r burns.
Not
far
awayin the
trenchwas
a large
ovoid
helmet, ts
two pieces
oined
ogether
by
bandsof iron.
From
helower
edgehung
a
piece f mail
imilaro
thoseusedon
Persian
helmets f
the middle
ages.Close
by was a
large word
which at
the time of
discovery
was
represented
nly by a
few
fragments
of
bad]y
oxidizedron
and a jade
pommel.
Scattered
ragmentsf
iron
appearobe
parts
of the
mounting nd
boss of a
shield.
Two
bronze
ibulae
nda
number f coins
appear
also to
have
belonged o this
warrior.
Further ast,
close to
the city end
of the
gallery, he
bodies of
sixteen or
eighteen
soldierswere
oundwith
the remains
f
their
armor ndclothing.
n the
partnearest
he
wal],
the bodies
were
calcined n
the fire;
toward he
middle he
bones
had
remained
white
and in good
condition
o that
it was
possible o
recognize
odies
ntertwined.
n
the
part nearest
he city, the
skeletonsay
in
contracted
ositions s
f themen
had ried
to
save
hemselves
rom cave
n or had
been
crushed
n positions
f
defense.One
appears
to have
been
seated,his
spinal
olumn eing
markedly
urved.
Another ay,
thrown
back,
with his legs spreadwide apartandfolded
underhim as
if he had
madean
attempt
o
rise.
Metalobjects
ound
with the
bodies,
though
badly
corroded,
eem o be
partsof
swords,
perhaps lsoof a
javelin,and
bosses
of
shields rather
than
helmets.
One large
swordwas
preserved
ntactwith its
pommel
of
rock
rysta].The ron
coatsof
mail,
hough
found n
fragments,
were
readily
recogni;
able.
Fragments f
wooden shields
were
recovered,
and some
pierced
ornamental
plaques.
The most
important
ollateral
iscovery
was
that of the
coins ound
grouped
t three
diffierent
oints
monghe
bodies. n
onecase,
it
couldbe
clearly eetl
hat hecoins
hadbeen
placed nder
he
coat Dfnzail
nveloping
ne
of the
skeletonsand
near the thigh
bone,
probablyn
the
belt. The same
eems o
be
true in
two other
cases.
The
coins were
Romanand
dated up to
A.D aS6.
M.
Du
Mesnil,
who as
excavator
f the mine
s the
personmostcognitantof the evidenceand
bestable
ointerpret
heresults,
elieves
hat
the
bodieswere
those of
Romans
ndsup
ports
his
hypothesiswith the
Roman oins.
Accordingo
his
reconstruction,he
Romans,
detecting he
constructionf
the mine,
built
a
counterminerom
he
edgeof the
embank
mentwithin
the city
toward
he tower
and
met he mine
of the
Persians.
Battle n
the
Dark
AT THE
MEETING
of the two
mines,
here
was an
underground
attlebetween
Persians
and Romans.
The latter
were
overcome
nd
crowded ack nto
the
countermine
ollowed
by the
Persians.At
that moment
he de
fendersof
the city,
seeing
that the
Roman
auxiliarieswere retreatingn disorder, nd
fearinghat
the Persians
would
emerge
nto
the
city, hastily
blockedup
the
entrance f
the
countermine,
hutting up
inside those
whowere
wounded
r agging
ehind.At
the
same
ime he
Persians,
howere
undoubted
ly too
few in
numbero enter
he city,
setfire
to
the
counterminend
rapidly
withdrew.
They
thenblocked
p the
counterminey
a
wall of
rubbleand
plaster,
ompleted heil
operationsnder
he tower,
uccessfully
ired
theshoringnd toodbyto await heco]lapse
of
the
tower.
FIGURE. TOWER
9:
ARMORED
KELETON
OFPERSIANWARRIOR,S FOUND N MINE.
(DuraReport
VI,
Plate I8, 3)
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ts6
CLARK
HOPKINS
This
account
of
Du
Mesnil
satisfactorily
explains
he
Roman
oins,
and
he
blocking
f
the
countermine,
ut
it
still
leaves
a
nutnber
of
things
la
doubt.
It
seems
hard
o
believe
that
he
Roznans
roping
n
a
countermine
or
the
sappers
f
the
Persianshouldmeetthegallery f the
Persians
o
exactly
hat
mine
and
countermine
ecome
perfectly
traight
tunnel.
Furthermore,
t
is
hard
not
to
as
sociate
he
firing
f
the
mine
beyond
he
block
with
he
firing
f
the
tower
gallery.
