ii
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
&
ADVANCED MATERIAL
2015
3rd– 4th DECEMBER 2015
KOTA KINABALU, SABAH, MALAYSIA
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
THERMAL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
ICME AM
15011
Methods of Measuring the Remaining Lifetime and Evaluating the Thermal Condition of TBC
Kyoung Sup. Kum & Young Ze. Lee (Invited Paper) 1
ICME AM
15032
Modelling Phase Change Material for Concentrating Energy Storage in Solar Thermal Cooking Stoves
Ang Chan Mun, Ftwi Y. Hagos, Rizalman Mamat, Ahmed Nurye Umer & W. H. Azmi 4
ICME AM
15053
Effect of level of Expansion and Inertia Level in a Suddenly Expanded Flow Zakir Ilahi Chaudhary , V. B. Shinde , Syed Ashfaq & S.A. Khan
12
ICME AM
15009
Self-Start Performance of a Variable Pitch Mechanism for Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
Chua BihLii, Tan May Chan, Mohd. Suffian Misaran & Md. Mizanur Rahman 19
ICME AM
15030
Experimental Study of Aerodynamic Characteristics of Airfoils Using Hexagonal Shaped Dimples
Mohammad Mashud & Rubiat Mustak 23
ICME AM
15028
Experimental Investigation of Greenhouse Solar Dryer with Separate Chimney for Seaweed Drying
Hooi-Kim Phang, Chi-Ming Chu, Sivakumar Kumaresan, Md. Mizanur Rahman, Suhaimi Md. Yasir 28
ICME AM
15052
Combined Effect of Nozzle Pressure Ratio and Screech Prone Supersonic Mac Number in a Suddenly Expanded Flow
Musavir Bashir , Parvathy Rajendran & S A Khan 34
ICME AM
15008
Experimental Optimization of Single Slope Solar Still Using Seawater Ong Cheah Meng, Yeo Kiam Beng & Kenneth Teo Tze Kin
42
ICME AM
15080
Numerical Study on Solar Chimney for Natural Ventilation
Ling Leh Sung, Md. Mizanur Rahman & Mohd. Suffian Bin Misaran 48
ICME AM
15081
Heat Removal Capacity of Earth-Air Heat Exchanger Under Laboratory Condition Md. Mizanur Rahman, Ling Leh Sung, Fadzlita Mohd. Tamiri & Mohd Suffian Bin Misaran
49
ICME AM
15070
Theoretical and Numerical Methods for Determination of Heat Transfer Behaviour of Single Slope Solar Still
Yeo Kiam Beng & Ong Cheah Meng 52
ICME AM
15043
Finite Element Approach of Bio-heat Transfer and Study of Thermal Burn Injuries Abul Mukid Mohammad Mukaddes, Ryuji Shioya & Sannyal Mridul
53
ICME AM
15040
Influence of Low Length-to-Diameter Ratio and Nozzle Pressure Ratio in an Abruptly Expanded Flow
Zakir Ilahi Chaudhary , V. B. Shinde , Syed Ashfaq & S.A. Khan 60
ICME AM
15004
Cost Optimization of Hybrid Solar, Micro-Hydro and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Using Homer Software
Nader Barsoum & Pearl Dianne Petrus 65
ICME AM
15017
Design and Development of Solar Concentrator Carbon Capture and Electro – Conversion
Ooi Shen Ching, Miron Gakim, Karen Wong Min Jin, Chua Bih Li, Nancy Julius Siambun 72
ICME AM
15035
Equi-Volume Natural Convection Behavior of Chimneys
Chi-Ming Chu, Kar-Heng Neoh & Md. Mizanur Rahman 77
ICME AM
15007
Performance Evaluation of Evaporation Models for Open Ponds in East Malaysian Climate
Md. Ashikur Rahman, Md. Mizanur Rahman, Noor Ajian Mohd. Lair & Chi Ming Chu 83
ICME AM
15001
Performance Investigation on Flat Plate Solar Collector Integrated With Thermal Energy Storage Using Fe-Nanofluid
Afolabi Lukmon Owolabi , Hussein Al-Kayiem , Aklilu Tesfamicheal Baheta 91
ICME AM
15082
