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NMDF121
Session 4
LIPIDS PART 1
Naturopathic Medicine
Department
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Topic Summary
• Types and food sources of lipids
• Biochemical structure and physiological
function
• Triglycerides
Saturated Fats
Trans Fats
Monounsaturated Fats
Polyunsaturated Fats
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Lipids: Introduction
• Hydrophobic compounds
• Triglycerides - glycerol group and
three fatty acids which may be
• Saturated (no double bonds)
• Monounsaturated (one double bond)
• Polyunsaturated (more than one)
Omega-3
Omega-6
• Phospholipids – lecithin
• Sterols - cholesterol
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RDI
o Fats should supply at least 20-35% of energy intake
o Level of saturated fatty acids should not exceed 10%
o 30- 35% of total energy intake from dietary fat is a
maximum
• Until the age of 2, fat intake should be maintained at
30-40%
o Ensure intake of essential fatty acids and cofactor
nutrients for elongase and desaturase enzymes (B6, Mg,
Zn, Vitamin C)
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AI
(NRV’s NHMRC)
Age AI
0-6 months
Total fat 31 g/day
n-6 polyunsaturated fats 4.4 g/day
n-3 polyunsaturated fats 0.5 g/day
7-12 months
Total fat 30 g/day
n-6 polyunsaturated fats 4.6 g/day
n-3 polyunsaturated fats 0.5 g/day
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RDI
(NRV’s NHMRC)
Age AI
Linoleic acid a-linolenic acidTotal LC n-3
(DHA+EPA+DPA)
Boys and girls
1-3 yr 5 g/day 0.5 g/day 40 mg/day
4-8 yr 8 g/day 0.8 g/day 55 mg/day
Boys
9-13 yr 10 g/day 1.0 g/day 70 mg/day
14-18 yr 12 g/day 1.2 g/day 125 mg/day
Girls
9-13 yr 8 g/day 0.8 g/day 70 mg/day
14-18 yr 8 g/day 0.8 g/day 85 mg/day
Adults 19+ yr
Men 13 g/day 1.3 g/day 160 mg/day
Women 8 g/day 0.8 g/day 90 mg/day
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RDI
Pregnancy
Lactation
(NRV’s NHMRC)
Age AI
Linoleic acid a-linolenic acidTotal LC n-3
(DHA+EPA+DPA)
14-18 yr 10 g/day 1.0 g/day 110 mg/day
19-50 yr 10 g/day 1.0 g/day 115 mg/day
14-18 yr 12 g/day 1.2 g/day 140 mg/day
19-50 yr 12 g/day 1.2 g/day 145 mg/day
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Triglycerides
• Dietary sources:
• Butter, cream
• Vegetable oils
• Fatty meats
• Oily fish and some marine algae
• The main function of
triglycerides is energy
supply (37.8kj/g) and
storage.(Kohlmeier, 2003)
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Saturated Fats
• Saturation affects the physical characteristics of the
fat and its storage properties.
• Stable structure
• Types:
• Butyric acid: Butter and milk fat
• Palmitic acid: Palm
• Lauric acid: Coconut
• Stearic acid: Beef, mutton, pork, cocoa butter
• Arachidic acid: Peanuts
• WHO recommends maximum of 10% total energy intake.(Food and Agriculture Organization,1993)
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Saturated Fats• Short Chain Fatty acids
• Acetate, propionate, and
butyrate.
• Locally produced by metabolism
of soluble fibre by colonic
bacteria
• Energy source for colonic cells
• Medium Chain Fatty acids• Caprylic acid
• Metabolised the same way as
SCFA to produce energy
• Long chain fatty acids• Used to build cell membranes
• Insoluble in water
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Functions
• Cell membrane structure
• Energy production (1 g fat = 9kcal = 37.8kj)
• Support bowel health – SCFA’s
• Total cholesterol: HDL cholesterol ratio
• Lauric Acid greatly decreased ratio
• Myristic and palmitic acids had little effect
• Steric acid slightly decreased ratio (Mensink, 2003)
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Activity
• Consider your views on total dietary fat versus fat composition – Do
you think that one is more important then the other, or both equally
important?
