Learning
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Ecological Learning
• Observational Learning
Definition of Learning
Learning is “any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about through experience.”
– Conditioning: • The acquisition of specific patterns of behavior in
the presence of well-defined stimuli.
Two Types of Conditioning
• Classical (C.C.): – a response naturally elicited by one stimulus
comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus
• Operant (O.C.): – behaviors are emitted (in the presence of
specific stimuli) to earn rewards or avoid punishments
Learning
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Ecological Learning
• Observational Learning
Pavlov
It all starts with a REFLEX
It all starts with a REFLEX
Automatic
It all starts with a REFLEX
Unconscious
It all starts with a REFLEX
Involuntary
It all starts with a REFLEX
Inborn
REFLEX
Stimulus Response
Causes
REFLEX
Stimulus Response
Leads to
REFLEX
Stimulus Response
Elicits
REFLEX
Stimulus Response
Causes
Puff of airto the eye
Blink
REFLEX
Stimulus Response
Causes
Light in the eye
PupillaryConstriction
REFLEX
Stimulus Response
Causes
Pain Withdrawal
REFLEX
Stimulus Response
Causes
Meat Powder in mouth
Salivation
REFLEX
Stimulus Response
Causes
Electric Shock
Fear
REFLEX
Stimulus ResponseUnconditionedUnconditioned
REFLEX
UCS UCR
Click ??
Some stimuli do nothing
Click
Some stimuli do nothing
Footsteps
Some stimuli do nothing
Metronome
Some stimuli do nothing
Rabbit
Some stimuli do nothing
Hiss
Some stimuli do nothing
Neutral Stimulus
NS
Some stimuli do nothing
Learning involves repeated pairing
Learning involves repeated pairing
UCS UCR
Learning involves repeated pairing
NS + UCS UCR
After repeated pairing
NS + UCS UCR CS CR
After repeated pairing
CS CR
After repeated pairing
CS CR
Learning involves repeated pairing
NS + UCSHiss Puff
UCRBlink
UCRBlink
After repeated pairing
CRBlink
NS + UCSHiss Puff CS
Hiss
After repeated pairing
CSHiss
CRBlink
After repeated pairing
CSHiss
CRBlink
REFLEX
Causes
Some stimuli do nothing
Learning involves repeated pairing
Learning involves repeated pairing
Learning involves repeated pairing
After repeated pairing
After repeated pairing
After repeated pairing
After repeated pairing
the organism has formed an association between the once neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
An example
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It all begins with a REFLEX
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS).– Elicits a response in the
absence of learning.
• Unconditioned response (UCR).– The reflexive response to a
stimulus in the absence of learning.
UCS UCR
• No learning here. Organism is born with this reflex
A relatively simple, automatic, stimulus-response sequence that is mediated by the CNS
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Reflexes
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
• A neutral stimulus is then regularly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
New Reflexes from Old Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
• Conditioned stimulus (CS).– An initially neutral stimulus that
comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned response (CR).– A response that is elicited by the
conditioned stimulus.– Occurs after the CS is associated
with the US.– Identical to the US
New Reflexes from OldLearning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Classical Conditioning Diagram
NS + UCS UCR
(BELL) (PUFF) (BLINK)
CS CR(BELL) (BLINK)
Reflex
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Classical Conditioning
Prior to conditioning
Neutral stimulus(tone)
UCS(food powder in mouth)
UCR(salivation)
Conditioning
Neutral stimulusCS (tone)
UCS(food powder)
CR(salivation)
After conditioningCS
(tone)CR
(salivation)
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
In Watson’s Little Albert study, the conditioned response was
1 2 3
0% 0%0%
1. Salivation
2. Nausea
3. Fear
10
In Pavlov’s original experiments, the neutral stimulus was the
1 2 3
0% 0%0%
1. Sound of the footsteps
2. Taste of the meat powder
3. Sight of the white lab coat
10
In Pavlov’s original experiments, the conditioned stimulus was the
1 2 3
0% 0%0%
1. Sound of the footsteps
2. Taste of the meat powder
3. Sight of the white lab coat
10
When you first went to the dentist as a child, you heard the high-pitched whine of the drill, and had no reaction. After you’ve had your first filling, the drill causes a nervous reaction - cold hands, increased heart rate and blood-pressure, etc. The drill became the
1 2 3
0% 0%0%
1. Conditioned Stimulus
2. Unconditioned stimulus
3. Conditioned Response
10
From the last question, the anxiety is the
1 2 3
0% 0%0%
1. Neutral Stimulus
2. Conditioned Stimulus
3. Conditioned Response
10
The neutral stimulus was the
1 2 3
0% 0%0%
1. Sight of the dentist
2. Sound of the drill
3. Anxiety
10
Although you’ve never been afraid of flying, the last time you flew the plane went into a nosedive for nearly a minute. Now when you fly, you get extremely nervous. In this example, flying is the
1 2 3
0% 0%0%
1. Conditioned response
2. Conditioned stimulus
3. Unconditioned response
10
From the previous example, what is the unconditioned response?