Finally,
if
he
Persians
ad
ime
o
wall
of
part
of
the
mine
efore
ompleting
heir
work
under
he
tower,
t
seems
trange
hat
the
lA;omans
id
not
at
least
uncover
he
mine
entrance
o
give
ecent
burial
o
those
they
knew
were
within.
One
wouldexpectthatthey wouldhave
eopened
he
entrance
s
soon
as
it
was
safe,
o
see
f
some
of
the
wounded
might
not
still
urvive.
The
evidence
s
by
no
means
lear,
but
I
am
nclined
o
favor
another
nterpretation.
The
act
that
the
Persian
mine
turned
nto
the
ity,
as
well
as
followed
he
walls
of
tower
and
urtain,
may
have
meant
hat,
as
else
where,
hey
were
intending
o
introduce
band
f
soldiers
ecretly
nto
the
city.
If
a
bandereintroduced,t wouldhaveto be
at
he
moment
f
the
collapse
f
the
tower,
or
they
ould
easily
be
overpowered
y
the
de
fenders.
o
accomplish
his
the
mine
would
have
o
be
pushed
orward
o
the
very
edge
of
he
embankment
nd
the
chosen
band
of
soldiers
ould
necessarily
e
stat1oned
n
position
efore
he
firing
f
the
tower,
a
firing
which
ould
block
any
retreat
or
hope
of
reinforcements.
ven
so,
smoke
rom
he
fire
might
uffocate
hem,
or
the
fire
might
pread
andollapse heirgallery.To prevent his,
when
verything
as
complete,
nd
he
tower
ready
o
be
fired,
elected
oldiers
were
sealed
in
he
nd
of
the
mine
beyond
the
tower
with
wall
of
rubble
nd
stone.
Signal
f
the
attack
ould
be
the
collapse
f
the
tower.
Obviously,
he
plan
did
not
work.
Either
smoke
eeped
hrough
he
mine
blocli,
or
the
end
f
the
mine
collapsed
nd
trapped
he
forward
arty.
The
Ro1nan
oins
are
not
so
easy
o
explain
but
it
is
not
hard
o
believe
thatoldiers,who hadcarriedheirraids o
successfully
s
to
cut
Dura
off
from
help,
should
ave
Roman
money
s
part
of
tlle
loot
in
their
pockets.
However
you
prefer
to
interpret
the
blocked
unnels
nd
he
bodies
ound
n
the1n,
the
Sassanian
lans
were
rudely
hwarted
ytheworkof a manwhohadthen
been
dead
Sve
centuries.
When
the
underground
up
pQtS
had
burned
way,
Tower
I9
and
fifty
feet
of
the
curtain
wall
sagged
nd
sank.
But
the
engineer
who,
in
that
farzof
day
of
Dura's
ounding,
ad
designed
he
fortifica
tions
f
the
city,
had
done
his
work
well.
The
ower,
roughly
dropped
ight
feet
in
to
he
cavernous
rave
prepared
eneath
t,
failed
o
collapse,
ailed
to
open
an
avenue
to
he
besiegers,
arled
o
betray
Dura o herenemiesFIGUREB).
oday,
700
years
ater
still,
ower
Ig
is
standing,
attered
ut
still
defensible,
till
menacing
he
Syrian
lain.
Redeployment
THE
ASSANIANS
ithdrew
o
think
hings
over.
At
the
southwest
orner
f
the
walls,
at
the
dge
of
the
south
wadi
and
visible
n
the
left
oreground
f
FIGURE
, standsTower
4.
Asaybe
seen
frotn
he
picture,
ts
south
side
ies
along
he
deep
avine,
while
he
west
facade
s
turned
toward
the
desert.
The
ravine
llowed
he
Sassanians
o
approach
he
tower
ith
less
danger
rom
hostile
arrows,
partially
creened
rom
observation.
About
forty
eters
west
of
this
tower,
therefore,
new
ine
was
begun
rom
he
ravine
oward
the
ower,
hrough
he
soft
native
rock.
This
.
.
.
4
mlne
s
a
narrow?
w1st1ng
unnel,
unsup
ported
y
woodandscarcelyheheightof aman.
n
its
progress
oward
the
tower
it
crossed
wo
sepulchral
hambers,
part
of
the
ast
ecropolis
hich
covered
he
desert
outside
he
west
wall
of
the
city.
In
he
gallery
were
found
objects
ost
or
abandoned
y
the
miners;
endants,
oughly
made
imestone
amps,
ring,
tc.