Effect of Solar Chimney Angle on Natural Convection Flow Through Abdullah Mohd Tahir , Md. Mizanur Rahman & Ling Leh Sung
92
ICME AM
15083
Hydraulic Efficiency of Vortex Turbine for Different Water Head
Fadzlita Mohd Tamiri, Md. Mizanur Rahman & Abdullah Mohd Tahir 93
ICME AM
15084
Solar Irradiated Ventilation of an Enclosure Pond for Evaporation Processes Md. Mizanur Rahman, Md. Ashikur Rahman, Noor Ajian Mohd Lair & Chi Ming Chu
94
DESIGN & MANUFACTURING
ICME AM
15015
Cutting Theory of Unsupported Brushes using Peripheral Blades
Y.D. Kwon, W.K. Choi, D.H. Kim &H.W. Kwon (Invited Paper) 102
ICME AM
15023
Study on incremental sheet forming and recent development
Young-Suk Kim & Van-Cuong Do (Invited Paper) 106
ICME AM
15034
Static and Dynamic Finite Element Analysis of Negative Pressure HDD Air Slider
Pyung Hwang & Polina V. Khan (Invited Paper) 112
ICME AM
15021
Surface Texturing by Biomachining along with Fine Tuning of Process Parameters for Improved Surface Roughness
Imran Muhammad, Yein, Kwak & Tae Jo, Ko, Hochan Kim (Invited Paper) 118
ICME AM
15022
Surface Texturing on Free Form Surfaces by Grinding Process
Jiyong Jeong, Yu Zhen, Tae Jo Ko, & Hochan Kim 120
ICME AM
15027
Development for Mechanical Expansion Equipment of Tubes to Tubesheet in Nuclear Reactor Vessel Internal(RVI)
Myung-Hyun Kim, Si-Geun Choi, Seock-Sam Kim & Jong-Hyoung Kim 122
ICME AM
15071
Compliant Body Autonomous Biomimetic Thunniform Robotic Fish
Wong Wei Loong, Yeo Kiam Beng & Kenneth Teo Tze Kin 123
iv
ICME AM
15061
Development of Removable Shear Link with Perforated Web for EBFs
Daniel Y. Abebe, Gyumyong Gwak, Meron W. Lemma, Jae Hyouk Choi (Invited Paper) 124
ICME AM
15059
Extrusion Shape Complexity: A Research/Industry Review Sayyad Zahid Qamar (Invited Paper)
127
ICME AM
15038
Colorimetric Sensor based Determination of Allura Red (E129) Using Prussian Blue as a Redox Indicator
Kobun Rovina, Shafiquzzaman Siddiquee & Sharifudin Md Shaarani 130
ICME AM
15049
Spray Drying of Herbal Plant Extract on Synergistic Effect of Mengkudu with Wheat Flour
Duduku Krishnaiah,S.M. Anisuzzaman, Awang Bono & Rozianie Rajak 131
ICME AM
15063
Development and Verification of Hybrid Online Test Process Using Hydraulic Actuator
Jeong Hyun Jang, Ji Sang Jang, Ji Won Park , Jae Hyuk Choi 138
ICME AM
15044
Impact of TQM Implementation on Organizational Performance in an Electronic Company
Rosnah Mohd Yusuff & Melissa Abdul Ghafar 140
ICME AM
15031
Experimental Investigation of Slipstreaming Effect between A Semi Trailer-Truck And A Sedan Car
Mohammad Mashud & Rubiat Mustak 144
ICME AM
15029
Surface Modification Techniques for Wear Minimization Dae-Eun Kim (Invited Paper)
147
ICME AM
15064 Experimental Study on the Hysteresis Characteristics of Buckling Resistance Steel Damper Sijeong Jeong, Gyumyong Gwak, Beomseok Go, Jaehyouk Choi
148
ICME AM
15060
Dynamic Response of Plates Due to Impact Load Nittala Surya Venkata Kameswara Rao, Chong Chee Siang & Bong Kwong Nyap
151
ICME AM
15042
The Effects of Machining Parameters on Product Quality in Dry Turning Operation Noor-Ajian Mohd-Lair, Ahmad-Sad Sahibe, Abdullah Mohd-Tahir, Mohd-Saiyful-Safic Awang & Roonie Protasius
157
ICME AM
15065
Effect of Valve Timing Events on the Performance of Compressed Natural Gas Direct Injection (CNGDI) Engine
Using Simulation
Edilan, M.M., Kalam, M.A., Muhamad Said, M.F.