1 2 3
0% 0%0%
1. The sight of the airplane
2. Salivating
3. Fear
10
Basic Rules of Conditioning
• The more association trials, the better the conditioning
• CS and US must be closely linked in time
• Physically intense stimuli are conditioned more easily
• Some responses are more easily conditioned than others
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Contingency
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Contingency
Extinction –
Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer
Classical Conditioning
Spontaneous recovery –
Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery Learning
Classical Conditioning
Spontaneous Recovery
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Classical Conditioning
• Higher order conditioning
• Stimulus generalization
• Discrimination learning
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Higher-Order Conditioning
• A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus (CS) by being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus (CS).
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Higher-Order Cond.
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Stimulus Generalization
• Occurs when a new stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus, elicits the conditioned response.
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Stimulus Generalization
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Stimulus Discrimination
• The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli.
• In classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus similar to the condition stimulus (CS) fails to evoke a conditioned response (CR).
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Discrimination
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
• Drug overdoses
• Smoking: environmental cues
• Systematic desensitization
• Advertising: sex appeal
• Taste aversion
• Conditioning and the immune system
Real-Life ExamplesLearning
Classical Conditioning
Examples
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Abnormal Behavior and CC
CS CR(Dog) (Fear)
NS + UCS UCR
(Dog) (Pain from Bite) (Fear)
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Learning
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Ecological Learning
• Observational Learning
Operant Conditioning
The consequences that follow a behavior make that behavior more or less likely to occur in the future.
•Make behavior more likely – Reinforcement
•Make behavior less likely - Punishment
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Operant Conditioning
•Operant behaviors are different from the responses involved in classical conditioning
–They are voluntarily emitted
–Those involved in classical conditioning are elicited by stimuli.
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
ALL reinforcers increase the
likelihood that a response will become more
frequent
ALL reinforcers increase the
likelihood that a response will become more
frequent
ALL reinforcers increase the
likelihood that a response will become more
frequent
ALL reinforcers increase the
likelihood that a response will become more
frequent
Reinforcement
• What is a reinforcer?– Definition: a reinforcer is any stimulus
which, when delivered to a subject, increases the probability that a subject will emit the most recent response.• Primary reinforcers, e.g., food
• Secondary reinforcers, e.g., praise
– One can only know if a stimulus is a reinforcer based on the increased probability of occurrence of a subject’s behavior
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Reinforcement
Positive reinforcers –
Stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior, that increases the probability of that response happening again
Negative reinforcers –
Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior, that increases the probability of that response happening again
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Examples of Consequences
Positive Negative Behavior
ReinforcementGive food for
correct responseRemove shock for correct response
Increases
PunishmentGive shock for
incorrect responseRemove food for incorrect reponse
Decreases
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism
Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers)
ReinforcementLearningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningEcological LearningObservational Learning
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced
Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement)
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses
Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval
Fixed Ratio (FR)Fixed Ratio (FR)
Fixed Interval (FI)Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Ratio (VR)Variable Ratio (VR)
Variable Interval (VI)Variable Interval (VI)
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)Fixed Ratio (FR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Variable Interval (VI)
Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses
e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Ratio Variable Ratio (VR)(VR)
Variable Interval (VI)
Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from reinforcer to reinforcer
e.g. slot machine pay-offs
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Fixed Interval Fixed Interval (FI)(FI)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Variable Interval (VI)
Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses, as long as the response occurs during the interval.
e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Variable Interval Variable Interval (VI)(VI)
Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial, as long as the response occurs during the interval.
e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Simple reinforcement schedules produce characteristic response patterns
• Steeper lines mean higher response rates
• Ratio schedules produce higher response rates than interval schedules
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Partial ReinforcementLearning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
A rat is given a food pellet every time it presses a bar 7 times.