View the following video (4 mins) ‘What is Fat?’
http://ed.ted.com/lessons/what-is-fat-george-zaidan
o Discuss your thoughts initially in small groups then with the class
o Online students should discuss these in the relevant weekly forum
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Hydrogenated and Trans Fatty
Acids
(Rolfes, Pinna & Whitney, 2009)
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Hydrogenated and Trans
Fatty Acids
• Hydrogenation
• Chemical “saturation” of unsaturated fats with hydrogen
• Designed to avoid rancidity
• The more hydrogenation occurring, the decrease in ability
to reduce LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels
• Trans-Fatty Acids
• Changed from cis to trans configuration and act like
saturated fats in the body
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Sources
o Cookies, crackers, cakes, muffins, pie crusts, pizza
dough, and breads such as hamburger buns
o Some margarines and vegetable shortening
o Pre-mixed cake mixes, pancake mixes, and chocolate
drink mixes
o Fried foods, including donuts, French fries, chicken
nuggets, and hard taco shells
o Snack foods, including chips, candy, and packaged or
microwave popcorn
o Frozen dinners
(http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/understanding-trans-fats )
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Trans Fatty Acids
• Increase the risk of heart disease
• Increased risk of coronary artery disease
• Increased risk of thrombosis
• There have been no safe limits of trans fat consumption
shown (Murray & Flegel, 2005)
o Maximum intake of 1% of daily kJ recommended by the
World Health Organization (WHO)
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Trans Fatty Acids
• The WHO have developed a plan to eliminate industrially
produced trans fatty acids from the global food supply.
• View the following website:
https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/14-05-2018-who-plan-to-
eliminate-industrially-produced-trans-fatty-acids-from-global-
food-supply
− Denmark the first country to mandate restrictions on
industrially produced trans fats
− New York City also eliminate industrially produced trans fats
− Action needed in low and middle income countries
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Trans Fatty Acids
View the following website from Food Standards Australia
New Zealand (FSANZ) to further your understanding of the
dangers of trans fats and the situation in Australia.
http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/nutrition/transfa
t/Pages/default.aspx
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Review Questions
1. What type of fat are trans fats?
2. Describe the process by which these are made.
3. What are triglycerides composed of?
4. What determines the different properties of these?
5. List some of the functions of saturated fats.
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Monounsaturated Fat
Oleic acid, an 18-carbon monounsaturated fatty acid
(Rolfes, Pinna & Whitney, 2009, p. 140)
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Monounsaturated Fats
• One double covalent bond = monounsaturated
• Less stable than saturated fats, but still able to withstand
gentle heating and some light exposure without
becoming rancid
• Avocado, Pecan, Cashew, Macadamia, Olive and
Peanut oil.
• Liquid at room temperature
• Used for energy storage
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Functions
• Memory impairment (function) =
structural integrity of cell membranes
• Improves lipoprotein profile
• Reduces
• blood clotting
• Reduces cellular oxidative stress
• Reduces atheroma plaque formation
• Reduces risk of gall stone formation
(Moreno & Mitjavila, 2003; Fernandez & West, 2005)
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Therapeutic Uses
• Cardiovascular disease including hyperlipidemia and
stroke
• Substitution of foods rich in saturated fat with foods high in oleic
acid has favorable outcomes on blood lipids and clotting factor. (Allman-Farinelli et al., 2005)
• Weight loss
• Substituting dietary saturated with unsaturated fat,
predominantly MUFA, can induce a small but significant loss of
body weight and fat mass without a significant change in total
energy or fat intake. (Piers et al., 2003)
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Polyunsaturated Fats
• More than one double covalent bond = polyunsaturated
• Unstable liquid at room temperature
• Sensitive to light, heat and oxygen
• Most vegetable oils contain polyunsaturates
• Omega-3 and omega-6 included in this class
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Functions of PUFA
• Required for proper cell membrane fluidity and integrity
• PUFA are more consistent at raising HDL cholesterol
than MUFA
• Linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid are considered
essential as these cannot be synthesised by the body
WARNING – smoking of polyunsaturates
such as deep-frying
causes oxidation!
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Therapeutic Uses
• As per Omega-3 and Omega-6…. More next session!