161
ICME AM
15066
Exploring Potential Local Natural Organic Dye Sensitizers for Photoelectrochemical Cells in Dye Sensitized Solar
Cells (DSSC) Ung Mee Ching, Coswald Stephen Sipaut , Jedol Dayou, Rachel Fran Mansa
167
ICME AM
15057
Assessment of C-type Wind Turbine Performance under Low Wind Speed Condition Mohd Suffian Misaran, Md. Mizanur Rahman, Chua Bih Lii, Eugene Edeberg
168
ICME AM
15054
A Design of Baja Electric Vehicle for 2015 Baja SAE KOREA Competition Yun-Hwa Lee, Soon-ki Lee, Seung-Je Yeom & Pyung Hwang
171
ICME AM
15072
Computational Fluid Dynamics Prediction of Outboard Marine Propeller Flow Under Non-Cavitating And Cavitating
Conditions
Choong Wai Heng, Yeo Kiam Beng
177
ADVANCED MATERIALS
ICME AM 15014
Wear Characteristics of 3D Printed Surfaces with Super-Alloy Dong-Gyu Ahn & Ho-Jin Lee (Invited Paper)
178
ICME AM
15019 Mechanical Properties of Si-Diamond Like Carbon films with Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition
Tae Gyu Kim (Invited Paper) 180
ICME AM 15024
Surface Treatments of Carbon Fibers to Enhance the Interfacial Strength of Thermoplastic Composites
Seung A Song, Seung Jin See, Kang Yeong Choe, Seong Su Kim (Invited Paper) 181
ICME AM
15006 Design of new PET/Polyolefin MFC composites A. Almajid, R. Walter, T. Kroos, H. Junaidi, K. Abdullmawjood & M. Gurka
183
ICME AM
15005 High Temperature Deformation of over Aged 7010 Al Alloy
Abdul Hakim Almajid 188
ICME AM
15013 Re-melting Characteristics of 3D Printed Surfaces by a DED Process Ho-Jin Lee, Dong-In Kim, Dong-Gyu Ahn, & Jin-Seok Kim
194
ICME AM
15073 Impact Behavior of Different Ply Orientation on Unidirectional Glass Fiber Laminated Composite
Mazree Ahamad Bin Mahamood Ahamad, Yeo Kiam Beng 196
ICME AM
15033 Laser Shock Processing of Metal for Enhancement of Surface Properties
Sungho Jeong, Hyun-Taeck Lim, In-Kyu Yeo & Jun-Su Park (Invited Paper) 197
ICME AM
15026 Mechanical Properties and Tribological Characteristics of White Metal Treatment on S45C by Laser Cladding
Si-Geun Choi, Yong-Joong Lee, Seock-Sam Kim, Yong-Sub Jung, Jin-Seok Jang, Ji-Hyun Sung, Yang-Gon Kim, Jae-Wook Lee &
Jong-Hyoung Kim 198
ICME AM
15045 Friction and Wear Characteristics of Polylactic Acid (PLA) for 3D Printing under Reciprocating Condition
Hong Yi, Kwang-Hee Lee & Chul-Hee Lee 199
ICME AM
15050 Carbon Dioxide Capture Using Waste Tire Based Adsorbent
Duduku Krishnaiah, S.M. Anisuzzaman, Awang Bono, Teo Bee Khee, V.V.Basava Rao 204
v
ICME AM
15050 Removal of Chlorinated Phenol from Aqueous Solution Utilizing Activated Carbon Derived from Papaya (carica
papaya) Seeds
Duduku Krishnaiah, Collin G. Joseph, S. M. Anisuzzaman, W. M. A. W. Daud, M. Sundang & Y. C. Leow
211
ICME AM
15037 Indentation Micro Vickers Analysis of Brass Piezoelectric Jumardi Sarifudin, Mohd Kamal Mohd Shah & Sahari Jaapar
220
ICME AM
15048 Properties of Melamine Urea Formaldehyde (MUF) Resin under Various Production Formulation
S.M. Anisuzzaman, Awang Bono, D. Krishnaiah & Aisah Bano 224
ICME AM
15074 Plastic Collapse and Energy Absorption of Empty Tubular Structure Under Transverse Quasi-Static Loading
Muaz Bin Abdul Wahab & Yeo Kiam Beng 234
ICME AM
15075 Plastic Collapse and Energy Absorption of PU-Filled Tubes Under Quasi-Static Loads by Computational Analysis
Woo Wen Tzeng & Yeo Kiam Beng 235
ICME AM 15056
Microstructure, Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Crsicn Coatings in Water Lubrication
Fei Zhou, Zhiwei Wu & Qianzhi Wang (Invited Paper) 236
