Inequities in Environmental Stress: Implications for Environmental
Justice
Larry BakerWaterThink, LLC
and University of Minnesota
Water Resources Center
Guest lecture presented for ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Augsburg College Sept. 29, 2009
1. Understand assumptions & values that lead to environmental and social justice
2. * Understand disproportionate impacts on subpopulations – vulnerable, disadvantaged, underrepresented
3. Apply skills of assessment, problem identification and intervention
4. Identify social change interventions to address environmental injustice.
5. Implement interventions at the micro, meso and macro levels to support social justice
6. Develop conceptual basis for role of workers striving for environmental justice.
Your class goals (condensed from syllabus)
WaterThink, LLC
Environmental StressorsI will consider only human health only (not trees, birds,
etc.)
Working definition: “Environmental” = biophysical stressors, not social
Weight of evidence for environmental stress:1. Biological mechanism – do we understand why a
potential “stressor” impairs health?2. Epidemiology –
What is the distribution of the stressor (chemical; noise levels, etc.) in affected populations?Is there an empirical relationship between the stressor and specific health endpoints?
- specific disease- broad morbidity- mortality WaterThink, LLC
How important are environmental stressors to the health of disadvantaged groups?
Would reducing these environmental stressors improve the mental and physical health of these groups?
Questions
WaterThink, LLC
Environmental Stressors to be Considered
• Lead• Heat• Noise• Air pollution
(ozone)Why these?1. All disproportionately affect poor, disadvantaged,
or young/old groups2. All have proven biological mechanisms for causing
stress3. They are widespread, not isolated4. They are all solvable problems5. Solving them would improve the lives of
disproportionately affected groups WaterThink, LLC
Lead effects are well understood
Source: Needleman, 2004
- “Elevated BLL” > 10 ug/dL- Effects down to 2 ug/dL- Clinical symptoms > 60
WaterThink, LLC
Elevated blood lead levels in the U.S. by race, income, and urban statusSource: Brody et al., 1994
“Elevated” blood lead = 10 ug/dL
WaterThink, LLC
% of children
All races White, non-Hispanic
Black, non-Hispanic
1976-1980 88.2 -- --
1988-1991 8.6 6 18
1991-1994 4.4 2.3 11.2
1999-2002 1.6 1.3 3.1
Historical trend:American children ages 1-5 with blood lead levels
greater than 10 ug/dL
Source: Centers for Disease Control (several sources)
WaterThink, LLC
Minnesota children tested for lead who have elevated blood lead levels (Source: MN Dept. of Health)
MNHCP = Minnesota Health Care Programs (low income) WaterThink, LLC
Trend of Blood Lead Levels in Minnesota’s children
Source: Minnesota's Lead Poisoning Prevention Programs: Report to the Legislature, Feb. 2009
WaterThink, LLC
Old buildings(source)
Inner city neighborhood
Stormwater
Sediment accumulatio
n zones
Pealing paint
Suburban regionAir
dispersal
Rural areas
Streams and rivers
Ocean
Air dispersal
Soil(source)
Where does lead come from? Where does it go?A biogeochemist’s perspective
Source: Baker (2009) The Water Environment of Cities
Street sweeping
Landfill
WaterThink, LLC
Stressor #2: HeatSource: NOAA
WaterThink, LLC
Heat stress from urban heat island
WaterThink, LLC
Heat island effectSource: Baker et al. 2003
1. Largest difference at night2. Nighttime difference can be 10o F
80
90
100
110
Tem
p.,
oF
Concept: Misery Hours Per Day
Misery hours
Urban heat island
Effect of urban heat island on violent crimeSource: Anderson, 2001.
