Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization::
COHN – 99.5%
99.9% =
See figs. 1.3 & 1.4
Organs and Body SystemOrgans and Body System
Muscular systemMuscular system Cardiovascular Cardiovascular
systemsystem Endocrine systemEndocrine system Respiratory systemRespiratory system Skeletal systemSkeletal system Digestive systemDigestive system
Urinary systemUrinary system Nervous systemNervous system Reproductive systemReproductive system Immune systemImmune system Integumentary Integumentary
systemsystem Lymphatic systemLymphatic system
Disciplines of AnatomyDisciplines of Anatomy
GrossGross AnatomyAnatomy: structures studied : structures studied with the naked eye.with the naked eye.– Systematic anatomySystematic anatomy: organized by : organized by
systems, e.g., digestive, nervous, systems, e.g., digestive, nervous, endocrine, etc.endocrine, etc.
– RegionalRegional anatomyanatomy: study of all : study of all structures in an area of the body, e.g., structures in an area of the body, e.g., upper extremity bones, muscles, blood upper extremity bones, muscles, blood vessels, etc.vessels, etc.
Disciplines of AnatomyDisciplines of Anatomy
GrossGross AnatomyAnatomy Microscopic anatomy (Microscopic anatomy (histologyhistology)) Developmental anatomy Developmental anatomy
((embryologyembryology))
Pathological anatomyPathological anatomy Radiologic anatomy (x-ray, CT, MRI)Radiologic anatomy (x-ray, CT, MRI) Other areas? (surgery)Other areas? (surgery)
The Anatomical The Anatomical Position Position
تشريحي تشريحي وضعيت وضعيت The standard The standard
reference reference position:position:
1.3
Sectional AnatomySectional Anatomy
3 sectional planes:3 sectional planes: transversetransverse ( or cross) ( or cross)
sectionsection
frontalfrontal (or coronal) section (or coronal) section
sagittalsagittal section (mid- and section (mid- and para-)para-)
Planes of the BodyPlanes of the Body Frontal (coronal) Frontal (coronal)
(ant-post)(ant-post) Transverse Transverse
(horizontal) (sup-(horizontal) (sup-infer)infer)
Midsagittal (R-L)Midsagittal (R-L) Parasagittal Parasagittal
(unequal R-L)(unequal R-L)
Body planes and sections - cut into sections along a flat surface called a plane
(also called XS – cross section)
(also called coronal)
Gross Anatomy TermsGross Anatomy Terms Superior ≠ Inferior Superior ≠ Inferior (cranial ≠ caudal)(cranial ≠ caudal) Anterior ≠ Posterior Anterior ≠ Posterior (ventral ≠ dorsal)(ventral ≠ dorsal) Medial ≠ lateralMedial ≠ lateral Proximal ≠ distalProximal ≠ distal Superficial ≠ deepSuperficial ≠ deep
Superior and InferiorSuperior and Inferior
SuperiorSuperior means means uppermost, above or uppermost, above or toward the head. For toward the head. For example, the lungs are example, the lungs are located superior to located superior to (above) the diaphragm. (above) the diaphragm.
InferiorInferior means means lowermost, below or lowermost, below or toward the feet. For toward the feet. For example, the stomach is example, the stomach is located inferior to (below) located inferior to (below) the diaphragm. the diaphragm.
Gross Anatomy TermsGross Anatomy Terms
Anterior ≠ Posterior Anterior ≠ Posterior (ventral ≠ dorsal)(ventral ≠ dorsal)
Lateral and MedialLateral and Medial LateralLateral means toward means toward
the side or away from the side or away from the midline of the body the midline of the body or structure. or structure.
MedialMedial means means pertaining to the middle pertaining to the middle or toward the midline. or toward the midline.
Proximal and DistalProximal and Distal
ProximalProximal means means near the midline or near the midline or the beginning of a the beginning of a body structure. body structure.
DistalDistal means away means away from the midline or from the midline or the beginning of a the beginning of a body structure. body structure.
back
Directional TermsDirectional Terms
Angular MovementAngular Movement
Figure 8.5b
Angular MovementAngular Movement
Figure 8.5c, d
Angular MovementAngular Movement
Figure 8.5e, f
RotationRotation The turning of a The turning of a bone around its bone around its own long axisown long axis
ExamplesExamples– Between first two Between first two
vertebraevertebrae– Hip and shoulder Hip and shoulder
jointsjoints
Figure 8.5g
Special MovementsSpecial Movements
Figure 8.6a
Special MovementsSpecial Movements
Figure 8.6b
Special MovementsSpecial Movements
Figure 8.6c
Special MovementsSpecial Movements
Figure 8.6d
Special MovementsSpecial Movements
Figure 8.6e
Slide 18-36
Reference Lines (Anterior)
Slide 18-38
Reference Lines (Posterior)
aponeurosis
Frolich, Human Anatomy,UpprLimb
Biceps—anterior compartment, flexion (M-C n.) Triceps—posterior compartment, extension (radial n.)
