INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS Based on
Models of Teaching by Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun
INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY
Emphasizes ways of enhancing humans’ innate drive to make sense by:-Acquiring information-Organizing information-Identifying problems-Formulating hypotheses-Developing concepts-Generating solutions-Fostering creativity
INDUCTIVE THINKINGHilda Taba
Goals Concept Formation/Concepts Enumeration, Listing Grouping Labeling, Categorizing Interpreting Data Exploring Relationships Identifying Critical Relationships Making Inferences Applying Predicting Explaining Hypothesizing Synthesizing Verifying
STEPS
Concept Formation1. Enumerate or list (“What do you see?”)2. Group (“What belongs together?”)3. Label (“What distinguishes this group?” )Interpret the Data4. Identify group relationships (“What do you notice about each
group?”)
5. Explore relationships (“How are groups related?”)6. Make inferences (“What does this all mean?”)Application7. Predict (“What would happen if…?”)8. Support hypothesis (“Why would this be?”)9. Verify (Use logical principles/evidence)
ELEMENTS
Role of TeacherInitially Teacher-Centered (construct tasks,
environment)Cooperative (T provides support, resources, guidance)
Scaffolding (Match tasks, questions to level and learning style)
Social SystemHigh to moderate structure
TIPS
Practice!Study your studentsFocus on metacognitionFocus on underlying conceptsTeach substanceSelect appropriate data setsDon’t rule out multiple-attribute categoriesDetermine higher-order objective at beginningDon’t reserve for “mature” studentsEmphasize discipline + flexibility
CONCEPT ATTAINMENTJerome Bruner
Goals Attainment of specific concepts Concept-building (metacognition) Labeling, Categorizing Interpreting Data Exploring Relationships Identifying Critical Relationships Making Inferences Applying Predicting Explaining Hypothesizing Synthesizing Verifying
STEPS
Phase One1. Present data to students in pairs (Exemplar, Non-exemplar)2. Learners identify concept, based on essential attributes
Phase Two3. Students generate own examples4. Teacher confirms or disconfirms
Phase Three5. Students analyze strategies6. Record strategies
ELEMENTS
Role of Teacher
Initially teacher-centered (T controls sequence open dialogue); Students gradually assume more initiative
Social System
Moderately structured
TIPS
Focus on attributes-Essential attributes-Attribute value-Multiple attributes (relational)
Focus on students’ processes (metacognition)-Partistic strategies-Holistic strategies
Use as assessment tool
SCIENTIFIC INQUIRYJoseph Schwab
Goals:Method Content
Role of expert practice*Genuine problem/issue/question/event*Invitation to solve or address
Nature of knowledge*Not predetermined, absolute--result of preceding interpretation*Dependability of current knowledge—best we have
STEPS
Confrontation with area of investigation
Identification of conceptual or methodological problem
Invitation to design ways to solve or overcome
Evaluation/interpretation of results
ELEMENTS
Role of TeacherGuide inquiry process, encouraging rigorFocus on process over “facts”Encourage—
*generation of hypothesis*interpretation of data*development of constructs*emergent ways of interpreting reality
Social SystemModerately structured; encourage boldness AND
humility
TIPS
Sequence invitations: simpler > sophisticated
Convert general “wonderments” into immediately useful problems
Develop inquiry-oriented materials (rare—didactic texts are standard)
Understand the modelUnderstand your discipline
INQUIRY TRAININGRichard Suchman
GoalsSimilar to scientific inquiry
STEPS
(Explain inquiry procedures)Present discrepant event (confrontation)Gather data/ask questions (verification)Hypothesize/questions (experimentation)Analyze/evaluate conclusionsAnalyze/evaluate strategies
ELEMENTS
Role of TeacherSelect/construct problem situationReferee questioningRespond to inquiries with informationHelp establish focusFacilitate discussionAssist evaluation
Social SystemCooperative and rigorous:*Social environment—controlled*Intellectual environment--open
TIPS
Distinguish verification & experimentation phases
Encourage/reward all questions
Selection of puzzling situation critical
Focus on process ( content)
ADVANCE ORGANIZERSDavid Ausubel
Goal/PurposeHelp students organize/process information by providing “ideational anchors”
Use with: presentational instructional methods (lecture, written, video/audio)
STEPS
Presentation of Advance Organizer*Higher level of abstraction/inclusiveness
than lesson content*Important content in itself*Expository or comparative
Presentation of material (“active reception learning”)
Strengthening of cognitive organization(“integrative reconciliation,” clarification
ELEMENTS
Role of TeacherTeacher controls intellectual structure student
integrates/internalizes/makes personally relevant
Social SystemStructured moderately structured
TIPS
Well-organized material critical
Integral and appropriate relationship between organizer and content
Caution: from Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, p. 201)
“Many textbooks do not feature conceptually organized material.”