ICME AM 15062
Free Surface Vortex in Pump Sump With A Curtain Wall
Yun Hai Wang, Yeon Won Lee, Chang Soo Kang (Invited Paper) 246
ICME AM 15003
Wax Extraction and Characterization from Petroleum Fraction
S.M. Anisuzzaman, H.A.R. Rahmaliza & P. Ravindra 248
ICME AM
15018 Investigation on Sustainability of Tin Oxide (SnO2) Anode for Molten Salt
Nancy Julius Siambun, Pang Kien Yeung, Miron Gakim & Abdullah Mohd. Tahir 253
ICME AM
15058 Influence of Water Absorption on Mode I Delamination in Carbon/Epoxy Composite Laminate
K.J. Wong, M. Johar, X.J. Gong, S.Aivazzadeh & M.N. Tamin 254
ICME AM
15075 Self-Healing Polymer: A Review Rosalam Hj. Sarbatly, Yeo Kiam Beng, Awang Bono, Choong Wai Heng & Mazree Ahamad Bin Mahamood Ahamad
264
ICME AM
15076 Fiber Orientation Effect on Unidirectional GFRP Composite: Flexural and Tensile Properties
Noratirah Binti Umar, Nurazizah Binti Bokchua, Yeo Kiam Beng & Choong Wai Heng 270
ICME AM
15077 GFRP Laminate of Unsaturated Polyester Resin Reinforced by Plain-Weave Woven E-Glass Fiber
M. A. Faizal, K. B. Yeo & W. H. Choong 271
ICME AM
15078 Impact Behaviour of Different Ply Orientation of Unidirectional Glass Fibre Laminate
Yeo Kiam Beng, Mazree Ahamad Bin Mahamood Ahamad, Mohd Kamal Mohd Shah, Fadzlita Mohd Tamiri 272
International Conference on Mechanical Engineering and Advanced Material 2015
3-4 December, 2015, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
34
ICME- AM -ID-1505210
Combined Effect of Nozzle Pressure Ratio and Screech Prone
Supersonic Mach Number in a Suddenly Expanded Flow
Musavir Bashir1, ParvathyRajendran
2,and S.A. Khan
3
1 School of Aerospace Engineering, University Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia. 2 School of Aerospace Engineering, University Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
3Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, IIUM, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT This paper presents the results of an experimental study to evaluate the effectiveness of the micro jets to control the base
pressure in a suddenly expanded flow at supersonic Mach numbers. Four micro jets of 1mm orifice diameter located at 90°
intervals along a pitch circle diameter of 1.3 times the nozzle exit diameter in the base region were employed as active controls.
The Mach numbers of the present study were 1.8 and 2.0. The jets were expanded suddenly into an axi-symmetric circular tube
with cross-sectional area 2.56, 3.24, 4.84 and 6.25 times that of the nozzle exit area. The Length to Diameter ratio of the
suddenly expanded duct was varied from 10 to 1 and experiment were conducted for Nozzle Pressure Ratio (NPR) from 3 to 11.
Jets were over, under, and correctly expanded depending upon the NPR of the respective runs. When flow from the nozzle was
over expanded or under expanded an oblique shock or expansion fan will be positioned at the nozzle lip, which in turn will
result in increase or decrease of the base pressure. From the results it was observed that at NPRs 3 the control was not effective,
however, at NPR 5, 7, 9, and 11 a significant change in the base pressure for all the area ratios was seen. From the results it was
concluded that the level of expansion, Mach number, length-to-diameter ratio, and area ratio played an important role to fix the
value of the base pressure and the control effectiveness by the micro jets.
Keywords: Base pressure, Active Control, Abrupt Expansion, Nozzle Pressure ratio.