• Despite the positive health benefits of PUFA’s, especially those related to CVD, there is a risk of adverse health effects if these fatty acids are consumed in very high amounts due to their vulnerability to oxidation. (Williams &
Schlenker, 2003)
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Fatty acid
composition
of foods
Modified from Garrow et al 1998 Human Nutrition and Dietetics Table 18.4 p310 and Table
18.7 p314
*Depends on the diet of the animal
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Essential Fatty AcidsNot produced endogenously, so required in the diet
Omega 6 EFA Omega 3 EFA
Linoleic LA g-linolenic GLA a-linolenic ALA Eicosapenaenoic EPA
Docosahexaenoic DHA
Corn oil Evening Primrose oil Linseed (flaxseed oil) Oily fish:
Sardines
Salmon
Tuna
Mackerel
Herrings
Safflower oil Borage (starflower) oil Walnut oil (also w:6) White fish
Sesame oil Blackcurrant oil Chia seeds Shell fish
Sunflower oil Vegetables Seaweeds and algae
Canola oil (also mono) Legumes Leafy vegetables
Soybean oil (also some
w:3)
Legumes
Peanut oil (also mono) Watercress
Grape seed oil
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Essential fatty acid families
(Haas, 1992)
Omega 6
Linoleic acid (LA)
Gamma-linolenic(GLA)
Dihomogamma-linolenic acid (DGLA)
Arachidonic acid (AA)
Omega 3
Alpha linolenic acid (LNA)
Eicosapentaenoicacid (EPA)
Docosahexaenoicacid (DHA)
Evening
Primrose Oil
Breast Milk
Animal food
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Essential fatty acid pathways
Note: In biochemistry, Docosanoids are signalling
molecules made by oxygenation of 22 carbon
EFAs especially DHA
Source: Farooqui AA (2011)
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Essential Fatty Acids
• Linoleic Acid and the Omega-6 Family
• Can make arachidonic acid, which is a conditionally
essential fatty acid
• Alpha-Linolenic Acid and the Omega-3 Family
– Must be supplied by food
– Can make EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA
(docosahexaenoic acid), important for eyes, brain and
heart
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Dietary Sources of Omega 6
• Linoleic acid (LA) – safflower,
sunflower, hemp, soybean,
sesame, walnut
• Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) –
borage oil, blackcurrant oil,
evening primrose oil
• Dihommogamma-linolenic acid
(DGLA) – mother’s milk
• Arachidonic acid (AA) – animal
products
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Linoleic acid
• First double bond at the 6th carbon = Omega 6 EFA
Linoleic acid, an 18-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid
(Rolfes, Pinna & Whitney 2009)
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Arachidonic Acid
• Found in animal muscle meat, but can also be made
from GLA
• Must be in correct ratio with DHA for brain function
• The n-6 fatty acid LA originates from land plants, and
AA originates from animal-based foods.
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AA Functions
• Required for contraction of smooth muscle fibres
(found in GIT, heart and uterus)
• An optional component of cell membranes
• Brain function
• Constituent of sperm
• Pro-thrombotic
• Testosterone production
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• Alpha-linolenic acid – rice bran, flaxseed, soybean oil,
dandelion, walnuts, pumpkin seeds
• Docosahexanoic acid – brown and red algae, herring, mackerel,
halibut, salmon, sardines, anchovies, trevally, mullet
• Eicosapentaenoic acid – brown and red algae, herring,
mackerel, halibut, prawns, salmon, sardines, anchovies, trevally,
mullet
• Eicosatetraenoic acid – green-lipped mussels (w:3 and w:6)
• Stearidonic acid – endogenous production, blackcurrant seed oil
Omega 3 Sources
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Activity
Clink on the following link and select talk number 4 video
‘Sustainable seafood? Let’s get smart’ (9 mins)
http://www.ted.com/playlists/75/what_s_wrong_with_w
hat_we_eat
o Discuss your thoughts initially in small groups then with the class
o Online students should discuss these in the relevant weekly forum
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Factors Increasing Demand• Deficiency of cofactor nutrients for desaturase enzymes
• High intake of land animal foods and dairy
• Certain drugs such as NSAIDS
• Smoking
• Diabetes mellitus (Min et al., 2005)
• Cardiovascular diseases and autoimmune diseases
• Ageing
• Vegetarians
• ALA is endogenously converted to EPA and DHA, but the
process is slow and inefficient and is affected by genetics, sex,
age and dietary composition.
• Optimise conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA via reducing intake
of linoleic acid (Saunders et al., 2012)
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Omega 3 Functions
• Long-chain n-3 PUFA’s
– favourably affect cell membranes
– enhancing intracellular signalling processes
– gene expression
• DHA particularly abundant in
– cerebral cortex
– retina
– testes
– semen (Saunders et al., 2012)
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EFA Functions
• Eicosanoid synthesis
• Like hormones but have different effects on different cells
• May be pro or anti-inflammatory mediators
• Include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes
• w:3 EFA are converted into particular eicosanoids
anti-inflammatory, vasodilating and anti-thrombotic.
• Also made from arachidonic acid an w:6 FA
Generally pro-inflammatory
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Review Questions
1.List 5 sources each of monounsaturated, omega 3
and omega 6 fatty acids.