SYNECTICS
Goal/Purpose
Increase problem-solving capacity, creative expression, empathy, and insight into problems, relationships, concepts, and ideas by—
making creativity a conscious process
“Make familiar strange and strange familiar.”
STEPS
Describe problem or situationSuggest direct analogiesChoose one to explore/develop“Become” the analogy (personal analogy)Suggest compressed conflictsChoose one to developGenerate new direct analogy based on
compressed conflictReexamine original task
ELEMENTS
Role of TeacherInduce psychological states likely to foster
creative thinkingUtilize nonrational thinkingAccept/legitimize all answersClarify and summarizeCreate safe, accepting environment
Social SystemModerately structured
TIPS
Work within students’ experienceEncourage divergent thinking (maximize
“conceptual distance”)Attend to pacingExplicitly outline proceduresConsider group sizeUse with discussion, written, hands-on
materialsConsider domain-specific trainingTake risks; practice; be open; reflect
SOCIAL FAMILY*
Emphasizes humans’ social nature: -humans are inherently social beings -learning is an inherently social process -social interaction enhances (or is
necessary for) intellectual learning
-Synergy of cooperative setting >motivation -social skills are learned—and -are required for democratic behavior -knowledge is socially constructed*
“The most stunning thing about teaching people to help kids learn cooperatively is that people don’t know how to do it as a result of their own schooling and life in this socety. An, if anything is genetically-driven, it’s a social instinct. If it weren’t for each other, we wouldn’t even know who we are.” Herbert Thelen
Philosophical Roots
John Dewey (Experiential learning)
Lev Vygotsky (Zone of Proximal Development)
(Others: Charles Hubbard Judd, 1934; William Heard Kilpatrick, 1919; George Counts, 1932; Boyd Bode, 1927)
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Goal/PurposeCreate feelings of “connectedness” which lead
to synergy essential for effective learningProduce cognitive as well as social complexityIncrease positive feeling, decrease alienationImprove social skillsIncrease learning*
STEPS
Set taskFormulate groupsEstablish (model) rolesProvide appropriate
resources/environmentFacilitate/trouble-shootGuide reflectionSynthesize learning
ELEMENTS
Role of Teacher:
“Guide on the Side”*Manage intellectual, social, and physical environment*Be expert in field of study
Social System
Moderately structured
TIPS
Group structure (size, homogeneous vs.
heterogeneous) depends on:
-students-nature of task
Planning!Organization!FlexibilityAuthenticity!!!
GROUP INVESTIGATION
Goal/Purpose
To combine the form and dynamics of democratic process with process of academic inquiry.
(Thelen, Dewey)
STEPS
Students encounter puzzling situationStudents explore reactionsStudents structure problem
and organize for studyIndividual or group studyReport/concludeAnalysis of process
ELEMENTS
Role of Teacher:
“Guide on the Side”*Manage intellectual, social, and physical environment*Be expert in field of study
Social System
Moderately structured
TIPS
Remember: Outcome is not completely predictableNegotiation and renegotiation are
essence of social process (Thelen)Teaching model replicates societal
patternsProcess continually generates new dataProvide adequate support systemsPuzzlement must be genuine!Authentic exchanges are essential!!