1. Introduction The discipline of “Base Flow Aerodynamics” has
attracteda lot of attention in the past few years. The
examination of base flow behind aerodynamic vehicles
such as missiles, rockets, aircraft bodies and projectiles
as well as re-entry vehicles is essential to understand the
flow separation phenomenon, which leads to the
formation of a low-pressure circulation region near the
base. The interaction between the rocket exhaust, and the
transonic/supersonic external flow deteriorates the
performance of launchers and projectiles, and base flow
is the trigger. Talking about the advanced future nozzle
mechanics, such as the plug nozzle, the performance
becomes more relative to the external flow, and therefore,
the base flow plays even greater role. In order to
comprehend the parameters of the base flow
aerodynamics, more experiments are carried out and new
applications are chosen. In the case of flow separation,
the pressure in this region is usually substantially lower
than the free stream atmospheric pressure. This notable
difference in pressures can be up to two-thirds of the
total drag on the body of revolution at Transonic Mach
numbers. Nevertheless, the base drag at supersonic
speeds is around one-third of the total drag and has
decreased in this stream. Whereas, the base drag is 10
per cent of the skin-friction drag in the sub-sonic flow as
the wave drag will not be there. To further increase of
the base pressure, which decreases the base drag, one
can think of different geometrical modifications, like
boat tails, additional cavities, sting and discs, or
application of base bleed and base combustion. However,
the studies of base drag reduction with active control has
not been studied much, therefore, an attempt has been
made to study the problem with an internal flow. The
experimental study of an internal flow apparatus has a
number of distinct advantages over usual ballistics test
procedures. Huge volume of air supply is required for
tunnels with test-section large enough so that wall
interference, etc., will not disturb flow over the model.
`Stings' and other support mechanism required for
external flow tests are also eliminated in the internal
flows. The most important advantage of an internal flow
apparatus is that complete static pressure and surface
temperature measurements can be made not only along
the entrance section to the expansion(analogous to a
body of the projectile), but also in the wake region These
measurements are particularly valuable if one needs to
test the theoretical prediction adequately.
As stated, numerous techniques have been analyzed
to control the flow separation; hence, base drag shall
either by preventing it or by reducing its effects. Many
researchers have adopted the passive methods like
splitter plate, ribs at the base region of the enlarged duct,
acoustic excitation, step body, locked vortex, but very
few efforts have been made on active control strategies.
Therefore, in the present work, an effort is made to
examine the base pressure manipulation with active
control with the help of micro jets under the effect of
favorable, unfavorable pressure gradient and for ideally
International Conference on Mechanical Engineering and Advanced Material 2015
3-4 December, 2015, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
35
expanded cases; at high supersonic Mach numbers with
micro jets.
Fig.1: Sudden expansion flow field
2. Literature Review In base flow aerodynamics, the aerodynamic forces are
mainly loaded by separation over the rear slant, a torus
on the base and two longitudinal vortices created on the
side edges (Ahmed et al. 1984; Spohn and Gillie´ron
2002; Roume´as et al. 2008) [1-3]. The abrupt expansion
of air in a duct results in the base pressure and noise was
studied by Anderson and Williams. When the flow
remains attached, the base pressure showed minimum
value, which depends mainly on the duct to nozzle area
ratio and on the geometry of the nozzle. Various jet flow
models for fuel injection into a combustion chamber and
dispersion of effluents into rivers through a diffuser were
studied by Green 1995[4]. A specific configuration of jet
flow had found applications as a combustion burner in
many industries (Nathan et al. 2006) [5]. Rathakrishnan
and Sreekanth [6] studied flows in pipe with sudden
enlargement. They concluded that the non-dimensional
base pressure was a strong function of the expansion
area ratios, the overall pressure ratios and the duct
length-to-diameter ratios. They showed that for a given
overall pressure ratio and a given area ratio, it was
possible to identify an optimal length-to-diameter ratio
of the enlargement that will result in the maximum exit
plane total pressure at the nozzle exit on the symmetry
axis (i.e. minimum pressure loss in the nozzle) and in a
minimum base pressure at the sudden enlargement plane.
The separation and reattachment seemed to be strongly
dependent on the area ratio of the inlet to enlargement.
For a given nozzle and duct area ratio, the duct length
must exceed a definite minimum value for minimum
base pressure. The effectiveness of passive devices for
axi-symmetric base drag reduction at Mach 2 was
studied by Vishwanath and Patil [7]. The devices
examined included primarily base cavities and ventilated
cavities. Their results indicated that the ventilated
cavities offered significant base drag reduction. They
found a 50 per cent increase in base pressure and 3 to 5
per cent net drag reduction at supersonic Mach numbers
for body of revolution.
The effectiveness of micro jets to control the base
pressure in suddenly expanded axi-symmetric ducts was
studied experimentally by Khan et al. [8]-[15]. From the
experimental results, it was found that the micro jets can
serve as active controllers for the base pressure. From
the wall pressure distribution in the duct it was found
that the micro jets do not disturb the flow field in the
enlarged duct. Ashfaq Syed Ashfaq et al. [16]-[27]
studied the effect of area ratio, nozzle pressure ratio,
length to diameter ratio and control effectiveness for
various area ratios for correctly and under expanded jets.