Other
mall
objects,
uch
as
a
glass
ase
of
the
type
known
as
ear
ottles,
doubtless
ame
rom
he
tombs
violated
n
the
course
of
construction.
So
killfully was this narrow gallery
directed
hat
t
ends
exactly
under
he
middle
of
ower
4.
At
this
point
the
mine
comes
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THE
SIEGEOF
DURA
2s7
nearer o the
surface nd
widensout in ap
proachinghe
foundationsf the
tower.The
widening
llowed he constructionf
a mud
brickwall to
helpsupport he timbers
f the
wooden scaffolding.
Here a little gallery
branchesffand eadsdirectly o theravine,
probablyo furnisha
draft or the fire.To
provide or a sufficient
urrentof air and
perhapsn the hope of
setting fire
to the
tower, the minersat the
moment f with
drawal eem
also to have openeda
window
toward he
interior.Clearly hese
Sassanian
engineers ere
expert n
theirprofession.
The effectproduced
y the firingof the
mine is
clearly shown in the
photograph
(FIGURE).
The gallery
analong he west,
northandeastwallsof the tower,andunder
partof the
northcurtain. f it ranalso
under
thesouthwall, t didnot
at anyrate
cause he
wall to slip
downat that point.From
he re
mains f the
gallery
eneath hesunkenwall
was recovered
largequantity f
stakes nd
of planks,
many f them
ontainingarge ron
nails.Near
the east side of the
tower some
stakes utting
oward he outsideof
the wall
were ound n
place.All werepartly
burned.
It seems lear, ere, hat
hisminewassuc
cessfully ugand ired,with greatdamageo
thefortificationsf Dura;
but hereagain he
Sassanian
uccess was short of
complete.
Buttressed y
the massive
mbankmentsf
earth ndmudbrick
withinandwithoutXhe
towerdid not
entirely ol]apse,
tribute o
its
firstbuilder nd o the
manwho
designed
its
reinforcement. ut
this time the Sas
sanians ad not
dependedwholly
upon the
collapse f thetower.
AssaultbyRamp
STARTINGgain rom
heplain,
littlemore
thana
hundred eet west of Tower
I4, the
Sassanians egan o
build an earthen amp
slopingup to
the wall.With the
defenders
manning
very nchof the ramparts,
ndwell
suppliedwith
fresh
arrows, he danger o
unprotected
aborersmust have
been in
tolerab]e.We
must hereforeuppose
hat he
Sassanian
ngineersprovided ome
kind of
testudo, a huge shieldon rollersso that
it couldbe
moved
orward s theworkpro
gressed, ehindwhich the
menwho carried
andpiled he atal arth
ouldmove nrelative
safety.
The
situation f the defenders as
thence
forthdesperate, ut in
the hourof
theirapS
pointment
with destiny hey did not
falter.
Slowly the testudo
moved orward nd up;
inexorablyhe wide
sloping mound grew
nearer o the
doomedbattlements.
he gar
rison,however, aised he
heightof the wall
by piling
mudbrick n the top of the
stone
battlements.
heyrefusedo
surrender.
In the meantimehe
besiegerswere plot
ting still
anothermenace.Begun n
the open
plain but
continueddirectly
beneath the
FIGURE TOWER4
(SOUTHWEST
OWER)
FROM HE
EMBANKMENT,FTER
XCAVATION,
SHOWING
ETTLINGND PARTIAL
OLLAPSE
CAUSEDYPERSIANINE.
(DuraReport
VI,Plate It)
ramp, hey
were digging third
mine,aimed
to come to the surfacewithin the city im
mediatelybehind the
point at which the
rampwas
aimed.Here hey could
workwith
almost ofear
f
detection, iththedefenders
giving heirwho]e
attention o the workers
on the ramp, ndthe
noiseand
confusion f
the ramp
constructiondrowning
out the
faint
reverberationsf the men
at work
below.
This minewas the
biggestof all;
ten feet
wide and almost high
enoughfor men to
march rect, t could asilypermithepassage
of infantry unningour
abreast.t passesust
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CLARK
HOPKINS
ts8
beneath he
foundations
f the
curtain
wall,
and hen
rises o
the
surface f
the desert
ock
within the
embankment.
ere it
was sup
ported
by
planksand
posts,
as the mass
of
ashes
and bits
of wood
testify.
It turns
slightly
outh,
proceedshrough
doorofone
of the
houses
buriedby
the
embankment,
turns
slightly
north
again, and
ends
some
distance
rom he
bottom
f the
embankment
_ .