1 2 3 4
0% 0%0%0%
1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval
10
An instructor gives an exam every Friday afternoon.
1 2 3 4
0% 0%0%0%
1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval
10
Another instructor gives pop quizzes at random times.
1 2 3 4
0% 0%0%0%
1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval
10
A migrant worker gets $3.00 for every ten baskets of cherries he picks.
1 2 3 4
0% 0%0%0%
1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval
10
Every time Mary puts her Charlie Card into the turnstile, she is allowed on the T
1 2 3 4
0% 0%0%0%
1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval
10
A salesman makes calls on 14 potential customers per day.
1 2 3 4
0% 0%0%0%
1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval
10
You call your best friend from high school, and keep getting a busy signal.
1 2 3 4
0% 0%0%0%
1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval
10
John stands at the T stop and peeks around the corner to see if the train is coming.
1 2 3 4
0% 0%0%0%
1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval
10
Coming to work on Friday results in a paycheck for work completed during the week
1 2 3 4
0% 0%0%0%
1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval
10
A friend of yours wants you to study more, so she comes to your room with chocolate cookies every so often. If she
finds you studying then you get a cookie.
1 2 3 4
0% 0%0%0%
1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval
10
Persistence of Avoidance Learning
• Negatively reinforced responses show slower extinction than positively reinforced responses
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Problems with Punishment
• Too uninformative – only tells learner what NOT to do, not what TO do.
• Tends to work well only when punisher present (unlike reinforcement) - this often accidentally leads to a partial schedule of reinforcement.
• Tends to cause fear in learner - (who stops ALL behavior) – classically conditioned response
• Constant effectiveness requires escalation
• Often the easiest and quickest consequence, but rarely the most effective at changing behavior.
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Alternatives to Punishment
• Extinction
• Reinforcing preferred activities–Premack principle
• Shaping
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Shaping
• To teach complex behaviors, may need to reinforce successive approximations of a desired response.
• For example, training animals, getting children to make their beds.
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
ShapingLearningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningEcological LearningObservational Learning
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The Death of Behaviorism
Tolman’s Latent Learning
Learning
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Ecological Learning
• Observational Learning
Limitations to Pavlov’s andSkinner’s Theories of Learning
• Preparedness– some associations are learned more
easily than others (e.g. associating taste with nausea is easier than associating noise with nausea).
– One-trial learning– Spider and snake phobias are easier to
condition than flower and rock phobias.– Species specific behaviors sometimes
hard to modify
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Conditioned Taste Aversions
Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Application of psychology: Learning the wrong things
• What is superstitious behavior?– non-contingent reinforcement– examples of superstitions
• Learned helplessness– the cessation of all behavior as a result of
intense punishment– dog’s behavior in electrified cage– wife’s behavior in an abusive marriage
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Ecological Learning
Observational Learning
Learning
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Ecological Learning
• Observational Learning
LearningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningEcological LearningObservational Learning
Social Learning
• Social cognitive theories emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained:– through observation and imitation of others,
– positive consequences,
– cognitive processing such as plans, expectations, and beliefs.
• Observational learning involves learning new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience.
LearningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningEcological LearningObservational Learning
Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963).
• Nursery school children watched a film of 2 men (Johnny and Rocky) playing with toys.
• Johnny refuses to share and Rocky hits him, ending up with all the toys.
• Children who watched the video were significantly more violent than children in a control group.
LearningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningEcological LearningObservational Learning
Observational Learning
• Bandura’s Bobo doll study
LearningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningEcological LearningObservational Learning
Bandura’s ResultsLearningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningEcological LearningObservational Learning