From their result they found that the control in the form
of the micro jets was very effective. One of the reason
for this behaviour could be due the lowest area ratio, the
space available for the flow to create the suction was the
lowest and the vortex sitting at the base whose strength
was constant was able to influence the base region very
effectively leading to very low level of base pressure and
also the wall pressure was found to be low and
oscillatory in nature. This trend of the wall pressure
having waviness was observed for all the NPRs and
Length to Diameter ratio and it was also observed that
this waviness nature was very strong at the higher NPRs
as compared to the lower NPRs. They presented the
results of experimental studies to control the base
pressure from a convergent nozzle under the influence of
favourable pressures gradient at sonic Mach number.
The area ratio (ratio of area of suddenly expanded duct
to nozzle exit area) studied were2.56, 3.24, 4.84 and 6.25.
It was found that many techniques can be used to reduce
or even suppress two or three dimensional separation.
These techniques include blowing or suction of air flow
through slots (Lehugeur et al. 2010; Wassen and Thiele
2007, 2008; Muminovic et al. 2008) [28-30] or holes
(Favier et al. 2007; Roume´as et al. 2008) [31-32], use of
array(s) of unsteady (synthetic or pulsed) jets (Leclerc
2008), actuators (Boucinha et al. 2008a, b; Moreau
2007) [33-35] and others. All of these techniques come
with pros and cons, as the steady blowing or suction
through orifices normal to freestream flow and located
close downstream of the separation line had been
revealed to be effective in reattaching the flow, but such
devices need a continuous supply of mass flow through
such orifices. In the case of slots, the mass flow rate had
been shown to be very high in order to effect the
requisite control. On the other hand, range of steady
microjets had proven much efficient in comparison to
single slit in terms of the flow rate needed, while being
very effective in controlling the separation. This being
the physical mechanisms behind this ‘discrete’ or
‘segmented’ control differ from the use of (quasi) two-
dimensional or high aspect ratio slots. Steady microjets
act as 3D disturbances, which generate distinct 3D
vertical structures that offer some advantages in terms of
mixing and re-energizing the separating boundary layer.
To date, separation control using microjets had primarily
been examined in canonical flows such as a modified
backward facing ramp (Kumar and Alvi 2006, 2009)
[36-37] and for aircraft-related applications for two-
International Conference on Mechanical Engineering and Advanced Material 2015
3-4 December, 2015, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
36
dimensional (at least geometrically) airfoils (Bourgois et
al. 2005; Favier et al. 2007; Kreth et al. 2010) [38-40].
In this study, we examine the use of microjet based
control in a suddenly expanded axi-symmetric duct,
especially, the aim is to control the base pressure in the
transonic/supersonic regime, which appears to be very
promising. We will evaluate the microjet efficiency to
reduce the base drag and to gain some insight in the
mechanism behind this approach.
3. Experimental Setup
Fig. 2: Experimental setup
The Fig. 2 shows the experimental setup, which was
used for the present study. At the exit periphery of the
nozzle there were eight holes as shown in the figure, four
of which were (marked c) were used for blowing and the
remaining four (marked m) were used for the base
pressure (Pb) measurement. Control of base pressure was
carried out by blowing through the control holes (c),
using pressure from a settling chamber by employing a
tube connecting the settling chamber and the control
holes (c). Wall pressure taps were provided on the duct
to measure wall pressure distribution. First nine holes
were made at an interval of 3mm each and the remaining
was made at an interval 5mm each. From the literature it
was found that, the typical Length to Diameter (as shown
in Fig. 2) resulting in Pb maximum was usually from 3 to
5 without controls. Since active controls were used in the
present study, Length to Diameter ratios up to 10 had
been employed. For each Mach number, and Length to
Diameter ratios used were 10, 8, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 and
for each value of Length to Diameter ratio NPRs used
were 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11.
PSI model 9010 pressure transducer was used for
measuring pressure at the base, the stagnation pressure in
the main settling chamber and the pressure in the control
chamber. It has 16 channels and pressure range was 0-
300 psi. On average 250 samples per second displayed
reading was achieved. The software provided by the
manufacturer was used to interface the transducer with
the computer. The user-friendly menu driven software
acquires data and showed the pressure readings from all
the 16 channels simultaneously in a window type display
on the computer screen. The software can be used to
choose the units of pressure from a list of available units,
perform a re-zero/full calibration, and other transducer
could also facilitate the chosen number of samples to be
averaged, by means of dipswitch settings. It could be
operated in temperatures ranging from -20° to +60°
Celsius and 95 per cent humidity.