Frolich, Human Anatomy,UpprLimb
Anterior Compartment Forearm--flexors
Flexor Carpi Radialis
Flexor Retinaculum
Medial Epicondyle
Flexor Digitorum Superficialis is deep to other flexors
Flexor Carpi Ulnaris
Brachioradialis
Pronator Teres
Anterior View
Frolich, Human Anatomy,UpprLimb
Posterior Compartment of Forearm--extensors
Extensor digitorum
Extensor carpi ulnarisExt Carpi Radialis Longus
Brachioradialis
Lateral Epicondyle
Posterior View
Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage - Translucent- has collagen fibers that are not visible with light microscope. Nose, ends of bones
Elastic Cartilage -Visible elastic fibers, very flexible. Ear pinna or auricle
Fibrous Cartilage - Bundles of collagen fibers, very obvious. Intervertebral disks
Muscular System
Over 600 muscles in your body
Control movement Voluntary muscles:
you choose to move them
Involuntary muscles: move without you telling them to move, ie. heart
Muscles
3 types Skeletal: attached to
bones to help you move
Cardiac: heart Smooth: intestines,
bladder, blood vessels, internal organs
Classification of BonesAxial skeleton – bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cageAppendicular skeleton – bones of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and hip
Classification of Bones: By Shape
Long bones – longer than they are wide (e.g., humerus)
Figure 6.2a
Classification of Bones: By Shape
Figure 6.2b
Short bonesCube-shaped bones of the wrist and ankleBones that form within tendons (e.g., patella)
Classification of Bones: By Shape
Flat bones – thin, flattened, and a bit curved (e.g., sternum, and most skull bones)
Figure 6.2c
Classification of Bones: By Shape
Irregular bones – bones with complicated shapes (e.g., vertebrae and hip bones)
Figure 6.2d
Function of Bones
Support – form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft organsProtection – provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital organsMovement – provide levers for musclesMineral storage – reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorusBlood cell formation – hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of bones
Bone MarkingsBulges, depressions, and holes that serve as:
Sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendonsJoint surfacesConduits for blood vessels and nerves
Tuberosity – rounded projectionCrest – narrow, prominent ridge of boneTrochanter – large, blunt, irregular surfaceLine – narrow ridge of bone
Bone Markings: Projections – Sites of Muscle and Ligament
Attachment
Tubercle – small rounded projectionEpicondyle – raised area above a condyleSpine – sharp, slender projectionProcess – any bony prominence
Bone Markings: Projections – Sites of Muscle and Ligament
Attachment
Head – bony expansion carried on a narrow neckFacet – smooth, nearly flat articular surfaceCondyle – rounded articular projectionRamus – armlike bar of bone
Bone Markings: Projections – Projections That Help to Form
Joints
Bone Markings: Depressions and Openings
Meatus – canal-like passagewaySinus – cavity within a boneFossa – shallow, basinlike depressionGroove – furrowFissure – narrow, slitlike openingForamen – round or oval opening through a bone
Gross Anatomy of Bones: Bone Textures
Compact bone – dense outer layerSpongy bone – honeycomb of trabeculae filled with yellow bone marrow
Structure of Long BoneLong bones consist of a diaphysis and an epiphysisDiaphysis
Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bonesComposed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary cavityYellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the medullary cavity
Structure of Long Bone
EpiphysesExpanded ends of long bonesExterior is compact bone, and the interior is spongy boneJoint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) cartilageEpiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses
Structure of Long Bone
Figure 6.3
Bone MembranesPeriosteum – double-layered protective membrane
Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective tissueInner osteogenic layer is composed of osteoblasts and osteoclastsRichly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic vessels, which enter the bone via nutrient foraminaSecured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers
Endosteum – delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone
Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat BonesThin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside with endosteum-covered spongy bone (diploë) on the insideHave no diaphysis or epiphysesContain bone marrow between the trabeculae
Structure of a Flat Bone
Figure 6.4
Location of Hematopoietic Tissue (Red Marrow)
In infantsFound in the medullary cavity and all areas of spongy bone
In adultsFound in the diploë of flat bones, and the head of the femur and humerus
Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone
Haversian system, or osteon – the structural unit of compact bone
Lamella – weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes composed mainly of collagenHaversian, or central canal – central channel containing blood vessels and nervesVolkmann’s canals – channels lying at right angles to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal
Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone
Osteocytes – mature bone cellsLacunae – small cavities in bone that contain osteocytesCanaliculi – hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal
Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone
Figure 6.6a, b
Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic
Osteoblasts – bone-forming cellsOsteocytes – mature bone cellsOsteoclasts – large cells that resorb or break down bone matrixOsteoid – unmineralized bone matrix composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and collagen
Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic
Hydroxyapatites, or mineral saltsSixty-five percent of bone by massMainly calcium phosphatesResponsible for bone hardness and its resistance to compression
Bone DevelopmentOsteogenesis and ossification – the process of bone tissue formation, which leads to:
The formation of the bony skeleton in embryosBone growth until early adulthoodBone thickness, remodeling, and repair
Formation of the Bony Skeleton
Begins at week 8 of embryo developmentIntramembranous ossification – bone develops from a fibrous membraneEndochondral ossification – bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage
Intramembranous Ossification
Formation of most of the flat bones of the skull and the claviclesFibrous connective tissue membranes are formed by mesenchymal cells