SlS 1l
,,
I .
1
;
g
X
FIGURE. TOWER4 (SOUTHM
MINES
ND
face.
At
this point
it must
havemounted
straight
p to the
sloping
aceof the
embank
ment. A
skeleton ound
at the end
tells of
either
a fightat
themouth
of
the mine
or an
accidentn
itsconstruction.
ssailants
each
ingthe
interior
f the
city through
his
mine
could ake
hedefenders
n
therear
ustwhere
the chiefattackof the Persians n theramp
was
concentratedFIGURE
).
When
these
earthworks
were completed
Dura's
inal
day had
dawned.
It was
soon
over.
At a
signal he
shoring nder
Tower
4
was fired;
he
big tunnel
was
packed
with
shock
roops,
ullyarmed
nd
eager
or the
booty
before hem;
other fighters
rowded
behind
heir
hieldat
the crest
of theramp,
few short
feet from
the walls.
Tower
I4
tottered
and began
to crumble
nd
its
de
MESTOWER):LANOFPERSIAN
ASSAULT
AMP.
(Dura
Report
VI,
PlateI3)
fenders
an
or their
ives;and
the Sassanian
throng
rushed
over and
under he
wallsto
overwhelm
he city.
Racing
through
the
streets
o be Srst
o reacll
he loot,they
slew
all
who resisted;
he
restwere
reserved
or
slavery.
Dura
was no
small own;
the
sack
mayhavelasted
several
days. When
it was
overDurawas nomore, nd hedesertedite
was eft
to the vultures
nd he
scorpions.
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THE SIEGEOF DURAHE SIEGEOF DURA
zS9S9
Unique in the annals of uoar.... Why
shouldhisbesaidof Dura? n thegrimhistory
of armies ountless itieshavebeen akenby
siege, heirwomen ndchildrennslaved,heir
grownmenmurdered,heir hildrenaken nto
slavery.Countless appers avedriven ount
lessminesbeneathhewallsof settlementshat
dared esist,and havediedmiserablyn the
dart,xncave ns or theviciousnfightingf the
countermines.
But hesiege f Dura s unique ecausehere
is no ancient ecord f it, no author, o texton
stoneor bronze r papyrus o describeor us
theBattle f theSapor hewild uryof thatday
Unique in the annals of uoar.... Why
shouldhisbesaidof Dura? n thegrimhistory
of armies ountless itieshavebeen akenby
siege, heirwomen ndchildrennslaved,heir
grownmenmurdered,heir hildrenaken nto
slavery.Countless appers avedriven ount
lessminesbeneathhewallsof settlementshat
dared esist,and havediedmiserablyn the
dart,xncave ns or theviciousnfightingf the
countermines.
But hesiege f Dura s unique ecausehere
is no ancient ecord f it, no author, o texton
stoneor bronze r papyrus o describeor us
theBattle f theSapor hewild uryof thatday
when he Sassanian orde wovrmedcross he
wallsand nto hestreets. or hestorywehave
no evidencexcept hovturned p bythespade
of the archaeologist;nd that is the storywe
lzave etold ere.t
* Details f the mines re alen almost erbatim
from the formalreportsof M. Du Mesnil du
Buisson,vicezdirectorf the excavations,with
whom had he pleasure f collaboratingn three
campaignst Dura.Both he reportand he illus
trations re n largepartcontainedn Excavations
at DuraEuropos, reliminary eport f tlzeSixtlz
Seasonof workYaleniversity Press, New
Haven,936), pages 88-zoSand platest andz8.
when he Sassanian orde wovrmedcross he
wallsand nto hestreets. or hestorywehave
no evidencexcept hovturned p bythespade
of the archaeologist;nd that is the storywe
lzave etold ere.t
* Details f the mines re alen almost erbatim
from the formalreportsof M. Du Mesnil du
Buisson,vicezdirectorf the excavations,with
whom had he pleasure f collaboratingn three
campaignst Dura.Both he reportand he illus
trations re n largepartcontainedn Excavations
at DuraEuropos, reliminary eport f tlzeSixtlz
Seasonof workYaleniversity Press, New
Haven,936), pages 88-zoSand platest andz8.