4. Results and Discussion
The obtained values consist of base pressure (Pb); wall
static pressure (Pw) along the length of the duct, and the
NPR i.e. stagnation pressure (P0) to back pressure (Patm)
ratio. The obtained pressures were made non-
dimensional by dividing them with the atmospheric
pressure/back pressure. This investigation focus the
attention on the effectiveness of active control in the
form of micro jets, located at the base region of suddenly
expanded axi-symmetric ducts, to modify the base
pressure at supersonic Mach number, which was more
prone to screech. The parameters considered in the
present study were the area ratio of the enlarged duct,
L/D ratio of the suddenly expanded duct, the jet Mach
number and the level of expansion (NPR).
The dependence of base pressure on Mach number,
four area ratios namely 2.56, 3.24, 4.84, and 6.25 for
NPRs from 3 to 11 were given in the Figs. 3((a) to (j)).
Results of the base pressure with and without control
were compared. It was seen from these results that in
supersonic regime the Mach number had a very strong
influence on the base pressure. For a given Mach number
the nozzle pressure ratio (NPR), which dictates the level
of expansion, has a strong role to play on the control
effectiveness of the micro jets. Also, it was seen that
with increase of NPR, the control becomes more
effective in increasing the base pressure for Mach
numbers in the range from 1.8 to 2.0. The physical
reason for this may be the influence of the shock at
nozzle exit, which turns the flow away from the base
region, thereby weakening the vortex positioned at the
base. This results in increase of base pressure since the
weakened vortex at the base encounters the mass flow
injected by the micro-jets. However, NPR11 results in
continuous increase of base pressure compared to the
without control case for the present range of Mach
number tested namely, 1.8 and 2.0. This may be due to
the NPR increases the level of overexpansion decreasing
Hence, the oblique shock at the nozzle exit becomes
weaker than those at lower NPRs. Therefore, the turning
away tendency of incoming flow comes down leaving
the vortex almost intact. At this situation when the micro
jets are introduced they may propagate without any
deflecting tendency, thereby entraining some mass from
the standing vortex and convecting it away from the base
causing the base pressure to assume higher values than
those for without control. It was well known from
literature that passive controls perform better in the
presence of favorable pressure gradient. In the present
study the combined effect of favorable pressure gradient
International Conference on Mechanical Engineering and Advanced Material 2015
3-4 December, 2015, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
37
and the relief due to area ratio on the active control
effectiveness is investigated.
The percentage change in base pressure as a function
of length to diameter ratio and area ratio are presented
for NPR =3, 5, 7, 9, and 11.
The NPR range in the present study was such that jet
exiting the nozzle experiences correct, over and under
expansion. It was well known that oblique shock or
expansion fan will be positioned at the nozzle lip for
over and under expanded conditions, respectively. To
understand the influence of level of expansion on the
base pressure with and without control the percentage
change in base pressure variation as a function of Mach
number, L/D and NPR were presented here. The effect
of area ratio with Mach number and NPR being shown in
the Figs. 3 ((a) to (j)). The results for NPR 3 as in the Fig.
3 ((a) to (b)) for Mach numbers 1.8 and 2.0, contain the
base pressure with L/D for over expanded jets. The NPR
required for ideally expanded jets were5.8 and 7.8,
respectively, for Mach 1.8 and 2.0. When the flow was
exiting from the nozzle at NPR 3, the jets were over
expanded and hence, there will be an oblique shock at
the nozzle exit and the shear layer coming out of the
nozzle will be deflected towards the nozzle center line
by the shock. This delayed the reattachment and will
result in a longer reattachment length as compared to a
case without a shock. It was also known that the
reattachment length being a parameter strongly
influencing the base vortex, the increase or decrease of
reattachment length will modify the base pressure. From
the figure it was seen that control effectiveness was only
marginal and the reason for this trend was mainly due to
the level of over expansion.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Results for NPR = 5 being as shown in the figs. 3 (c) to
(d)). Due to the increase in NPR the level of over
expansion had reduced. In the case of Mach 1.8, this
NPR was very close to become ideally expanded and
there was appreciable gain in the base pressure in the
range from fifteen to twenty percent. This happens only
for lowest area ratio namely 2.56, because of the area
ratio at the micro jets are located at the middle position
ofthe base region. For all the remaining area ratio at
International Conference on Mechanical Engineering and Advanced Material 2015
3-4 December, 2015, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
38
Mach 1.8 and 2.0, the effectiveness of the micro jets
were only marginal Fig. 3 ((c) to (d)).