ROLE PLAY
Goal/PurposeTo explore and understand human relations issues and concepts by illuminating and analyzing the underlying values involved.
“The analysis of values is what’s important. Playing the roles lets the values become visible if the analysis is right. Understanding that what you do is a living out of your values starts the inquiry.” --Fannie Shaftel
STEPS (Shaftel Model)
Identify/Introduce problemAnalyze roles/Select role playersSet line of actionAssign observation tasksEnact role playDiscuss and evaluateReenactDiscuss and evaluateGeneralize
ELEMENTS
Role of Teacher:Directive (shape the exploration and establish
the focus)Reflective (accept all suggestions as legitimate;
no value judgments) Supportive (atmosphere of equality and trust)Deliberative (help students recognize and
evaluate alternative points of view; evaluate consequences)
Social System: Moderately structured
TIPS/POINTS
Adapt to needs of curriculum, students, time constraints, etc.
Emphasize intellectual as well as emotional content (through internalization)
Underscores role of expert practice (deep understanding of principles of discipline)
Distinct from simulation Develops social, problem solving, critical thinking skills Amenable to:
--Interpersonal conflicts--Intergroup relations--Individual dilemmas--Historical or contemporary problems--Any content requiring perspective-taking and/or
examination of alternate perspectives
JURISPRUDENTIAL INQUIRY
Goal/PurposeTo give student tools for analyzing and debating social issues by identifying underlying values in conflict in order to develop citizens capable of sharing in the formulation of social policy
(Shaver)
STEPS
Introduce materialsIdentify issue(s)Take positionsExplore the stances; determine if:
--value problem--factual problem--definitional problem
Refine, qualify positionsTest factual assumptions
ELEMENTS
Role of Teacher:Direct issue formulationProbe substance—
--relevance--consistency--specificity/generality--definitional clarity
Enforce continuity of thoughtEmphasize goal (clarification of issue,
development of most defensible position)
Social System: Structure: high low
TIPS/POINTS
Mastery of framework for analyzing issues is major learning outcome
Time intensiveMost suitable for higher grades (but
adaptable for lower grades)Cross-curricular applicabilityEncourages development of critical
thinking skills
PERSONAL FAMILY
Emphasizes the individual student as the starting point of learning.
Beliefs:Enhancing the learner as a person is
worthwhile educational goal in and of itself.Self-actualized learners have increased
learning capacities.
Goals of Personal Family
Lead students to increased mental/emotional health
Increase proportion education emanating from students’ needs and goals
Develop specific kinds of qualitative thinking
USES
General models of teaching“Flavor” learning environments designed around other models
CounselingInform development of curricula in content areas
NONDIRECTIVE TEACHING (Rogers)
Goal/Purpose
Development of:
effective long-term learning strategiesself-actualized individuals
STEPS
Express feelings/define problem
Discuss problemMake plan/decisionGather further insight develop more positive action
Take action
ELEMENTS
Role of Teacher:Facilitator
Social System:Low structure*Resources (vary)*Privacy*Time
TIPS/POINTS
May apply to personal, social academic situations
Engage students through affectUltimate goal: student responsibilityPerspective: See world as student sees/feels
it
SELF ACTUALIZATION (Maslow, etc.)
“The important message is that students can learn, not only academic content and social skills, but how to become integrated selves
that reach out into the world and reciprocally contribute to and profit from
their transactions with it.”AND….
“Students become what we model for them, and part of our influence on them depends on our own states of growth—our own self-
concepts…”--From Models of Teaching, p. 284
Opportunities for growth
FormalPeer-generatedPersonal
Differences among teachers
Function of individual’s disposition to interact productively with environment
Correlated across domainsModerate by social climate (synergistic environment)
PERSONAL GROWTH STATE
Classify yourselfClassify schoolClassify closest colleaguesClassify school leadersIdentify personal needs/aspirationsMake a planResources?Reflect on effect(s) on students