Note
THE RISE f the principatet Rome, t is
well known,was attendedby the de
cline of forensic oratory, and in an en
vironmentunfriendly o free speech the
declamationupplanted enuinepleading e
forethe publicassembliesr senate.Yet not
everyone uccumbedo the allurements r
pretensions f these rhetorical xercises; n
amusing ale which shows how Cicerowas
still venerated s the master f eloquence n
livens the preface o the third book of the
elderSeneca's ontroversiae.lassius everus,
a prominentawyer, eemed o Seneca n in
efectual declaimern spite of greatnatural
gifts. Pressed or an explanation, assiusde
nounced he unrealityof declamation nd
declaredts practitionersncompetentt con
fronting ctual egalsituations.As an exam
ple, he recountedhis joust with Lucius
CestiusPius, one of the best knownof the
rhetoricians.
The quarrel eganwhenCestiusundertook
to deliver a speech in Milonem, hereby
setting himselfup as Cicero'shypothetical
adversary. ompously e beganby proclaim
ing, "If I werea Thraciani.e.,a gladiator),
would be Fusius; f a mime,Bathyllus;f a
horse,Melissio."Not brookinguchconceit,
Note
THE RISE f the principatet Rome, t is
well known,was attendedby the de
cline of forensic oratory, and in an en
vironmentunfriendly o free speech the
declamationupplanted enuinepleading e
forethe publicassembliesr senate.Yet not
everyone uccumbedo the allurements r
pretensions f these rhetorical xercises; n
amusing ale which shows how Cicerowas
still venerated s the master f eloquence n
livens the preface o the third book of the
elderSeneca's ontroversiae.lassius everus,
a prominentawyer, eemed o Seneca n in
efectual declaimern spite of greatnatural
gifts. Pressed or an explanation, assiusde
nounced he unrealityof declamation nd
declaredts practitionersncompetentt con
fronting ctual egalsituations.As an exam
ple, he recountedhis joust with Lucius
CestiusPius, one of the best knownof the
rhetoricians.
The quarrel eganwhenCestiusundertook
to deliver a speech in Milonem, hereby
setting himselfup as Cicero'shypothetical
adversary. ompously e beganby proclaim
ing, "If I werea Thraciani.e.,a gladiator),
would be Fusius; f a mime,Bathyllus;f a
horse,Melissio."Not brookinguchconceit,
Cassius nterruptedwith "If you were a
sewer cloaca), ou would be the greatest f
those,too (maxima)" Consternationn the
part of Cestius'sadmirers, ibald aughter
from he others.The manwho was about o
reply o braxenlyo Cicero, ays he narrator,
hadno wordswith which o silence heckler,
and merelyasserted hat he wouldnot con
tinue until Cassius eft the house.To this
demandCassius ejoined hat he would not
quit the publicbath,wherethe speechwas
beingdelivered, ntil he had washed.
Subsequently, e continues, t was his
pleasureo seek egalredressor Cicero rom
the declaimer.He hailed Cestius beforea
praetor, nd afterabusing nd mocking he
poor fellow, demandedhat the magistrate
inscribehim as defendantunder the law
dealingwith inscriptummaZefiicium;estius
was so distraughthat he asked o be per
mitted to procure egal counsel.Then Cas
sius, dragging im beforea secondpraetor,
charged im on a count of ingratum.As a
thirdaction, orappointmentf a curator, as
beingsought rom he praetor rbanus,Ces
tius's riends ntreatedhe merciless ersecuS
torto desist romharassingisvictim urther.
Cassiusagreed,on condition hat Cestius
Cassius nterruptedwith "If you were a
sewer cloaca), ou would be the greatest f
those,too (maxima)" Consternationn the
part of Cestius'sadmirers, ibald aughter
from he others.The manwho was about o
reply o braxenlyo Cicero, ays he narrator,
hadno wordswith which o silence heckler,
and merelyasserted hat he wouldnot con
tinue until Cassius eft the house.To this
demandCassius ejoined hat he would not
quit the publicbath,wherethe speechwas
beingdelivered, ntil he had washed.
Subsequently, e continues, t was his
pleasureo seek egalredressor Cicero rom
the declaimer.He hailed Cestius beforea
praetor, nd afterabusing nd mocking he
poor fellow, demandedhat the magistrate
inscribehim as defendantunder the law
dealingwith inscriptummaZefiicium;estius
was so distraughthat he asked o be per
mitted to procure egal counsel.Then Cas
sius, dragging im beforea secondpraetor,
charged im on a count of ingratum.As a
thirdaction, orappointmentf a curator, as
beingsought rom he praetor rbanus,Ces
tius's riends ntreatedhe merciless ersecuS
torto desist romharassingisvictim urther.
Cassiusagreed,on condition hat Cestius
PRESUMPTIONREBUKEDRESUMPTIONREBUKED