(e)
(f)
Base pressure results for NPR 7 were obtained as in the
Figs. 3(e)-(f) for Mach numbers1.8 and 2. Here, for the
Mach number 1.8, the jet were under expanded and
Mach number 2 are over expanded. Due to the change in
the expansion level, the change in the base pressure
values were observed. For lower area ratios, the increase
in the base pressure is considerable, which was around
twenty five percent and for area ratio 4.84 the micro jets
were not effective. In the results for area ratio 6.25, it
was found that at L/D = 4 for both the Mach numbers,
the jets become quite and the phenomena was observed
by the Anderson and Williams had shown up during this
test, which indicates that the base pressure was having a
minimum value, depends mainly on the duct to nozzle
area ratio and on the geometry of the nozzle. The plot for
the overall noise showed a minimum at a jet pressure
approximately equal to that required producing the
minimum base pressure. We too had also observed this
phenomenon when micro jets were activated, the jets
were silent.
Results for NPR 9 were shown as in the Figs. 3((g)-
(h)). Here both the Mach numbers were under expanded,
there is an expansion fan at the nozzle exit due to
increase in NPR. This expansion fan had a control over
the base pressure depending on the relaxation it enjoys
due to the area ratio effect. From the results it was found
that for all the area ratios the control had become
effective except for area ratio 6.25 where the control
effectiveness was marginal for both Mach numbers. This
observation was in good agreement with those reported
by Ratha Krishnan and Sreekanth [2] for subsonic and
transonic case without control. These results reiterate the
fact that a definite L/D was necessary for the flow to re-
attach after sudden expansion for a given set of
parameters. If the length was less than this minimum
limit, the flow will proceed without re-attaching with the
duct.
(g)
(h)
International Conference on Mechanical Engineering and Advanced Material 2015
3-4 December, 2015, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
39
(i)
Results for the NPR 11 being shown as in the fig. 3 ((i)
to (j)). An important point to be observed, that unlike
passive controls the favorable pressure gradient need not
yield the desired results for active control in the form of
micro jets. However, for higher values of the NPRs
namely 11, the active control by micro jets results in
increase of base pressure for all the values of the area
ratios of the present study. It was interesting to note that,
irrespective of the relief due to the area ratio the control
effectiveness was significant at high supersonic Mach
numbers under the influence of favorable pressure
gradient.
(j)
Fig. 3: Percentage change in base pressure with L/D
ratio
It wasevident that increase in relief to the flow simply
indicate that relaxation space existing for the flow was
increasing. This sort of relief will make the
shock/expansion waves at the nozzle lip to spread
relatively more freely with increase of relief at the lip of
nozzle/area ratio.
For lower area ratio, there was significant increase of
base pressure for most of the cases, but it should be
emphasized that some combination of parameters results
in decrease of base pressure when control was employed.
Therefore, one had to identify the proper combination of
parameters to achieve the control of base pressure
resulting in increase or decrease of base pressure
depending on the need of the application. For example,
for base drag reduction one can aim at increasing the
base pressure to a maximum and for mixing
enhancement in the combustion chamber one can aim to
decrease the base pressure to as a low value as possible.
5. Conclusions From the above results, control with the help of micro
jets to control base pressure had been established. The
flow field in the duct remains unaltered when jets were
highly over expanded. With the increase in the NPR, the
control in the form of micro jets becomes for effective
for all NPR > 5 and above. The flow field was
dominated by the presence of the waves both strong as
well as the weak ones. The reflection of the waves from
the wall, recompression and recombination’s are taking
place in the base region as well as partially in the duct
wall, thereby making the flow oscillatory. The micro jets
can be used as effective controllers, increasing the base
suction to appreciable level for some combination of
parameters. The nozzle pressure ratio plays a key role in
deciding the magnitude of base pressure with and
without control, in the high supersonic jet Mach number
regime too.
All the non-dimensional wall pressure values
exhibited in this paper were within an uncertainty band
of ± 2.6%. All the investigation results were within the
range of± 3 per cent.
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