0
20
40
60
80
0 5 10 15
Increase in temperature, oF
Incr
eas
e in v
iole
nt
crim
e
rate
, pe
r 100
,000
National average: 450 violent crimes per 100,000 (FBI statistics)From graph: UHI effect = 10 oF = + 45 violent crimes/100,000(10% increase)
WaterThink, LLC
Long term average = 170/year
Distribution of heat-related deaths in the U.S.WaterThink, LLC
Mitigation of urban heat island
Source: EPA websites
WaterThink, LLC
Stressor #3: Air pollution
Disproportionate effect:
1. Greater exposure (inner city)
2. Greater sensitivity- higher incidence of smoking- higher asthma rates
WaterThink, LLC
Asthma rates among racial and ethnic groups in Hennepin County
Source: MN Dept of Health, Asthma in Minnesota 2008WaterThink, LLC
Environmental triggers for asthmaSource: Centers for Disease Control
• Second-hand (or first hand) smoke• Dust mites• Outdoor air pollution (esp. ozone)• Cockroach allergen• Mold
WaterThink, LLC
Source: Aeromatic Information Retrieval System (AIRS), Environmental Protection Agency (Slide from the Centers for Disease Control).
4339
25 23
7167
3935
61 59
4743
3733
0
25
50
75
Persons Living in Areas that do not Meet EPA Standards for Ozone
Percent of population
2010 Target = 0%
1997 2004
Total American Indian WhiteBlackHispanicAsian Native Hawaiian
Decrease desired
Stressor #4: Noise pollution
WaterThink, LLC
One example of noise levels: Mpls-St. Paul Airport
WaterThink, LLC
Stressor #5 ToxinsFish Consumption Advisory StudyBurgess et al., J. Risk Assessment, 2004
Reasons advisory has not followed:
1. Failure to hear about advisory: 38% Hispanic, 45% black; 68% white
2. Advisory ignored:- Distrust of the government
- Suspicious of government motives
-Failure of anyone who got sick
-Belief that they could determine if a fish was bad by look or smell.
WaterThink, LLC
Summing upLines of evidence for human health risks:
1. Mechanism of action2. Epidemiology – exposure and outcomes
Do disadvantaged groups suffer disproportionately from environmental heath risks?
YES!LeadHeatNoiseAir pollution/asthma
What is the cumulative (combined effect) to disadvantaged groups? Unknown
Prediction: High enough to be “unjust”WaterThink, LLC
Breakout discussion topics• Group 1: What disciplines (types of professions)
would be needed to develop the knowledge needed to combat these disproportionate environmental impacts?
• Group 2: To what extent do you think exposure to environmental stressors is deliberate vs. inadvertent? Try this ranking for each of the stressors in the lecture (ozone, asthma, lead, noise, heat).
• Group 3. How could you mobilize a community to reduce its exposure? What are the barriers that you would expect to encounter?
• Group 4: What is the impact on the individual, family, neighborhood and community of such stressors? Identify the connections between these levels.
• Group 5: Why do disadvantaged communities allow these environmental risks to occur to them? What social barriers to be overcome? WaterThink, LLC
References
Anderson, C. A. 2001. Heat and violence. derson, C.A. Current Directions in Psychological Science 10.
Baker, L. 2009. New directions in urban pollution management.in L. A. Baker, editor. The Water Environment of Cities. Springer Science, Lowell, MA.
Baker, L. A., A. J. Brazel, N. Selover, C. Martin, N. McIntyre, F. R. Steiner, A. Nelson, and L. Musacchio. 2002. Urbanization and warming of Phoenix (Arizona, USA): Impacts, feedbacks, and mitigation. Urban Ecosystems 6:183-203.
Brody, D., J. L. Pirkle, R. A. Kramer, K. M. Flegal, T. D. Matte, Gunter, E.W., and D. C. Paschal. 1994. Blood lead levels in the U.S. population. Phase I fo the Third National Health adn Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES II, 1988-1991)
Burgess et al. 2004 ?
Chepesiuk, R. 2005. Decibel Hell. Environmental Health Perspectives 113:A37-A41.
Needleman, H. 2004. Lead poisoning. Annu. Rev. Med 55:209-222.JAMA 272:277-283.