2.Which are considered the most stable and why?
3.What are some of the functions of omega 3 EFA’s?
4.Which factors may increase the need for Omega 3
intake?
5.What is another method by which the same benefits
might be gained as increasing it’s intake?
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EFA Functions
• An excess of LA, can suppress conversion of ALA to EPA
and DHA and increase production of AA.
• Other dietary factors associated with reduced conversion
• Trans fatty acids
• Excesses of alcohol and caffeine
• Nutritional inadequacies such as protein deficiency or lack of
vitamin and mineral cofactors, especially zinc, magnesium,
niacin, pyridoxine and vitamin C
• Non-dietary factors are genetics, sex, advancing age, chronic
disease and smoking
(Saunders et al., 2012)
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EFA Functions
• Eicosanoids from AA are very potent
• overproduction associated with increased risk of disease (heart
disease, cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, and immune and
inflammatory disorders)
• Eicosanoids from EPA are less potent and
• have anti-inflammatory properties that assist in preventing
coronary heart disease, hypertension, autoimmune diseases,
arthritis and several cancers
• Extremely powerful mediators
Protectins (derived from DHA) and
Resolvins (derived from DHA and EPA)
help protect against and resolve inflammation
(Saunders et al., 2012)
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Review Questions
1.List some dietary factors which may reduce the
conversion of ALA to the beneficial EPA and DHA?
2.What then occurs in these circumstances?
3.Describe the differences in eicosanoid production
between those from AA and EPA/DHA
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Agostoni, C., Galli, C., Riva, E., Colombo, C., Giovanni, M., & Marangoni, F. (2005). Reduced
docosohexanoic acid synthesis may contribute to growth restriction in infants born to
mothers who smoke. The Journal of Pediatrics, 147(6), 854-856. doi:
10.1016/j.jpeds.2005.05.040
Allman-Farinelli, M. A., & Dawson, B. (2005). Diet and ageing: Bearing on thrombosis and hemostasis.
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863813
Blamire, J. (2000). Triglyceride. Retrieved from
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Bourre, J. M. (2005). Dietary omega-3 Fatty acids and psychiatry: Mood, behaviour, stress, depression,
dementia and aging. The Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging, 9(1), 31-38. Retrieved from
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px?direct=true&db=mdc&AN=15750663&site=eds-live&scope=site
Carter, J. S. (2004). Monosaturated fat. Retrieved from
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Chen, J., Hsu, S., Hsu, C., Hwang, L., & Yang, S. (2004). Dietary patterns and blood fatty acid
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Davis, M., & Conner, D. (2004). Saturated fat. Retrieved from
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ated_fat.gif
References
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References
Davis, M., & Conner, D. (2004a). Polyunsaturated fat. Retrieved from
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aturated_fat.gif
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Ebbesson, S. O., Risica, P. M., Ebbesson, L. O., Kennish, J. M., & Tejero, M. E. (2005). Omega-3 fatty
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Fernandez, M. L., & West, K. L. (2005). Mechanisms by which dietary fatty acids modulate plasma
lipids. The Journal of Nutrition, 135(9), 2075-2078. Retrieved from
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spx?direct=true&db=mdc&AN=16140878&site=eds-live&scope=site
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References
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations., & World Health Organisation. (1993). Fats
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Garrow, J.S., & James, W.P.T. (2000). Human nutrition and dietetics (9th ed.). Edinburgh, Scotland:
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Hofman, Z., van Drunen, J. D., de Later, C., & Kuipers, H. (2004). The effect of different nutritional
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Ilic, S., Jovanovic, L., & Pettitt, D. J. (1999). Comparison of the effect of saturated and
monounsaturated fat on postprandial plasma glucose and insulin concentration in women
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ReferencesKoh, W. P., Yuan, J. M., van den Berg, D., & Lee, H. P. (2004). Interaction between cyclooxygenase-2
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Lara-Castro, C., & Garvey, W. T. (2004). Diet, insulin resistance, and obesity: Zoning in on data for
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References
McMurry, J. (1992). Organic Chemistry (3rd ed.). California, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
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Miljanovic, B., Trivedi, K. A., Dana, M. R., Gilbard, J. P., Buring, J. E., & Schaumberg, D. A. (2005).
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ReferencesMoreno, J. J., & Mitjavila, M.T. (2003). The degree of unsaturation of dietary fatty acids and the
development of atherosclerosis (review). The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 14(4),
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